Chapter 2 Intro to Psychology

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Committee of Administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals

What is the difference between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning is the results that are predicted based on a general premise while inductive reasoning is the conclusions that are drawn from observations

What are 2 types of experimental designs meant to decrease the risk of biases? Explain how they differ

Experimental and control groups are the 2 types of experimental designs meant to decrease the risk of bias. the only difference between the experimental and control groups is whether participants are exposed to the experimental manipulation. Each group goes through all phases of the experiment, but each group will experience a different level of the independent variable: the experimental group is exposed to the experimental manipulation, and the control group is not exposed to the experimental manipulation. The researcher then measures the changes that are produced in the dependent variable in each group. Once data is collected from both groups, it is analyzed statistically to determine if there are meaningful differences between the groups.

What are the 3 types of bias discussed in the text and the difference between each?

Stereotypical bias involves racial and gender biases. Egocentric bias involves enhancing our memories of the past. Hindsight bias happens when we think an outcome was inevitable after the fact.

control group

serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

What example does the text give to explain confounding variables?

When sales in ice cream increase, so do crime rates

What are the roles of the dependent and independent variables in an experiment?

an independent variable is the variable you think is the cause, while a dependent variable is the effect. In an experiment, you manipulate the independent variable and measure the outcome in the dependent variable

experimental group

group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

statistical analysis

determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

double-blind study

experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

single-blind study

experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

What are the two main groups generally used in an experiment? Which one does NOT receive any treatment/variable?

experimental and control groups. The control group does not receive any treatment/variable

replicate

repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research's reliability

empirical

grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

experimenter bias

researcher expectations skew the results of the study

deductive reasoning

results are predicted based on a general premise

illusory correlation

seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

Theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

Debriefing

when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

inductive reasoning

A conclusion based on a pattern of examples.

What does a correlation coefficient tell us?

A correlation coefficient is a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r.

Explain the difference between a positive correlation and a negative correlation.

A positive correlation means that the variables move in the same direction. Put another way, it means that as one variable increases so does the other, and conversely, when one variable decreases so does the other. A negative correlation means that the variables move in opposite directions. If two variables are negatively correlated, a decrease in one variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice versa.

Are hypotheses always correct? If not, what is the term for proving it wrong?

Hypotheses are not always correct and the term for proving it wrong is known as falsifiable

Some people mistakenly believe the moon causes behavior changes in some people. What is this an example of?

Illusory correlations

How are animals protected during research experiments?

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC

If a person in the control group receives a sugar pill and makes dramatic behavioral/experimental changes, what might this be an example of?

Placebo effect

Why is a random sample important to an experiment?

Random sampling ensures that results obtained from your sample should approximate what would have been obtained if the entire population had been measured

Explain reliability and validity and why they are critical to research.

Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how well a method, technique or test measures something. Reliability is about the consistency of a measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure.

How does scientific research address questions about behavior?

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people's authority, and blind luck. It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world

APA is the writing format used by all psychologists. What literary work is one of the main sources of information for professionals and scholars?

Societies for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, Exercise and Sport Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology

List the different research methods of psychologists and 1 pro and con of each.

Some methods rely on observational techniques while others involve interactions between the researcher and the individuals who are being studied- ranging from a series of simple questions to extensive, in-depth interviews- to well controlled experiments. studies that rely primarily on observation produce incredible amounts of information, but the ability to apply this information to the larger population is somewhat limited because of small sample sizes. Survey research, on the other hand, allows researchers to easily collect data from relatively large samples. While this allows for results to be generalized to the larger population more easily, the information that can be collected on any given survey is somewhat limited and subject to problems associated with any type of self-reported data. Some researchers conduct archival research by using existing records. While this can be an inexpensive way to collect data that can provide insight into a number of research questions, researchers using this approach have no control on how or what kind of data was collected

How is the data collected from an experiment analyzed to determine if there is any significance?

The scientific method

What was a major criticism of Freud's theories?

a major criticism of Freud's theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud's theories.

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results

Validity

accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

peer-reviewed journal article

article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication

What issues arise in all experiments?

bias in experimental manipulations, possible contamination, issues

Correlation does not mean

causation

cause-and-effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants

cross-sectional research

compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

Reliability

consistency and reproducibility of a given result

operational definition

description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

generalize

inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

How do informed consent, deception and debriefing come into play in experimental design?

informed consent form provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research. Deception involves purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful. Debriefing has honest information about the purpose of the experiment, how the data collected will be used, the reasons why deception was necessary, and information about how to obtain additional information about the study.

What is the IRB?

institutional review board (IRB). The IRB is a committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution's administration, scientists, and community members. . The purpose of the IRB is to review proposals for research that involves human participants. The IRB reviews these proposals with the principles mentioned above in mind, and generally, approval from the IRB is required in order for the experiment to proceed

survey

list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

inter-rater reliability

measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

random assignment

method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

archival research

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

correlation coefficient

number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

fact

objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

naturalistic observation

observation of behavior in its natural setting

clinical or case study

observational research study focusing on one or a few people

Population

overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

placebo effect

people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

opinion

personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate

informed consent

process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person's consent to participate

deception

purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

attrition

reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time

Correlation

relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

longitudinal research

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

participants

subjects of psychological research

random sample

subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

sample

subset of individuals selected from the larger population

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

Hypothesis

tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

dependent variable

the variable that is observed and that changes in response to the independent variable

negative correlation

two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

positive correlation

two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

confounding variable

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

independent variable

variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group