Chapter 6

adaptive value

The degree to which a trait or behavior helps an organism survive

models

The individual or character whose behavior is being imitated

acquisition

The initial learning phase in both classical and operant conditioning.

habituation

A basic form of learning evident when an organism does not respond as strongly or as often to an event following multiple exposures to it

conditioned taste aversion

A form of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism learns to associate the taste of a particular food or drink with illness.

conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

cognitive map

A mental representation of physical space

successive approximations

A method that uses reinforcers to condition a series of small steps that gradually approach the target behavior

conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that an organism learns to associate with an unconditioned stimulus.

unconditioned response (UR)

A reflexive, involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus.

secondary reinforcer

A reinforcer that does not satisfy a biological need but often gains power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

primary reinforcer

A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need; innate reinforcer.

learning

A relatively enduring change in behavior or thinking that results from experiences.

variable-interval schedule

A schedule in which the number of desired behaviors that must occur before a reinforcer is given changes across trials and is based on an average number of behaviors to be reinforced

variable-ratio schedule

A schedule in which the number of desired behaviors that must occur before a reinforcer is given changes across trials and is based on an average number of behaviors to be reinforced.

fixed-interval schedule

A schedule in which the reinforcer comes after a preestablished interval of time; the behavior is only reinforced after the given interval is over.

fixed-ratio schedule

A schedule in which the subject must exhibit a predetermined number of desired behaviors before a reinforcer is given.

continuous reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which every target behavior is reinforced.

partial reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement in which target behaviors are reinforced intermittently, not continuously

unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that automatically triggers an involuntary response without any learning needed

neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not cause a relevant automatic or reflexive response

prosocial behaviors

Actions that are kind, generous, and beneficial to others

conditioned emotional response

An emotional reaction acquired through classical conditioning; process by which an emotional reaction becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus.

stimulus

An event or occurrence that generally leads to a response

reinforcers

Events, stimuli, and other consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior recurring

extinction

In classical conditioning, the process by which the conditioned response decreases after repeated exposure to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, the disappearance of a learned behavior through the removal of its reinforcer.

classical conditioning

Learning process in which two stimuli become associated with each other; when an originally neutral stimulus is conditioned to elicit an involuntary response.

observational learning

Learning that occurs as a result of watching the behavior of others.

operant conditioning

Learning that occurs when voluntary actions become associated with their consequences.

latent learning

Learning that occurs without awareness and regardless of reinforcement, and is not evident until needed.

Examples of things you've learned through association:

Learning your tongue will get burned if you put your coffee in the microwave for too long, studying foe a test after getting a good score on the last test you studied for

What is the difference between primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers? Example:

Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs, such as food, water or physical contact. Secondary reinforcers do not satisfy biological needs but often gain their power through their association with primary reinforcers. A primary reinforcer use to change behavior might be food. A secondary reinforcer may be money that can buy food.

shaping

Process by which a person observes the behaviors of another organism, providing reinforcers if the organism performs at a required level

reinforcement

Process of increasing the frequency of behaviors with consequences

What is the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination?

Stimulus Generalization, once an association is forged between a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response, the learner often responds to similar stimuli as if they were the conditioned stimulus. Stimulus Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and other sufficiently different stimuli.

stimulus discrimination

The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli sufficiently different from it

positive punishment

The addition of something unpleasant following an unwanted behavior, with the intention of decreasing that behavior.

punishment

The application of a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

positive reinforcement

The process by which reinforcers are added or presented following a target behavior, increasing the likelihood of it occurring again

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response following its extinction.

negative reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a target behavior, which increases the likelihood of it occurring again.

negative punishment

The removal of something desirable following an unwanted behavior, with the intention of decreasing that behavior.

biological preparedness

The tendency for animals to be predisposed or inclined to form certain kinds of associations through classical conditioning

instinctive drift

The tendency for animals to revert to instinctual behaviors after a behavior pattern has been learned.

partial reinforcement effect

The tendency for behaviors acquired through intermittent reinforcement to be more resistant to extinction than those acquired through continuous reinforcement.

stimulus generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned respons

law of effect

Thorndike's principle stating that behaviors are more likely to be repeated when followed by pleasurable outcomes, and less likely to be repeated when followed by unpleasant outcomes.

higher order conditioning

With repeated pairings of a conditioned stimulus and a second neutral stimulus, that second neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus as well.

Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

a dog whining in the morning, leading an owner to wake up and take it outside

Even turtles can learn through operant conditioning, as evidenced by their:

ability to learn through positive reinforcement

Avoiding foods that induce sickness has ______. This taste aversion helps organisms survive.

adaptive value

Learning is a relatively enduring change in ______ that results from our ______.

behavior or thinking; experiences

Because of ____, animals and people are predisposed to form associations that increase their chances of survival.

biological preparedness

According to research, there is a strong association between physical aggression and exposure to violent music, video games, and TV. However, this association between media portrayals and violent behaviors does not mean a _______ exists. There could be other factors like parenting involved.

cause-and-effect relationship

In a famous study, Watson and Rayner used ____ to induce a fear of rats in an 11-month old baby.

classical conditioning

______ is the learning process in which two stimuli become associated.

classical conditioning

Little Albert was a baby who originally had no fear of rats. In an experiment conducted by Watson and Rayner, he was classically conditioned to fear white rats through the pairing a loud noise with exposure to a rat. His resulting fear is an example of a

conditioned emotional response

Every time you open the pantry where dog food is stored, your dog starts to salivate. His reaction is a

conditioned response

Your heart raced every time your first love appeared, and that person always wore a musky-scented fragrance. Even now when you smell that scent your heart speeds up, suggesting the scent is a

conditioned stimulus

Continuous reinforcement is generally more effective for _________ a behavior, while learning through Partial reinforcement is more resistant to _________ and useful for ___________ behavior.

establishing; extinction, maintaining

One basic form of learning occurs during the process of ____, which is evident when an organism does not respond as strongly or as often to an event following multiple exposures to it.

habituation

When an organism becomes less responsive to an ongoing stimulus, a type of learning called _____ has likely occurred.

habituation

Wolfgang Kohler's research on chimpanzees suggests that animals are capable of thinking through a problem before taking an action. They may display ______, a sudden coming together of awareness of a situation, leading to a solution.

insight

The behaviors learned through classical conditioning are _____ , whereas those learned with operant conditioning are ______.

involuntary, voluntary

Rats allowed to explore a maze getting reinforces until the 11th day of an experiment, subsequently behaved in the maze as if they had been given reinforcers throughout the entire experiment. Their behavior is evidence of:

latent learning

According to Thorndike and the ______, behaviors are more likely to be repeated when they are followed by pleasurable outcomes.

law of effect

A child disrupts class and the teacher writes her name on the board. For the rest of the week, the child does not act up. The teacher used _______ to decrease the child's disruptive behavior.

positive punishment

A child is reprimanded for misbehaving, but then she seems to misbehave even more! This indicates that reprimanding her was:

positive reinforcement

All of your friends tell you that you look fabulous in your new jeans, so you start wearing them all the time. This is and example of

positive reinforcement

A third grade teacher gives her students prizes for passing math tests. Not only do the students improve their math scores, they also begin studying harder for spelling tests as a result of this reinforcement schedule. Their increased studying of spelling is an example of:

stimulus generalization

______ indicates that if behavior is followed by a pleasurable outcome, it will likely be repeated.

the law of effect

Describe the NS, US, UR, CS and CR and stimulus generalization in the Little Albert Experiment.

the loud bang = UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS fear from loud bang = UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE The rat was a NEUTRAL STIMULUS until paired with the loud noise and became a CONDITIONED STIMULUS Alberts fear of rats became a CONDITIONED RESPONSE. Albert exhibited STIMULUS GENERALIZATION when he began to fear both rats and other furry objects

Hamburgers were once your favorite food, bu ever since you ate a burger tainted with salmonella, you cannot smell or taste one without feeling nauseous. What is the unconditioned stimulus?

the salmonella

In Bandura's Bobo doll study, children who saw an adult attacking an shouting at the doll :

were more likely to display aggressive behavior