Chapter 8

Levels of Processing Theory

(depth of processing theory) Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed.

Jaime is in first grade and just learning to read. For most​ words, he sounds out each​ letter, then pronounces the entire word—​"Buh, Ah, Tuh.​ Bat." From an​ information-processing point of​ view, Jaime is best described as engaging​ in:

bottom-up processing.

Desirable Difficulty

The more effort that is required to remember something, the better you will learn and the stronger the memory will be- as long as efforts are successful.

Central Executive

The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.

Which of the following statements is one primary reason why younger children appear to have limited working memory​ capacity, compared to older​ children?

Younger children have fewer strategies and less knowledge.

Because we choose what stimuli to attend to in our​ environment, the current cognitive view of learning is that​ we:

are active participants or agents in our own learning process. (A cognitive view of learning perceives learning as an active (not passive) mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge.)

Understanding the brain is important for cognitive views of learning​ because:

changes in the brain underlie changes in thinking skills.

One explanation for the observation that college students tend to get higher grades in​ upper-division classes than in introductory classes is​ that:

in upper-division classes, they already have a good basis of knowledge in the topic.

Our ability to take​ in, store, and use information is referred to​ as:

information processing.

When solving word problems in​ math, the amount of cognitive processing required to figure out what the problem is asking is known​ as:

intrinsic cognitive load.

The primary difference between older and newer cognitive views of learning is​ that:

older views focused on acquisition of knowledge, whereas newer views focus on construction of knowledge.

When we listen to music and interpret the sounds or​ "make meaning of the​ stimuli," we are engaging in the process​ of:

perception.

The component of memory that controls attention and other mental resources is known​ as:

the central executive.

Cognitive Science

The interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, intelligence, knowledge creation, and the brain.

Prototype

A best example or best representative of a category.

Concept

A category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people.

Cognitive View of Learning

A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge.

Priming

Activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another.

Elaboration

Adding and extending meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge.

Exemplar

An actual memory of a specific object.

Theory-Based

An explanation for concept formation that suggests our classifications are based on ideas about the world that we create to make sense of things.

Part Learning

Breaking a list of items into shorter lists.

Flashbulb Memories

Clear, vivid memories of emotionally important events in your life.

Deliberate Practice

Comparing your performance to a high standard, monitoring how well you are doing, seeking and using feedback, and focusing on areas that need improvement.

Short-Term Memory

Component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds.

Self-regulatory Knowledge

Conditional Knowledge Knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how and when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge.

Domain-specific Strategies

Consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem.

Sherita tells her dad the names of the planets in the solar system. What type of knowledge is she​ demonstrating?

Domain-specific knowledge (This knowledge applies mainly to one specific topic.)

Alonso is trying to memorize​ Tino's phone number so he can call Tino about the homework assignment for math. What kind of memory is Alonso​ using?

Explicit Memory Alonso needs to make a conscious effort to remember the information by paying attention to it.

Emily consistently doodles on her geography homework. While her answers are often​ correct, she seems distracted. Which of the following strategies for helping Emily demonstrates a cognitive​ approach?

Find activities for Emily that encourage her to use her artistic skills to help her learn geography.

Attention

Focus on a stimulus.

Gestalt

German for "pattern" or "whole." Gestalt theorists hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes.

Cognitive load is a term that refers to the amount of mental​ resources, mostly working​ memory, required to perform a particular task. Of the four types of cognitive​ load, which can instruction support by asking students to explain the material to each other or to​ themselves, to draw or chart their​ understandings, or to take useful​ notes?

Germane cognitive load

Interleaved Practice

Mixing up practice by, for example, tossing from 2 and 4 feet before being tested at 3 feet, solving different types of problems, or practicing different vocabulary words.

Family and Community Partnerships

Give families specific strategies to help their children practice and remember. Ask family members to share their strategies for organizing and remembering. Discuss the importance of attention in learning.

Chunking

Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units.

Schemas

In cognitive theory, basic structures for organizing information; concepts.

Domain-specific Knowledge

Information that is useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic.

General Knowledge

Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations.

Context

Internal and external circumstances and situations that interact with the individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions to shape development and learning. The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event.

Perception

Interpretation of sensory information.

Types of Cognitive Load

Intrinsic - Unavoidable; the essential processing needed to attend to and make sense of the material Extraneous - Avoidable or manageable: unhelpful processing needed to deal with problems that are not related to the learning task itself

Elaborative Rehearsal

Keeping information in working memory by associating it with something else you already know.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself.

Kelly is a high school student who considers herself a terrific multitasker. She frequently​ texts, plays​ music, checks social​ media, and studies at the same time. She believes that her attention is better when she feels connected to the world outside of her quiet room. Which of the following assumptions most likely applies in​ Kelly's case?

Kelly is not able to study as well with distractions as she could without distractions.

Procedural Knowledge

Knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task; "knowing how."

Implicit Memory

Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling but that influences our behavior or thought without our awareness. (classical conditioning, procedural memory, priming)

Explicit Memory

Long-term memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall. (episodic memory and semantic memory)

Procedural Memory

Long-term memory for how to do things.

Episodic Memory

Long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially memory of the events in a person's life.

Helping Students Understand and Remember Guidelines

Make sure you have the students' attention. Help students separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important information. Help students make connections between new information and what they already know. Space out learning and provide for repetition and review of information. Present material in a clear, organized way. Manage cognitive load. Focus on meaning, not memorization. Use multiple examples, cases, and stories to teach. Remember the power of practice.

Top-Down

Making sense of information by using context and what we already know about the situation; sometimes called conceptually driven perception.

Semantic Memory

Memory for meaning.

Chain Mnemonics

Memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element.

Teaching Concepts

Name Concept Define Concept Describe Relevant Attributes Describe Irrelevant Attributes Give Examples Give Non-Examples

Organization

Ongoing process of arranging information and experiences into mental systems or categories. Ordered and logical network of relations.

Reticular Activating System

Part of the brain that filters masses of stimuli without any conscious effort.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Part of working memory. A holding system for visual and spatial information.

Phonological Loop

Part of working memory. A speech and sound related system for holding and rehearsing (refreshing) words and sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds.

Bottom-up Processing

Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent store of knowledge.

Massed Practice

Practice for a single extended period.

Distributed Learning/Practice

Practice in brief periods with rest intervals.

Retrieval Practice (Testing Effect)

Practicing by retrieving information from memory instead of rereading or restudying- more effective because retrieval seems to help memories consolidate in the brain and strengthens the neural pathways so the knowledge is easier to find later.

Retrieval

Process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory.

Defining Attributes

Qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept.

Reconstruction

Recreating information by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge.

With which of the following statements would a strict behaviorist most likely​ AGREE?

Reinforcement strengthens responses. (Behavioral theories assume a consistent link between reinforcement and response.)

Rote Memorization

Remembering information by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information.

Images

Representations based on the physical attributes- the appearance- of information.

Information Processing

The human mind's activity of taking in, storing, and using information.

Spreading Activation

Retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another. Remembering one bit of information activates (stimulates) recall of associated information.

Script

Schema, or expected plan for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza.

Propositional Network

Set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long-term knowledge is held.

Automated Basic Skills

Skills that are applied without conscious thought.

Dual Coding Theory

Suggests that information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images or verbal units, or both.

Keyword Method

System of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and images. (3Rs- Recode, relate, retrieve)

Sensory Memory

System that holds sensory information very briefly.

Acronym

Technique for remembering by using the first letter of each word in a phrase to form a new, memorable word.

Loci Method

Technique of associating items with specific places.

Mnemonics

Techniques for remembering; the art of memory.

Automaticity

The ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort. The result of learning to perform a behavior or thinking process so thoroughly that the performance is automatic and does not require effort.

Working Memory

The brain system that provides temporary holding and processing of information to accomplish complex cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning; the information that you are focusing on at a given moment.

Productions

The content of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take, given certain conditions. Units of knowledge that combine conditions with actions in "if this happens, do that" relationships that are often automatic.

During a class​ lecture, Jacob is not paying​ attention, so he cannot recall the information later. Which of the following assumptions most likely​ applies?

The content was received by the sensory register but was not held in short-term memory and never moved into long-term memory..

Episodic Buffer

The process that brings together and integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory under the supervision of the central executive.

Interference

The process that occurs when remembering certain information is hampered by the presence of other information.

Intrinsic Cognitive Load

The resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli.

Extraneous Cognitive Load

The resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task.

Serial-Position Effect

The tendency to remember the beginning and the end, but not the middle of a list.

Cognitive Load

The volume of resources necessary to complete a task.

Decay

The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time.

Story Grammar

Typical structure or organization for a category of stories.

Gaining and Maintaining Attention Guidelines

Use signals. Reach out rather than call out. Make sure the purpose of the lesson or assignment is clear to students. Incorporate variety, curiosity, and surprise. Ask questions and provide frames for answering.

Declarative Knowledge

Verbal information; facts; "knowing that" something is the case.

Three Working Parts of Memory

Visuospatial Sketchpad Episodic Buffer Phonological Loop

Of the​ following, the best example of a classroom instruction that requires the students to demonstrate procedural knowledge​ is:

draw a graph that shows the correlation between height and weight. (Procedural knowledge is the "knowing how" to do something. Students demonstrate procedural knowledge when they perform the task.)

Researchers who believe that we have only one memory storage system argue that working​ memory:

is the part of long-term memory that processes currently activated information.

Instead of making students memorize​ formulas, Mr. Riedinger provides his physics students with a list of the relevant formulas for every exam. It is the​ students' responsibility,​ then, to identify the proper formula to solve the problems on the test. Students who identify the right formula but solve the problem incorrectly receive partial credit for their response. It is most accurate to say that Mr. Riedinger is trying to assess​ students':

self-regulatory and procedural knowledge