Chapters 1-5 (Exam 1 Review)
Nonpublication of data
"Cooking" data - leaving out data Data not included because they do not support desired outcome.
Outlier
"Outright liars" - An unrepresentative score - a score that lies outside of normal scores. Extreme values are sometimes trimmed Not always bad data, but they can create problems in data analysis - don't trim automatically
6 steps in the literature search
1. Write the problem statement 2. Consult secondary sources - Encyclopedias - Research reviews 3. Determine descriptors 4. Find primary sources using - Bibliographies - Computer searches 5. Read and record the literature 6. Write the literature review
Challenges to normal science
2 of the most powerful challengers: Thomas Kuhn (1970 - objectivity is a myth) and Michael Polanyi (1958 - observer is involved) Inconsistent findings Alternative interpretations
Which is the BEST answer? The introduction to a research report should: A - Move from a general description of the theoretical problem to the specific area to be studied B - State the problem to be investigated in one or two concise sentences C - Provide an overview of the whole paper D - Provide an extensive review of the literature
A - Move from a general description of the theoretical problem to the specific area to be studied
Avoiding jargon when writing - Jargon vs preferred usage
A considerable amount of vs Much Are of the same opinion vs Agree At the present time vs Now For the purpose of vs For It may be that vs I think Large in size vs Large Needless to say vs Omit item On the basis of vs By
Control variable
A factor that could possibly influence results and that is kept out of the study
Elements of informed consent
A fair explanation of the procedures to be followed, including identification of those that are experimental A description of the attendant discomforts and risks A description of the benefits to be expected A disclosure of appropriate alternative procedures that would be advantageous for the participant An offer to answer any inquiries concerning the procedures An instruction that the participant is free to withdraw at any time
The problem statement should be a _____.
A single sentence that describes the problem.
Qualitative research
A systematic method of inquiry and it follows scientific method of problem solving to a considerable degree, although it deviates in certain dimensions. Rarely establishes hypotheses at beginning of study - uses more general questions to guide the study Characterized by intensive firsthand presence Tolls of data collection are observation, interviews, and researcher-designed instruments. Uses a different paradigm
p > 0.05 indicates what?
Accept null hypothesis (null is retained)
The probability that a specific result will occur strictly as a result of chance is called what?
Alpha level
Normal science
An objective manner of study grounded in the natural sciences that is systematic, logical, empirical, reductive, and replicable. Best doctrine is objectivity Theory driven with testable hypotheses Previously useful theories Scientific method
Types of research
Analytical Descriptive Epidemiologic Experimental Qualitative
Use of animals in research
Animals have been essential for every advance in medicine Animal research has contributed to virtually eliminating many infectious diseases, including polio, rheumatic fever, typhoid fever, and scarlet fever 18-22 million vertebrates are used each year in research, education, and testing - less than 1% of the number killed for food. 2/3 of the dogs and cats used in animal research come from shelters; for every one used in research, 100 are killed for lack of a home. 2/3 of the research projects that lead to the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine involved animal experiments.
Level 3 goal and approach
Applied research Goal: Immediate solutions Approach: Real-world settings
Identify difference between applied research and basic research
Applied research: Deals with immediate problems, use real-world settings, use human participants, and involve limited control over research settings. Gives results that are of direct value to practitioners. Significance of applied - evaluated on basis of its contribution to solution of some immediate problem. Basic research: May have limited direct application but in which researcher has careful control of the conditions. Usually deals with theoretical problems. Uses labs as setting, uses animals, carefully controls conditions and produces results that have limited direct application. Significance of basic - depends on purpose, but usually the criteria focus on the extent to which the study contributes to the formulation of validation of some theory.
"Fair use" for teaching?
Articles, chapters, overheads, slides, PowerPoint presentations
Descriptive research
Attempts to describe the status of the study's focus Most prevalent technique is survey Common techniques - questionnaires, interviews, normative surveys, case studies, job analyses, observational research, developmental studies, and correlational studies.
References to journal articles should include:
Author, date, article title, journal name, volume, inclusive pages.
Empirical method
Based on objective observations Empirical denotes experience and the fathering of data Relying on own experience is limited, depends substantially on how events agree with yours, whether things "make sense" and on your state of motivation to remember.
Level 1 goal and approach
Basic research Goal: theory-driven Approach: laboratory
Significance of the study
Basic research - depends on purpose, but usually the criteria focus on the extent to which the study contributes to the formulation or validation of some theory Applied research - evaluated on basis of its contribution to solution of some immediate problem. Seeking gaps in the research
Reading research rules
Become familiar with relevant publications Read studies of interest Read as a pracitioner would Read the abstract first Don't worry too much about the statistics Be critical but objective
Mixed methods research
Both quantitative and qualitative approaches are included (pragmatic) Works best to capture behavioral data Two small studies - one qualitative, one quantitative
A thesis was submitted with the title "A study comparing the achievement of sixth-grade students in Moscow, Idaho, instructed in health education through closed-circuit television and regular classroom procedure for a period of 16 weeks." This title A - Fails to identify the broad area of research B - Is likely to be indexed improperly C - Is too long D - Does not tell what the study has done
C - Is too long
Assumptions
Certain conditions exist and that behaviors in question can be observed and measured.
Delimitations
Characteristics (limitation) imposed by the researcher. A choice that the researcher makes to define a workable research problem.
Tenacity
Clinging to certain beliefs regardless of a lack of supporting evidence (example: superstitions) Least reliable source of knowledge
Faculty advisors or mentors should treat students as _____.
Colleagues
What is empirical research?
Collection of data to base decisions Based on objective observations Denotes experience and the fathering of data Relying on own experience is limited, depends substantially on how events agree with yours, whether things "make sense", and on your state of motivation to remember.
Library computer searches
Computerized catalogs Computer databases
What is informed consent?
Consent given by a patient to a procedure after understanding the facts and the risks
Faulty Data-Gathering procedures
Continuing with data collection from participants who are not meeting requirements of research Malfunctioning equipment Inappropriate treatments of participants Recording data incorrectly
In a thesis or dissertation, what are the 2 most important aspects of literature review?
Criticism and completeness
Poor data storage and retention
Data must be stored and maintained as originally recorded
How to write a good introduction
Demonstrate the point of the study Omit technical jargon Know for whom you are writing Write the introduction after the problem and hypotheses
Be able to identify the hypothesis, independent variable(s), and dependent variable(s): - A researcher investigated the relationship between age (10 years, 12 years, 14 years) and gender on percent body fat. What is/are the dependent variable(s)?
Dependent variable: Percent body fat
Authority
Depends on authority and rigidity of adherence Personal observation and experience have been deemed unacceptable when they dispute authority Most crucial aspect of appeal to authority is right to question and to accept or reject the information Authority's qualifications and methods to acquire the knowledge also determine validity
Rationalistic Method
Derive knowledge through reasoning Key is truth of premises and their relationship to each other Premises could be descriptions of events or statements of fact (statements are not connected in a cause and effect manner)
Design and Analysis
Design a quasi-experimental or experimental study in which - The treatments cause the changes observed - The variables are related with no intervening variables Analyzing the data - Correct analysis - Correct interpretation Establishing cause and effect - Independent variable --> dependent variable
Avoiding methodological faults
Details of the procedures - Specific order of things - Timing of events - Instructions given - Briefings, debriefings, safeguards Piloting your procedures - Can you do this? - Can participants do this? - Do measures work? - Do treatments work?
Object of research
Determine how things are vs how they might be
Writing the literature review
Developing a topical outline Organizing - Helping the reader - Using heading How much information to give - Critical studies - Related studies Structure of the review - Introduction - Body - Summary and conclusions
Examples of how changing one letter when doing a computer search can be important
Dopeler effect (tendency of stupid ideas to seem smarter when they come at you rapidly) Reintarnation (coming back to life as a hillbilly) Giraffitti (vandalism spray-painted very, very hight) Osteopornosis (a degenerate disease) Tatyr (a lecherous Mr. Potato Head)
Identify which sources would make a good beginning point in a literature search
Encyclopedias and scholarly books (secondary sources) Literature reviews
Research hypotheses
Expected results based on theory or experience Stated as outcomes
What is the only type of research that can manipulate treatments and establish a cause and effect relationship?
Experimental research
Independent variable
Experimental, or treatment variable (the cause). The thing being manipulated.
Randomly assigned subjects to treatments or exposures is known as:
Experiments
Purpose of methods section
Explain how study was conducted
Extraneous variables
Factors that could affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables but are not included or controlled.
"Fair use" for research?
Figures and tables, standardized tests, questionnaires, previously published scholarly work
Primary sources
First-hand sources of data in research Original studies - most commonly in form of journal articles. Also theses and dissertations. Most valuable for researchers
Applied Research
Has direct value to practitioners but in which the researcher has limited control over the research setting. Deals with immediate problems, use real-world settings, use human participants, and involve limited control over research setting.
Types of analytical research
Historical Philosophic Reviews Research synthesis (meta-analysis - a quantitative means of analyzing the findings from numerous studies)
Be able to identify the hypothesis, independent variable(s), and dependent variable(s): - A researcher wishes to determine the effects of an outdoor adventure summer camp on the self-concept of inner-city boys. Boys are randomly assigned to the summer camp and to a control situation. The experimental treatment is for three months. A secondary purpose is to see if age (ages 6, 9, and 12) affects the relationship of the camp effects and self-concept
Hypothesis: The boys in the adventure program will make significantly greater gains in self-concept than the boys in the control group. Independent variable: The adventure summer camp and age (categorical variable) Dependent variable: Self-concept
What does quality research involve?
Identifying and delimiting the problem Searching, reviewing, and writing about the literature Specifying and defining testable hypotheses Designing research to test the hypotheses Selecting, describing, testing, and treating the participants Analyzing and reporting the results Discussing the meaning and implications of the findings
Purposes of the literature review
Identifying the problem Developing hypotheses Developing the method
Be able to identify the hypothesis, independent variable(s), and dependent variable(s): - A researcher investigated the relationship between vitamin C (none, 500 mg, 1000 mg) and workers (office, outdoors) on the frequency of colds. What is/are the independent variable(s)?
Independent variable: Vitamin C dosage and office or outdoor workers
Inductive reasoning
Individual observations are tied together into specific hypotheses, which are grouped into more general explanations that are united into theory. Theoretical explanation must encompass all individual findings.
What is the IRB?
Institutional Review Board
Ethical issues in human and animal research
Institutional review boards Humans - Informed consent - Human participants committee Animals - Justification - Value of animal models Conflicts of interest - Funded research projects - Using students (classes) and volunteers
Methodological characteristics influence each other
Interactions among - Participants and measurements - Participants and treatments - Measurements and treatments - Participants, measurements, and treatments
Identify and compare internal and external validity
Internal validity - The extent to which the results of a study can be attributed to the treatments used in the study. The researcher must try to control all other variables that could influence the results. External validity - The generalizability of the results of a study (to what extent can the results apply to the real world).
Analytical research
Involves in-depth study and the evaluation of available info in an attempt to explain complex phenomena
Experimental research
Involves manipulation of treatments in an attempt to establish cause and effect relationships (major advantage) Establishes cause and effect
Criteria in selecting a research problem
Is the problem in the realm of research? Does it interest you? Does it possess unity? Is it worthwhile? Is it feasible? Is it timely? Can you attack the problem without prejudice? Are you prepared in the techniques to address the problem?
Why is it desirable to carry out a pilot study prior to the actual research study?
It permits a thorough check of the planned data collection and analysis procedures
Interpreting the research literature - What was said vs what was meant
It's long been known that vs I haven't looked up the reference It is suggested that vs I think It is believed that vs I think Typical results shown vs Best results are shown Correct with an order of magnitude vs Wrong
Sneaky publication practices
Joint publication - Student and faculty - Two or more students - Two or more faculty members Authorship of a thesis
How do undergraduate students identify a research problem?
Keeping focus broad rather than narrow Reading a review paper Reading the research literature Looking at what your adviser does Looking at what students and faculty in your area are doing
Operational definitions
Key terms with specific meaning. An observable phenomenon that enables the researcher to test empirically whether the predicted outcomes can be supported. Not a synonym or dictionary definition
Categorical (moderator) variable
Kind of independent variable except that it can't be manipulated (age, race, or sex) Studied to determine whether its presence changes the cause and effect relationship of the independent and dependent variables. Not a variable in all studies
Two principles of planning
Less is more Simple is better Purpose - eliminate any alternative or rival hypotheses
Recognizing that grade point average may not completely reflect success in school is an example of a:
Limitation
Findings are said to be statistically significant when there is a ______ probability that differences among treatment groups were caused by chance factors.
Low
Fabrication and falsification
Making up or altering data
Basic research
May have limited direct application but in which researcher has careful control of the conditions. Usually deals with theoretical problems. Uses labs as setting, uses animals carefully controls conditions and produces results that have limited direct application.
If causes must be observable, what 2 criteria should they meet?
Method of agreement Method of disagreement
MAXICON Principle
Method of controlling any explanation for results except hypothesis that researcher intends to evaluate Maximizing true variance (increases odds that real relationship or explanation will be discovered) Minimizing error variance (decreases all mistakes that could creep into study to disguise rue relationship) Controlling extraneous variance (make sure rival hypotheses are not the real explanations of the relationship)
Level 2 goal and approach
Moderate relevance Goal: theory-based using relevant movements Approach: similar to real-world task or setting
Deductive reasoning
Moves from a theoretical explanation of events to specific hypotheses that are tested against/compared with reality to evaluate whether hypotheses are correct
When a researcher rejects H0 when H0 is false, she has made what type of error?
No error made, correct decision made.
Null hypotheses
No significant differences or relationships. Used primarily in statistical test for the reliability of the results that says that there are no differences among treatments.
Alternative models of research
Normal science Paradigm shifts How knowledge is advanced
A researcher predicts that there will be no significant relationship between attitude scores and grade point average. This is an example of what?
Null hypothesis
The introduction should make the problem statement _____.
Obvious
Making your problem and hypotheses clear
Operation definitions Limitations Delimitations Significance of the study
4 parts of the method section
Participants Instruments or apparatus Procedures Design and analysis
7 areas of scientific dishonesty
Plagiarism Fabrication and falsification Nonpublication of data Faulty data-gathering procedres Poor data storage and rentention Misleading authorship Sneaky publication practices
Limitations
Possible shortcomings or influences that either cannot be controlled or are results of restrictions (delimitations) imposed by the investigator.
Causes of scientific misconduct
Pressure to publish Need to complete work Desire to continue funding Desire for academic rewards
In which part of the methods section should you expect to find information about when the participants were tested?
Procedures
The part of the methods section of the research paper that describes the activities of each treatment group is titled
Procedures
Parts of a research project
Proposal: Research plan -Introduction (Problem and hypotheses) -Literature review -Method (participants, instruments and measurements, procedures, and designs and analysis) Completing the project -Results -Discussions and conclusions
What is "fair use" of materials?
Purpose: commerical or education? Nature: Is copying expected? Amount: How much is copied? Effect: What is the influence on the market
Types of descriptive research
Questionnaire Interview Normative survey Case study Job analysis Observational research Developmental studies Correlational studies
Describing instruments
Questions to consider in selecting instruments - Validity and reliability - Difficulty of obtaining measures - Access to equipment or tests - Knowing how to use them What should be presented - Description (including validity and reliability) - Drawings, photographs, sample items - Scoring method
How should you go about selecting an advisor or mentor?
Read what she or he has written Talk to other students
The primary sources of a literature review are:
Recent journal articles Theses and dissertations are also primary sources First hand sources of data in research (original studies)
Scientific mistakes lead to _____
Remedial activities
Compare a research hypothesis to a null hypothesis
Research hypothesis: The expected result - deduced from theory or induced from empirical studies that is based on logical reasoning and predicts the outcome of the study Null hypothesis: Used primarily in statistical test for the reliability of the results that says that there are no differences among treatments (or no relationships among variables).
Identify elements of both a research hypothesis and, more importantly, a null hypothesis
Research hypothesis: The expected result - deduced from theory or induced from empirical studies that is based on logical reasoning and predicts the outcome of the study Null hypothesis: Used primarily in statistical test for the reliability of the results that says that there are no differences among treatments (or no relationships among variables).
What should human research participants expect?
Right to privacy or nonparticipation Right to remain anonymous Right to confidentiality Right to experimenter responsibility
Scientific misconduct leads to _____.
Sanctions
Scientific misconduct
Scientific misconduct is fabrication, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results.
Intuition
Sometimes considered common sense or self evident
Describing participants
Special characteristics: what relates to the study - Age and gender - Training level What to tell about participants - Number - Loss of participants Protecting participants
Secondary sources
Starting point Sources of data in research in which authors have evaluated and summarized previous research (textbooks)
Reading and recording the literature
Statement of the problem Hypotheses Characteristics of the participants Instruments and tests used Testing procedure Variables: independent and dependent Treatments applied Design and statistical analysis Findings Questions for further study Citations to other studies When to copy the article
Scientific method of problem solving steps
Step 1: developing the problem (defining and delimiting it) Step 2: formulating the hypotheses Step 3: gathering the data Step 4: analyzing and interpreting results (inductive reasoning used here - deductive reasoning is primarily used in statement of the problem)
5 characteristics of research
Systematic - plan, identify, design, collect data, evaluate (ID and labeling of variables, testing relationships of these variables, and data collection that evaluates problem and hypotheses) Logical - examine procedures to evaluate conclusions Empirical - decisions are based on data Reductive - general relationships are established from data Replicable - actions are recorded
Unscientific methods of problem solving
Tenacity Intuition Authority The radionalistic method The empirical method
Paradigm shifts
The development of discrepancies in a paradigm leading to proposals of a new paradigm that better explains the data. New theories New methods
At the end of a well-written introduction, the reader should be able to predict what?
The statement of the problem (purpose of the study)
Be able to identify the hypothesis, independent variable(s), and dependent variable(s): - In a study designed to assess the comparative effectiveness of two workbooks used in teaching students about laboratory procedures, the independent variable of the study would be
The study of the two workbooks
When a person concludes that there is a difference between population means when she has actually observed an improbable difference between two sample means that come from identical populations, she has made what type of error?
Type 1 error
Researchers set small alpha levels (e.g. aplha = 0.05) because they want to avoid what type of error?
Type 1 error (rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true)
What is plagiarism?
Using ideas, concepts, writings, or drawings of others as your own; cheating
Plagiarism
Using the ideas, writings, and drawings of others as your own; cheating
Well-designed sampling methods are most important for obtaining what type of results?
Valid
Which of the following is most important to an evaluator: reliability, objectivity, validity?
Validity
"Cooking data"
Value inappropriate when data are being analyzed and changing it.
Databases used in our field
Web of Science Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) Physical Education Index Medline PsycINFO Sociological Abstracts ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global ingentaconnect
Dependent variable
What is measured to assess the effects of the independent variable (the effect) The thing measured.
Describing procedures
What will happen - When, where, how much time - Pilot data: can you do this? - Scheme for data acquisition, recording, and scoring Planning treatments - How long, how intense, how often - Participant adherence - Pilot data: can participants do this? - Appropriate treatment for participants
Think about _____ will read your title
Who
Misleading authorship
Who should be an author? - Technicians do not necessarily become joint authors - Authorship should involve only those who contribute directly - Discuss authorship before the project
Pilot work
Work undertaken to verify that you can correctly administer tests and treatments for your study using appropriate participants,
Considerations when choosing the title
Written last, not first Purpose of the title - Conveys focus of the study Problems with titles - Too long or too short - Useless words
What will happen if your introduction does not catch the reader's attention?
Your thesis won't be read