cog final

means-ends analysis

a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states

intermediate state

problem solving as involving a sequence of choices of steps, which each action creating an intermediate state. conditions after each stop is made toward solving a problem

If you randomly picked a door, and then randomly switched or stayed, you should be right 50% of the time. true or false?

true

social exchange theory

An important aspect of human behavior is ability people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both

analogical encoding

is the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined.

sapir-whorf hypothesis

language influences thought... the structure of a language determines a native speaker's perception and categorization of experience.

garden path sentences

"The old man the boat", is a grammatically correct sentence that starts in such a way that a reader's most likely interpretation will be incorrect; the reader is lured into a parse that turns out to be a dead end or yields a clearly unintended meaning. it begins to appear to one meaning but then ends up meaning something else

problem

-An obstacle between a present state and a goal -Not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle -Difficult

expected emotion

-Emotions that people predict that they will feel concerning an outcome -People inaccurately predict their emotions

phonemic restoration effect

-Where in the sentence did the cough occur? -Was there and /s/ in "legislatures"? -Phonemic restoration effect -"fill in" missing phonemes based on context of sentence and portion of word presented

savant syndrome

-people with autism, other mental disorders can achieve extraordinary feats -often associated with damage to anterior temporal lobe (ATL)

confirmation bias

-tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and overlook information that argues against it

Susan, John, Lisa, and Michael share an office. Two of them will be randomly chosen to change offices by drawing names out of a hat. What is the probability that Michael will be chosen first and Susan will be chosen second.

1/12

In the Monty Hall 3-door problem, when you switch doors you have a _____ probability of picking the winning door while if you stay with your original choice you have a _____ probability of picking the winning door.

2/3; 1/3

The Monty Hall demonstration predicts that participants that always switch their door choice should pick the correct door...what percent of time

66% of the time

conditional syllogism

The basic form of the __________ is: If A is true then B is also true. (If A then B). It appears through a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion.

analogical problem solving

Using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to new problem

situation model of text processing

When a reader reads a text, an "understanding" of the text is created in the reader's mind.

mental set

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem which is determined by persons experience or what has worked in the past. these notions are tied to the persons knowledge about the usual uses of objects

stereotypes

a widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing

lexicon

all of our knowledge about words is stored in our _____, which is a person's knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used in relation to other words.

initial state

conditions at the beginning of the problem

psycholinguistics

discover psychological process by which humans acquire and process language through Comprehension, Speech production, Representation, and Acquisition

wugs study

even young children possess implicit knowledge of linguistic morphology, it has been said, "Perhaps no innovation other than the invention of the tape recorder has had such an indelible effect on the field of child language research", the "wug" being "so basic to what [psycholinguists] know and do that increasingly it appears in the popular literature without attribution to its origins

The outcome of a dependent event is...

influenced by the outcome of another event.

inductive reasoning

is bottom-up/cause and effect: reaching a conclusion based on evidence. Starts with a question and looks at examples to answer the question.

illusory correlation

occurs when a correlation between two events appears to exist, but in reality there is no correlation or it is much weaker than it is assumed to be.

functional fixedness

on type of fixation that can work against solving a problem, focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object.

In the Monty Hall problem, you originally begin with a _________ of picking the correct door.

one in 3 chance

divergent thinking

open-ended; large number of potential "solutions"

opt-out

organ donor unless request not to be (French and Germany)

base rate

relative proportions of different classes in the population.

word frequency effect

respond more slowly to low-frequency such as hike words and faster to high-frequency such as home.

morpheme

smallest units of language that has meaning or grammatical function. for example. bedroom has two morphemes and truck has one. because truck can be broken up into different words

syntax

specifies the rules for combining words into sentences. such as grammar.

lexical priming

that each time a word or phrase is heard or read, it occurs along with other words (its collocates). This leads you to expect it to appear in a similar context or with the same grammar in the future, and this 'priming' influences the way you use the word or phrase in your own speech and writing.

goal state

the solution of the problem

risk-aversion

used when problem is stated (framed) in terms of gains

categorical syllogism

♣ Describe relation between two categories using all, no, or some • Premise 1. All birds are animals (All A are B) • Premise 2. All animals eat food (all B are C) • Conclusion: therefore, all birds eat food.

creative thinking

-Innovative thinking -Novel ideas -New connections between existing ideas -Divergent thinking: open-ended; large number of potential "solutions" -Creative cognition: technique to train people to think creatively -Preinventive forms: ideas that precede creation of finished creative product

premise

a previous statement or proposition from which another is inferred or follows as a conclusion

validity/truth

a syllogism is valid when the form of the syllogism indicated that its conclusion follows logically from its two premises. key word is logical. don't confuse with true

inference in text

an important part of the process of creating a coherent story is making _____. which means determining what the test means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text.

insight

gestalt psychologists also introduced the idea that restructuring is associated with ____, the sudden realization of a problems solution.

behaviorism explanation for language acquisition

language is learned through reinforcement. according to this idea, just as children learn appropriate behavior by being rewarded for good behavior and punished for bad behavior, children learn language by being rewarded for using correct language and punished for using incorrect language

law of large numbers

the larger the number of individuals drawn from a population, the more representative the group will be of the entire population.

expected utility theory

-People are rational -If they have all relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility -Utility: outcomes that are desirable because they are in the person's best interest

think-aloud protocol

-Say aloud what one is thinking -Shift in how one perceives elements of problem.

syllogisms

-Two statements called premises -Third statement called conclusion -Categorical syllogism -Describe relation between two categories using all, no, or some -Premise 1. All birds are animals (All A are B) -Premise 2. All animals eat food (all B are C) -Conclusion: therefore, all birds eat food. -Syllogism is valid if conclusion follows logically from its two premises -If two premises of a valid syllogism are true, the syllogism's conclusion must be true -Do not confuse "validity" with "true"

speech segmentation

-context -understanding of meaning -understanding of sound and syntactic rules -statistical learning

incidental emotion

-emotions that are not specifically related to decision-making -General disposition or personality, recent experience, general environment/surroundings -Can affect one's overall decision making processes

expert - how do experts solve problems

-experts spend more time analyzing problem -experts are to better than novice when given problems outside of their field -experts less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems

lexical decision task

-read a list of words and non-words silently -say "yes" when you read a word. we respond faster to words than non words

lexical ambiguity

-words have more than one meaning -context cleans up ambiguity after all meanings of a word have been briefly accessed

You are in a class with twenty other students. The instructor announces that he/she is going to randomly pick one student to answer his/her next question. What is the probability that you will be chosen?

1/20

The Monty Hall demonstration predicts that participants that always stay with their original door choice should pick the correct door...what percent of the time

33% of the time

opt-in

Active step to be organ donor (USA)

status-quo bias

The tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

problem space: initial state, intermediate state, goal state

all possible states that could over when solving a problem

candle problem

an example of functional fixedness is provided by the _____, which people are unable to perform a task when one component has a fixation. meaning, they have a hard time figure on object has more than one use.

noam chomsky

he proposed that humans language is coded in the genes. just as humans are genetically programmed to walk, they are programmed to acquire and use language. the underlying basis of all language is similar.

causal influence

inferences that the event described in one clause or sentence were cause by events that occurred in a previous sentence.

universal grammar

is a linguistic theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky, that argues that the ability to learn language is innate, distinctly human and distinct from all other aspects of human cognition.

language acquistion

is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate.

deductive reasoning

is top-down: starts with theory and works way down to a certain conclusion based on examples.

wason four-card problem

o Effect of using real-world items in a conditional-reasoning problem ♣ Determine minimum number of cards to turn over test: if there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side o Falsification principle: to test a rule, you must look for situations that falsify the rule ♣ Most participant's fil to do this ♣ When problem is stated in concrete everyday terms, correct responses greatly increase

phoneme

shortest segments of speech that, if changes, changes the meaning of the word. B|A|T C|A|T

representativeness heurisitic

states that the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles the properties we usually associate with class B.

availability heuristic

states the events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered. events more easily remembered are judged as being more probable....

coherence in test

the representation of the test in a person's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text. ____ can be created by a number of different types of inference

two string problem

the subjects task was to tie together two strings that were hanging from the ceiling. this was difficult because the strings were so far apart that is was impossible to reach one. people found it hard to realize they can you a weight to use it as a pendulum

belief bias

the tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusions are believable.

structural features

this give us hints to notice a connection. are the underlying principle that governs the solution.

surface features

this gives us hints to notice a connection.

The joint probability of two independent events is the product of the probability of the first event and the probability of the second event. true or false?

true

nine dots problem

we are confined to a certain way of thinking. we don't think outside of the box.

risk-taking

when problem is stated (framed) in terms of losses