Chem in our World Exam
Early Chemistry
1. Domestication of Fire 2. Bronze Age 3. Iron Age
Criteria of a 'Good' Scientific Theory
1. Is consistent with all current knowledge 2. Is verifiable through observation and experiment 3. Predicts certain things to be impossible 4. Must be refutable (through observation and/or experiment)
Where does lost fat go?
1.It is lost as energy/heat. 2.It becomes muscle. 3.It is excreted in sweat/urine. 4.It is excreted in feces. 5.It is converted to CO2 and 6.exhaled. 7.Other.
Cigarette Smoke
4,800 different chemicals, 400 toxic, 40 carcinogenic
Chlorination Alternatives
A common alternative is sodium or calcium hypochlorite (NaOCl or Ca(OCl)2.
Allotrope
A form of an element that is chemically distinct from other forms of the same element.
Carbon Dioxide
A gas that naturally composes around 0.04% of the air we breathe. Produced by the respiration of animals/microorganisms and the burning of fossil fuels. Plants require CO2 to be in the air in order to photosynthesize.
Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant
A massive 9.0 magnitude earthquake struck Japan on Mar. 11, 2011, causing the automatic shutdown of 11 reactors in 4 plants.
Chernobyl
A meltdown of the reactor's core in this power plant killed thirty people in 1986. About 135,000 people were evacuated. It is believed that about one hundred times more radiation was released in the accident than by the atom bombs dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.
Radon
A radioactive gas that is emitted from the earth's crust. It can enter basements through cracks in the floor and accumulate over time
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
A subsequent tsunami destroyed emergency cooling equipment, culminating in an explosion on Mar. 12.
Ozone Therapy
A type of therapy/alternative health treatments that involves exposing our skin, blood, or other regions to ozone
Aspartame
"one of the most thoroughly tested and studied food additives the agency has ever approved" - FDA
What are some negative effects of DHMO?
Accidental inhalation is lethal, contributes to soil erosion, vapour is a greenhouse gas, its use in North America has increased annually every year since 1970, a component of acid rain, found in rare pre-cancerous growths
Acid Anhydrides
Acids without water
Ozonation
An alternative method for disinfecting water is to treat it with ozone gas, which can be produced by passing an electric current through oxygen.
The Lifestraw
An example of new portable water treatment technologies are improving the safety of drinking water in areas without municipal water treatment facilities.
Where is DHMO found?
An industrial solvent, a widely used fire retardant, added to swimming pools to maintain chemical balance, byproduct of combustion in automobile engines, coolant used in nuclear reactors.
Trend Lines
Are often drawn through empirical data to quantify the correlation and perhaps enable extrapolation
How fast is ozone depleting?
At a rate of ~4% per decade
Electrons
Atoms with a negative charge
Protons
Atoms with a positive charge
Isotopes
Atoms with different atomic weights. Number of neutrons vary.
Neutrons
Atoms with no charge
Peace Prize 2007
Awarded to Al Gore and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Structure of Water
Bent shape with a bond angle of 104.5. Because of large electronegativity difference between H and O, the OH bond is very polar.
Bioplastic
Biological materials (such as corn starch) can be modified to make synthetic plastics that have properties that are similar to petroplastics, but are biodegradable.
Combustion
Burning of carbon or hydrocarbons that consumes oxygen and produces water and CO2. Can also produce carbon monoxide when there is a limited supply of oxygen.
How can ozone be produced?
By exposing air to UVC light or by passing electricity through air. (_____ produced in this way can be used to kill microorganisms in water)
By ~10%
By how much have the US carbon dioxide emissions dropped since 2008
Ozone
Colourless gas. Its molecules each possess three oxygen atoms (O3). An allotrope of oxygen.
Yucca Mountain Repository
Congressionally directed deep geological repository storage facility for spent nuclear reactor fuel and other radioactive waste.
Gas
Consist of individual molecules or atoms of a substance with lots of empty space between them.
Law of Conservation of Mass
Demonstrated by Lavoisier. States that the total mass of a system does not change as a result of a chemical reaction.
Glyphosate
Developed and brought to market as 'round-up', is the #1 herbicide in use in US agriculture. One of the least toxic pesticides in common use - less toxic than many used in organic farming.
Paul Crutzen
Discovered that nitrogen oxides can destroy atmospheric ozone catalytically
What is ozone frequently used for?
Disinfecting drinking water
Insulators
Do not permit electricity to flow through them, most plastics.
Unsaturation
Double bonds in carbon chains are also called regions of ...
Ionic Bonds
Electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged ions
Sulfur Dioxide
Emissions are highest in regions with many coal-fired electric power plants, steel mills, and other heavy industries that rely on coal.
Kinetic Energy
Energy an object possesses as a result of its motion
Heat
Energy resulting from constant collisions between atoms and molecules
2nd law of Thermodynamics: Entropy
Energy spontaneously disperses from being localized to becoming spread out if it is not hindered from doing so.
Chemical Energy
Energy that is stored in chemical bonds, a form of potential energy
Work
Energy used to cause an object that has mass to move.
What can extrapolation lead to?
False conclusions
Democritus (500 BC)
First proposed that matter is composed of small discrete indivisible particles (atoms). Believed that matter is quantized. Rejected by Plato in 427-347 BC.
Sodium fluoride (NaF), Fluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6), Sodium fluorosilicate (Na2SiF6)
Flouride is added to water either as...
Nitrogen dioxide
Formed whenever N2 is exposed to heat and oxygen. Also contributes to acid rain, and the formation of tropospheric ozone.
Geothermal Energy
Generally harnessed in areas of volcanic activity. The Pacific Ring is a prime spot for the harnessing of this activity because it is an area where the tectonic processes are always taking place.
Halon
Generic term for carbon compounds substituted with halogens.
Discoveries due to Alchemy
Glassware that is still in use, and the development of many purification methods including distillation and recrystallization.
Two allotropes of carbon
Graphite and Diamond
Pyrocool F.E.F
Green alternative developed to replace halons
Carbohydrates
Have the chemical formula (CH2O)n - and is literally made from units of carbon + water.
1.5mg/L
Health Canada's recommended concentration of fluoride in water
20 amino acids
How many amino acids are there that organisms use to make proteins?
31 billion were purchased, only 10% were recycled
How many bottles of water were purchased in 2006 in the US vs how many were recycled
1/8. 3.3 million die from water related health problems each year.
How many people lack access to clean water
60,000 plastic bags
How many plastic bags are used in the US every 5 seconds
2,000,000 plastic bottles
How many plastic bottles are used in the US every 5 minutes
2.4 million lbs
How much lbs of plastic enters the ocean each hour.
Exposure of water to UVC light
How to kill pathogens in water
Decay Chain
If the decay product is unstable, decay continues until a stable product is reached
7.2 meters
If the entire ice of the world were to melt, the global sea levels would rise...
Stevia
Illegal in Canada until November 2012, based on early laboratory research that it was mutagenic. It was permitted in 2012, and although it appears to be mutagenic at high doses, at typical levels of consumption it is "generally recognized as safe".
Nylon
In 1938, Wallace Carrothers developed 'polyamide 6,6, also known as...
The Arayo River
In Ethiopia, almost completely dry during the dry season. Women 'scratch' for water by digging into the former river bed.
Bar Graph
In cases where the items on the x-axis are independent of each other or 'not continuous' it is better to use this type of graph
Why is fusion difficult?
In general, atoms greatly resist being compressed close enough together in order for their nuclei to interact. Extreme temperatures and pressures are required.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
International environmental treaty negotiated at the UNCED. Objective is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous antropogenic interference with the climate system.
Water is polar
Is water polar or nonpolar
How is SO2 removed from flue gas?
It is treated with lime
UVA light
Lowest energy UV light. It is associated with skin aging and wrinkles
Biodiesel
Made from natural, renewable sources (veg oils, animal fats), it can be used as pure fuel or blended with petroleum
G. N. Lewis
Made major contributions to our understanding about how atoms combine together to make molecules
Calorimetry
Measuring heat energy.
Compound
Molecules which have more than one atom stuck together
UVB light
More energetic than UVA and is linked to skin cancer and cataracts.
UVC light
Most energetic and most damaging, but is completely absorbed by the ozone layer
Dipole Moment
Most molecules with polar bonds are polar overall - and their physical properties reflect this. Polar molecules have higher boiling points and enhanced water solubility. Sometimes polar bonds 'cancel out' each other leading to a non-polar molecule.
Chlorination
Municipal water is treated with chlorine gas (Cl2) which effectively kills water-borne pathogens.
The Boston Molasses Disaster
Occured on January 15, 1919. Molasses storage tank burst and a wave of molasses rushed through the streets killing 21 and injuring 150.
Example of Scientific Law
Ohm's law. Says nothing about why current, voltage, and electrical resistance should be related.
Three primary gases that compose our air...
Oxygen, Nitrogen and Argon
91% of our energy
Percentage of our energy that is non-renewable
Peregrine Falcons
Populations in the US began to drop, bottoming out in the 1970s at about 5% of their normal population. DDT was blamed for causing the population decline.
5.2 billion pounds
Pounds of pesticides used in 2006 and 2007
~104 nuclear plants
Powerplants in the US
Water Vapour
Present in our air varying between 0 and 5%. The actual amount determines the relative humidity.
Boyle's Law
Pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other. If you have a fixed volume of gas, and you compress it so it's half of its original volume, the pressure will double.
Sulfur Dioxide
Produced when sulfur and sulfur containing compounds are burned. Primary source is burning coal.
Amino Acids
Proteins are polymers that consist of repeating subunits known as ...
The Athabasca Glacier
Recedes at a rate of about 5 meters per year. Most visited glacier in North America.
Aristotle's View
Rejected atomism altogether, believed that the four elements are continuous and that space cannot be empty
The expansion of ocean water due to increasing temperatures
Responsible for about 90% of observed sea rise
Alchemy
The conversion of base metals to gold. Search for 'elixir of life' and the 'philosopher's stone.'
4 degrees Celcius
The degrees that water is most dense at.
The 3rd law of thermodynamics: The entropy of a crystalline solid at 0 K is zero.
The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero. Physically, the law implies that it is impossible for any procedure to bring a system to the absolute zero of temperature in a finite number of steps.
Alpha carbon
The first carbon attached to the acid group
Elemental Sulfur
The first known pesticide used in ancient Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia
Omega carbon
The last carbon attached to the acid group
Ozone Absorbance
The layer absorbs 100% of UVC from the sun, ~90% of UVB, and very little UVA.
Polar
The molecules have a negatively charged end and a positively charged end
Uunartoq Qeqertaq
The new island that was discovered in 2007 off of the coast of Greenland.
Polypropylene
The number 2 plastic, with annual production of 45 million metric tons. PP is chemically resistant, flexible, and very durable.
Osmosis
The passive transport of water across a membrane from an area of low to high solute concentration.
About 30%
The percentage of freshwater on earth that is beneath the soil in underground aquifers
About 70%
The percentage of freshwater on earth that is locked up in ice caps and glaciers
Around 8%
The percentage of water that is used for personal use
Acid Dissociation
The strength of an acid depends on its power to produce H+ ions. (pH)
Conserve atomic number/nuclear charge
The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the sum of nuclear charges in the reactants.
Conserve Mass Number
The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal the sum of protons plus neutrons in the reactants.
Year 2012
The year that arctic sea ice was at its lowest levels ever recorded
Example of Scientific Theory
Theory of evolution. Explains how species change over time, provides a mechanism.
Carbon
This atom makes a total of four covalent bonds
Oxygen
This atom makes a total of two bonds. It can form more or less than two, but in these cases the resultant molecule will be unstable and reactive.
Methane Gas
Thought to be responsible for 21% of the enhanced greenhouse effect
1st law of Thermodynamics: Conservation of Energy
Total amount of energy in the universe is constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Covalent Bond
Two atoms share a single electron pair. Especially prevalent for elements that are non-metals. Each element prefers to make a particular number of bonds with other elements.
Late 70's on CFC's
US, Canada, and a few others try to reduce use by limiting their use in aerosol cans. Strong opposition from industry, weak political will.
Gypsum
Used for fertilizer and as a building material in plaster and in drywall.
Sodium tripolyphosphate (STP or STPP) chelates calcium and magnesium ions
Used to prevent from forming hard water deposits.
Statistics
Used to show how well a set of empirical data coheres to the trendline
Pie Graphs
Used to show the comparative contributions different components make to a whole
Water Softeners
Used to treat hard water. Operate by replacing each Ca2+ and Mg2+ ion with two sodium ions.
Carbon Tetrachloride
Volatile chemical that can react with light and create chlorine atoms
0 degrees
Water induces a hexagonal structure at this temperature
The Classic Elements
Water, Air, Fire, Earth
Ozonated Olive oil
What can ozone be used to make?
Things with OH, NH, and FH bonds, many ionic salts
What dissolves in water
Carbon Dioxide
What is thought to be responsible for 72% of the enhanced greenhouse effect
UV Light
What ozone absorbs
Acid Rain in Nova Scotia
When acid rain and snow enter rivers and lakes, the pH decreases eventually making them unsuitable for fish and other aquatic species.
Line Graph
When trying to show a continuous trend, use this type of graph
Acidosis
When your blood pH is < 7.35
CFCs
Widely used gases composed of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon containing compounds.
Agent Orange
a 50:50 mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T.
Pyrethrins
a class of insecticides extracted from Chrysanthemum flowers
Scientific Law
a concise description of some natural phenomenon, and is a 'distillation' of the results of repeated observation. A scientific law makes no attempt to explain why the phenomenon occurs in the first place.
Gamma Decay
a nucleus changes from a higher energy state to a lower energy state through the emission of electromagnetic radiation (photons).
Acid
a substance that reacts with water to make H3O+.
Mercury
a toxic metal that is released into the environment in large quantities by the combustion of coal.
Monosaccharides
also known as 'simple sugars', are the basic building blocks of all carbohydrates
DHA
an active ingredient in self tanners
Scientific Theory
an explanation of why certain things happen the way that they do. They can evolve over time as new findings are made, but can never be 'proven'.
Base
any compound that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) in water. Slippery and bitter.
Endothermic Process
any process in which heat has to be supplied to the system from the surroundings.
Exothermic Process
any process that gives off heat - transfers thermal energy from the system to the surroundings
Hoovers Dam
approximate annual power output is 4 billion Kilowatt-hours (KW-h), while the maximum power output produced by the 17 water turbines is a combined 2.08 Gigawatts
Plasticizers (usually phthalates)
are added to polystyrene to make it softer and more pliable. They can compose up to 60% of the mass of PVC plastic.
Cellulose
are also made of glucose units, but they bond in a different geometry that prevents our enzymes from breaking it down into simpler sugars.
Mass Number
atomic number + number of neutrons
Fatty acids
can be hydrolyzed into 3 'free' fatty acids and a molecule of glycerol. This can be done with strong base (Lye) or by enzymes (lipases) in our bodies.
Acid Rain
causes accelerated weathering of marble statues, which are composed of calcium carbonate due to this reaction
Carbonates
chemicals that contain the CO32- ion.
Structure of the Atom
composed of protons (+1 charge) and neutrons (0) in the nucleus of the atom
Fat molecules
composed of three hydrocarbon chains, usually between 8 and 20 carbons long, attached to a 3-carbon unit via ester linkages.
Polymer
compounds that are made from many individual subunits (monomers) strung together
Amines
consist of a nitrogen atom bonded with three other groups. They are commonly found in bioactive molecules. Fishy smell.
Colloids
consist of small particles of a substance dispersed in another, and are generally cloudy in appearance.
The Superstack
constructed by Inco Limited (now Vale Inco) in 1972 at an estimated cost of $25 million 380 m (1,247 ft) the tallest chimney in Canada and the Western hemisphere the second tallest freestanding chimney in the world after the GRES-2 Power Station in Kazakhstan.
Charcoal Filters
contain 'activated carbon' which has lots of pores and channels that trap 'organic' impurities.
Control Rods
contain materials that absorb lots of neutrons without undergoing fission themselves. If a nuclear reactor is compromised, these will drop into place, stopping the nuclear chain reaction.
Monounsaturated fats
contain only one alkene group.
Polyunsaturated fats
contain two or more alkene groups
Baking Powder
contains a mixture of Sodium Bicarbonate and tartaric acid
Water Hardness
contains high concentrations of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
Low Density Polyethylene
contains highly branched chains which do not pack well, creating a very flexible material.
Weak Acids
dissociate badly in water and produce few H+ ions in water.
Strong Acids
dissociate well in water and produce many H+ ions in water
Nicotine
extracted from tobacco plants, was used as an insecticide in the 17th century.
Teflon (PTFE)
extremely chemically inert and neither oil or water will adhere to it. It was accidentally developed in 1938.
DDT
first synthesized in 1874, was found to be a potent insecticide in 1939. first found use in WWII for the control of mosquitoes, fleas, lice, etc. that were a perennial nuisance for soldiers, particularly those fighting in tropical regions. It greatly helped to control malaria and typhus.
Bakelite
first synthetic polymer made in 1907. It is made by reacting phenol and formaldehyde, and the resulting plastic is hard, dense, and brittle.
The Sudbury Basin
formed as an impact from a bolide approximately 10-15 km (6.2-9.3 mi) in diameter that occurred 1.849 billion years ago[2] in the Paleoproterozoic era.
Hydronium Ion
formed when an acid ionizes in water
Acidity of a Soultion
given by the amount of H3O+ present in a given volume of water. This amount can be conveniently and quickly measured using a glass electrode. Can also be measured using indicator paper, although this method is less precise.
The nucleus
has almost the entire mass of the atom, because protons and neutrons are nearly two thousand times as massive as electrons. about 100,000 times smaller than the whole atom.
High Density Polyethylene
has long chains with minimal branching. They pack well and create a dense, rigid material.
The Hydrogen Bomb
involved the fusion of the nuclei of two isotopes of hydrogen: deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H). The product of the reaction is 4He, which is not radioactive, and one neutron.
Polystyrene
is the number 5 plastic, with annual production of 10.6 million metric tons. Styrofoam.
Celluloid Film
is ~80% nitrocellulose, and contains 20% camphor as a 'plasticizer'
Olestra
made by attaching fatty acids to sucrose. The resulting molecule is too large to be absorbed in the gut.
Polycarbonate Plastic
made by mixing bisphenol A with phosgene to make long repeating chains. Also contains a small amount of bisphenol A that is unreacted.
Plastarch Material (PSM)
made from corn starch and other plant materials. It is often simply called "corn plastic".
Bisphenol
made from the condensation of two molecules of phenol and one acetone. Potentially leached in Nalgene brand water bottles. Has a similar shape to estrogen, can exhibit estrogen like activity.
Disaccharides
made from two simple sugars covalently bonded into one unit.
Entropy
measures the spontaneous dispersal of energy: how much energy is spread out in a process, or how widely spread out it becomes — at a specific temperature.
Tar Sands
natural deposits of sand and clay (i.e. soil) saturated with a very viscous hydrocarbon called bitumen. It is black and has a tar-like consistency.
Rotenone
natural pesticide extracted from the seeds of the Jícama plant. Is classified by the World Health Organization as moderately hazardous
Atomic Number
number of protons in nucleus
Alpha Decay
one process that unstable atoms can use to become more stable. an atom's nucleus sheds two protons and two neutrons in a packet that scientists call an alpha particle
Beta Decay
one process that unstable atoms can use to become more stable. two different types: beta-minus decay and beta-plus decay
pH of 7
pH of perfectly pure water
Trans Fats
pose serious health risks since they lower the levels of 'good' cholesterol and raise levels of 'bad cholesterol'
Flocculating Agents
positively charged ions (cations) that attract together small colloidal particles.
Nitrocellulose
prepared by the action of nitric acid on cellulose, discovered in 1846. Explosively flammable, found use in weapons applications.
Maple Syrup
produced by removing water from maple sap. This is done by boiling or more commonly by reverse osmosis.
Ethanol
renewable, but more expensive than gasoline. Some believe it takes more energy to produce a gallon of this than you will obtain from burning it.
2,4-D
still sold as a selective weed killer. It is frequently used to kill broad-leaf weeds in lawns. Evidence connecting to cancer exists, but is weak.
Polyvinyl Chloride
the 3rd most produced polymer today (almost 40 million tons per year).
Joule
the amount of energy required to raise a 1-kg object 10 cm against the force of gravity.
Calorie
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C.
NEWater
the brand name given to reclaimed water produced by Singapore's Public Utilities Board.
The Manhattan Project
the effort, led by the United States with participation from the United Kingdom and Canada, which resulted in the development of the first atomic bomb during World War II
Uranium Fission
the fissile material that is used in most nuclear reactors. It is 'activated' by bombardment with neutrons, which causes it to split into 92Kr and 141Ba, along with the release of three more neutrons, and a lot of energy.
Specific Heat Capacity
the measure of the heat energy required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity of a substance by a unit of temperature.
Dioxins
the most acutely toxic manmade chemicals. They are formed in a variety of chlorination reactions.
Polyethylene
the most widely used plastic, with annual worldwide production of more than 80 million metric tons. Used in plastic bags, and pop/water bottles
Polyester
the number 4 plastic, with annual production of ~40 million metric tons.
Nuclear Fusion
the process by which two or more atomic nuclei join together, or "fuse", to form a single heavier nucleus.
Hydraulic Fracturing
the propagation of fractures in a rock layer by a pressurized fluid.
Nuclear Fission
the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller ones with the release of energy.
Why is energy released during nuclear fission?
the sum of the masses of these fragments is less than the original mass.
Chlorine Poison Gas
was used by the Germans in WWI as a poison gas. It was effectively filtered out by gas masks.
Polyacetylene
when doped with iodine, becomes just as conductive as copper. Discovered by Sirakawa, Heeger, and Macdiarmid.
How many deaths per year in Canada does DHMO cause?
~400 deaths/year
What is energy?
The capacity to do work, that is, to move an object against a resisting force.
Soap Scum
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions can also react with soap to make this.
Uses for UVC
Can be damaging to living things, often used to kill microorganisms or 'disinfect' drinking water
How Ozone is Formed
Can be formed when NO2 or VOCs absorb light. The same is true when O2 absorbs extremely energetic "Vacuum UV" light from the sun
Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on Health
Can cause irritation of the respiratory system, reduced lung function, aggravation of asthma, more sensitive to allergens, etc.
Negative Effects of Acid Rain
Can leach several minerals from soils, notably magnesium, making it more difficult for plants to get adequate nutrition. Many species of plants do not thrive in low pH soils.
Unsaturated
Carbon chains that have no double bonds
Freons
Carbon compounds bonded exclusively to fluorine and chlorine. (CFC's)
Major Tropospheric Pollutants
Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, VOCs
Tropospheric Ozone Deaths per year
Causes approximately 21,000 premature deaths per year in 25 countries in the European Union. (WHO, 2008)
Catalytic Converters
Causes modern cars to emit much less CO than older ones.
CH05
The chemical formula for the water we drink
Atomic Weight
The combined number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus
Molina and Rowland
Show that man made CFCs present throughout the atmosphere are bringing about the destruction of the ozone layer.
Polyester
Silk substitute discovered by Wallace Carrothers. First discovered in 1907.
Sudbury, Ontario
Since the late 1800s, this name has been synonymous with mining activity in North America. It is also known for barren, tree-less landscape which is part of this mining legacy.
Potential Energy
Stored energy that an object or system possesses.
Phytoplankton
The 'carbon sink'
Enthalpy
The amount of heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction.
0.8 degrees celcius
The amount that global annual average temperature has increased by since 1880
17 degrees Celcius
The average ocean temperature at the surface
