Cognitive Psych Exam 1 (Chapter 1)

Researchers in cognitive psychology rely on all of the following forms of data EXCEPT a) measurements of how long someone needs to make a response. b) the exact types of errors people make. c) which conditions lead to greater accuracy and which lead to poor accuracy. d) anecdotes and testimonials.

d. anecdotes and testimonials

Concurrent articulation is easy, but blocks use of the __________, and consistently decreased memory span, from roughly ______ items to _____ or _____.

articulatory loop; seven; four; five

One of working memory's most important assistants is the ________________. It draws on subvocalized (covert) speech, which serves to create a record in the phonological buffer. Materials in this buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by another cycle of covert speech.

articulatory rehearsal loop

To see how the _________ works, try reading the next few sentences while holding onto this list of numbers: "1, 4, 6, 4, 9." Got them? Now read on. You are probably repeating the numbers over and over to yourself, rehearsing them with your ________. But this turns out to require very little effort. The number's are maintained by working memory's ____________, and, with the numbers thus out of the way, the central executive was free to continue reading. And that is the advantage of the system: with _________ handled by the helpers, the ________ is available for other, more demanding tasks.

articulatory rehearsal loop; inner voice; articulatory rehearsal loop; storage; executive

Without the option of relying on __________, reading becomes much more difficult. It also appears that the _________ plays an important role when someone is learning new vocabulary, including vocabulary in a different language.

articulatory rehearsal; rehearsal loop

Information that will soon be needed, but isn't needed right now, can be sent off to the __________ for temporary storage. In effect, the assistants serve to "preserve" this information so you can cease thinking about it with no risk it will be lost.

assistants

The example of the Polish Air Show (Sep. 2007) demonstrated _________. Maybe the problem can be rephrased (i.e., it isn't a pilot that's flawed, but the _______ of the airplane. Sometimes what seems like obvious design flaws make it all the way out to customers.

human error; design

The deaf rely on a different assistant for working memory: they use an "________" rather than an "inner voice". As a result, they are disrupted if they are asked to wiggle their fingers during a memory task, and so they tend to make "___________" errors in working memory.

inner hand; same-hand shape

As long as one was "appropriately trained", people could use _______ as a tool to study mind _________ : mostly via __________ ; 1880s.

introspection; structuralism; Titchener

Our self-concept depends on our _________ (and, in particular, to our __________). Our emotional adjustments to the world rely on our _________.

knowledge; memory

When we measure people's memory span, we find that they often make errors--they report letters that they hadn't heard at all--and these errors follow a simple pattern: when people make mistakes in this task, they generally substitute one ________ for another with a similar ________. For example, having heard "S," they'll report back "F". The problem is not in hearing the letters in the first place: we get similar sound-alike confusions if the letters are presented ________. Thus, having seen "F," people are likely to report back "S"; they are not likely, in this situation, to report back the similar-looking "E."

letter; sound; visually

A story makes sense to us, because it includes all of the facts that, with ________, are supplied to you. _______ is thus crucial for reading.

memory; memory

Observations from ________ are concerned with how various forms of brain dysfunction influence observed performance.

neuropsychology

Watson argued that with introspection, there was no _________ evidence indicating mental events are of any use to behavior. He considered mental events to be ________ of behavior. Behaviorism was good at explaining behaviors that humans shared with lower animals (aggression; habits; etc.) BUT it had trouble explaining ________ abilities like problem solving, creativity, language, etc.

objective; by-products; complex

Behaviorism cost cognitive psychology ~50 years. It was ______ that finally helped to establish cognitive psychology (via human factors). The proper subject matter for cognitive psychology is the ______ (something NOT directly observable), whereas behaviorists were interested in ________ behavior for its own sake. Cognitive psychology focuses on how we ____, ____, and ____ the vast information we always have available.

WWII; mind; observable; get; store, use

_______ attacked structuralists introspective methods and any attempt to develop theories about mental operations. He quoted that "...belief in the existence of ____________ goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic." Behaviorists wanted the field of psychology to be a science comparable to other established fields like ________. In other words, they wanted it to be directly _________.

Watson; consciousness; physics; observable

Martin is trying to understand why he's been forgetting things lately. As a well-trained cognitive psychologist, Martin is likely to investigate this puzzle by a) examining the circumstances associated with his memory failures, including the complexity or familiarity of the material and how fully he paid attention to the material during learning. b) focusing exclusively on the stimuli he's encountered recently—including rewards or punishments he's received for remembering particular items. c) focusing entirely on the conscious experience of trying to remember and then the experience of succeeding or failing. d) relying on the anecdotes he has heard from his friends about when they remember and when they forget.

a) examining the circumstances associated with his memory failures, including the complexity or familiarity of the material and how fully he paid attention to the material during learning.

Using converging methods when constructing a theoretical account is a) good because it works to eliminate alternative hypotheses. b) good because it ensures consistency in procedures. c) bad because it is confusing to have many different methods. d) bad because there is little consistency between the methods.

a) good because it works to eliminate alternative hypotheses.

In a digit-span task, a person hears a series of items and has to repeat them back immediately in correct sequence. This task is often understood to measure the: a) holding capacity of working memory. b) speed with which the person can transfer items from working memory into long-term storage. c) holding capacity of long-term memory. d) speed with which the person can transfer items from sensory memory into working memory.

a) holding capacity of working memory.

In using the articulatory rehearsal loop, the central executive temporarily relies on storage in: a. a phonological buffer b. a subvocal bank c. episodic memory d. a visual form in visual memory

a. a phonological buffer

One important difference between classical behaviorism and cognitive psychology is that cognitive psychology: a. argues that unobservable mental states can be scientifically studied b. rejects the use of human participants c. insists on studying topics that can be directly and objectively observed d. emphasizes the evolutionary roots of human behavior

a. argues that unobservable mental states can be scientifically studied

As one of their main goals, the original behaviorists tried to: a. discover a set of principles concerned with how behavior changes in response to different configurations of stimuli b. gather a record of specific individuals' subjective interpretations of internal thought and experiences. c. study the influence of an individual's interpretation of a situation on his or her consequent behavior. d. show how all of an individual's feelings can be explained by his or her history of reinforcement.

a. discover a set of principles concerned with how behavior changes in response to different configurations of stimuli

The famous psychologist Edward Titchener claimed to have identified and catalogued nearly 10,000 sensations that he observed within himself. What method best describes his approach? a) introspection b) behaviorism c) psychoanalysis d) transcendentalism

a. introspection

Patients suffering from clinical amnesia are characterized by a disorder in their: a. memory b. ability to recognize patterns c. speech d. ability to comprehend language

a. memory

A participant hears the sequence "F, D, P, U, G, Q, R," and then, a moment later, must repeat the sequence aloud. If errors occur in this procedure, they are likely to involve: a. sound-alike confusions; for example, "T" instead of "D" b. look-alike confusions; for example, "O" instead of "Q" c. confusions with near neighbors in the alphabet; for example "G" instead of "F" d. confusions because of strong associations; for example, "I" instead of "Q" because of the familiarity of "IQ"

a. sound-alike confusions; for example, "T" instead of "D"

Span tests measure: a. working-memory capacity b. the size of the phonological buffer c. whether there is a central executive d. articulatory loop processing

a. working-memory capacity

Without his ability to remember events ______ his surgery, H.M. was unable to remember his uncle's death. Each time he was told of the news, it was as if he was hearing it for the first time.

after

When someone, because of brain damage, has lost the ability to remember certain materials, they are dealing with ________. Clinical cases of this provide us with insights into what _______ is for.

amnesia; memory

Because of specific forms of neurological damage, some individuals have no ability to move various muscles and so suffer from ________ --an inability to produce overt speech. Data indicate that these individuals show sound-alike confusions in their span data, just as ordinary participants do. These observations suggest that actual muscle movements ________ needed for subvocalization, because the results are the same ________ these movements. It seems likely, therefore, that "inner speech" relies on the brain areas responsible for ________ and _________ the muscle movements of speech and not on the movements themselves.

anarthria; aren't; without; planning; controlling

Which of the following is the LEAST accurate statement about behaviorism? a) Behaviorism rejected introspection on the grounds that objectivity is of paramount importance in the study of psychology. b) Behaviorism is primarily designed to explain why organisms believe their behavior is justified or reasonable. c) By focusing on the stimuli to which an organism is exposed and the responses an organism produces and then observing how these change over time, behaviorism can catalogue an individual's learning history. d) Behaviorism claims that behaviors are often best explained by the presence or absence of reinforcement or punishment.

b) Behaviorism is primarily designed to explain why organisms believe their behavior is justified or reasonable.

Which of the following claims about working memory is NOT accurate? a) Individuals often confuse similar-sounding words in working-memory tasks. b) Performance in working-memory tasks does require some focus but is not disrupted by relatively mindless tasks such as saying "tah-tah-tah" aloud while holding items in working memory. c) Many amnesiacs (including the famous patient H.M.) appear to have relatively normal working memories, despite profound problems in other aspects of remembering. d) Much evidence suggests that working memory is not a single entity but is instead a system with separate components.

b) Performance in working-memory tasks does require some focus but is not disrupted by relatively mindless tasks such as saying "tah-tah-tah" aloud while holding items in working memory.

Which of the following is a way that cognitive psychology is DIFFERENT from physics? a) Physicists test their theories using the scientific method. b) Psychologists must take into account the way participants interpret their study. c) Psychology does not allow for direct observation of the causes of phenomena. d) Physics bases its theories on objective, quantifiable data.

b) Psychologists must take into account the way participants interpret their study.

A psychologist who adheres to the behaviorist school of thought would most likely attribute someone reaching for a slice of pie to a) an interaction between memory and desire. b) a learned behavior in response to specific environmental triggers. c) a chemical imbalance produced by a deficit in nutrients. d) inadequate maternal supervision and love during infancy.

b) a learned behavior in response to specific environmental triggers.

You've met a researcher at a conference who says she is of the same school of thought as the famous nineteenth-century scholars Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. You can gather from this statement that she feels the best way to study thoughts is to a) have every person freely introspect about his or her own thoughts. b) have only highly trained and qualified people introspect about their own thoughts. c) use the behaviors that people produce as a basis for inferring their thoughts. d) use simple animal models as a basis for theorizing about cognition in humans.

b) have only highly trained and qualified people introspect about their own thoughts.

When someone asks you to pass the salt at the dinner table, you are able to understand the request even if it is asked in a variety of different ways. This illustrates that a) learned associations between stimuli and responses require that the stimulus be exactly the same every time. b) the meaning of an utterance, not the physical stimulus, is most important for predicting behavior. c) introspection is an essential component to understanding human cognition. d) language is a highly reflexive behavior, requiring fast and automatic responses.

b) the meaning of an utterance, not the physical stimulus, is most important for predicting behavior.

Working memory acts to: a. store an unlimited amount of information b. keep relevant information active for a short period of time c. store a limited amount of information for an unlimited amount of time d. store irrelevant information so it does not influence long-term memory

b. keep relevant information active for a short period of time

We know the articulatory rehearsal loop is separate from the other components of working memory because: a. the multicomponent model is true b. manipulations like concurrent articulation compromise the loop but do not affect the other components c. it is used for storage and the other components are not d. problem solving does not require the rehearsal loop

b. manipulations like concurrent articulation compromise the loop but do not affect the other components

Introspection CANNOT be used to study: a. topics that are strongly colored by emotion b. mental events that are unconscious c. processes that involve conceptual knowledge d. events that take a long time to unfold

b. mental events that are unconscious

The process of taking observable information and inferring a cause is known as: a. mentalistic inference b. the transcendental method c. cause and effect d. introspection

b. the transcendental method

The primary goal of ________ is to add to the knowledge we have. It is not focused on solving problems or improving the quality of life like _________. However, this research is still not the main focus or driving motivation.

basic research; applied research

The __________ movement was a movement that dominated psychology in America for roughly the first half of the 20th century. This movement was a success in many ways and uncovered a range of principles with how behavior changes in response to various _________ (including "rewards" and "punishments").

behaviorist; stimuli

Participants are presented with brief series of letters or numbers and must report them back, in order, immediately. In this situation, most people are able to remember a string of approximately _______ letters or numbers. This gives us some evidence that working memory is _______. a) 26; fairly large b) 7; expandable depending on context c) 7; limited in size d) 2-15; extremely variable between people

c) 7; limited in size

Which of the following is TRUE of the working-memory system? a) The central executive serves the same function as a piece of scrap paper, freeing the rest of the system to do other tasks. b) Working memory has an unlimited capacity. c) The assistants are responsible solely for storage of information. d) Working memory is a single entity with virtually no peripheral mechanisms.

c) The assistants are responsible solely for storage of information.

Data from people with anarthria, the inability to speak, suggest that a) actual vocal movements are needed for sound-alike confusions to emerge in working-memory tasks. b) examining brain dysfunctions cannot shed light on the workings of normal brains. c) inner speech relies on brain areas responsible for planning speech. d) learning to speak is intimately connected with hearing.

c) inner speech relies on brain areas responsible for planning speech.

Performance on a span task is typically reduced when the participant has to perform concurrent articulation. This finding suggests that a) memory performance suffers when the person is distracted by an especially demanding task. b) memory performance suffers if the person is asked to make some sort of rhythmic movement while memorizing. c) memory performance suffers if the person is prevented from subvocalizing while memorizing. d) memory performance suffers if the person has suffered brain damage.

c) memory performance suffers if the person is prevented from subvocalizing while memorizing.

Modern psychologists follow the lead of Immanuel Kant in arguing that the solution to the impasse between introspectionism and behaviorism lies in a method in which we begin with _______ and then proceed to _______. a) animal models; human models b) internal causes; likely behavioral outcomes c) observable facts; likely internal causes d) the computer as a metaphor; the human mind

c) observable facts; likely internal causes

Cognitive psychology is primarily concerned with which of the following? a) the relationship between environmental input and behavior b) the understanding and treatment of mental disorders c) what we know, what we remember, and how we think d) the physical structures of the mind

c) what we know, what we remember, and how we think

Participants in an experiment are shown a series of digits and then asked to repeat them back a moment later. While being shown the sequence, the participants are required to say, "tah, tah, tah," out loud, over and over again. The evidence indicates that the recitation of "tah, tah, tah" will: a. have no effect on participants' memory performance b. provide a rhythm that helps organize participants' rehearsal of the digits, thereby improving their memory performance c. block participants from using subvocalization to rehearse the digits, thereby interfering with the memory task d. force participants to rely on the central executive rather than on a less powerful lower-level assistant, thereby improving memory performance

c. block participants from using subvocalization to rehearse the digits, thereby interfering with the memory task

Which of the following was NOT one of the problems associated with introspection as a research technique? a. some thoughts are not available to the conscious mind b. many introspective claims cannot be tested in a rigorous fashion c. how people react to a stimulus is heavily influenced by past experience d. thoughts and feelings cannot be meaningfully compared across individuals

c. how people react to a stimulus is heavily influenced by past experience

In cognition, as in other sciences, we first develop ________ and then _______ them. a. tests; prove b. hypotheses; prove c. hypotheses; test d. theories; test

c. hypotheses; test

Subvocalization is also known as: a. the reading buffer b. the inner ear c. the inner voice d. memory speech

c. the inner voice

Evidence from anarthric (speechless) patients suggests that: a. the muscles necessary for speech are also needed for subvocalization b. subvocalization does not use words c. the muscles needed for speech are not needed for subvocalization d. these patients are unable to subvocalize

c. the muscles needed for speech are not needed for subvocalization

_________ is the study of the biological basis for cognitive functioning.

cognitive neuroscience

_______ is a young branch of psychology, whose roots go back further with ________: father of experimental psychology. It was believed that the study of psychology should focus on the ________ of the mind, and it was recognized that people can only access their own _________ (thoughts, feelings, etc.). In other words, the workings of the mind should be open to the _______. The theory of the mind, therefore, can derive from ___________.

cognitive psychology; Wilhelm Wundt; structure (elements); mental events; self; introspection

_____________ is the study of human behavior. It is often defined as the scientific study of the ______, ________, and _________ of knowledge. Virtually everything that we do, and everything that we feel or say, depends on our _________ --what we know, what we remember, and how we think.

cognitive psychology; acquisition; retention; use; cognition

The notion that we could work in the fashion of figuring out the processes of behaviors was one of the great contributions of the ____________. Our path is to study mental processes _________, relying on the fact that these processes, themselves ________, have ______ consequences. By examining these (and other) effects produced by mental processes, we can develop--and then ____ --hypotheses about what the mental processes must have been. In this fashion, we use Kant's ___________ to develop a science that does NOT rest on _______ observation.

cognitive revolution; indirectly; invisible; visible; test; transcendental method; direct

__________ blocks use of the loop but has no effect on someone's ability to read simple sentences, to do simple logic problems, and so on. (Blocking use of the loop does have an effect when you're reading more complex sentences or doing harder problems; that's because these harder tasks require analysis and the _________ of interim steps and so require the entire working-memory system--the _______ and the ________.)

concurrent articulation; storage; executive; assistants

Imagine that we ask people to take the span test while simultaneously saying "Tah-Tah-Tah" over and over, out loud. This _____________ obviously requires the mechanisms for speech production. Therefore, these mechanisms are not available for other use, including __________. (If you're directing your lips and tongue to produce the "Tah-Tah-Tah" sequence, you can't at the same time direct them to produce the sequence needed for the subvocalized materials).

concurrent articulation; subvocalization

In Wundt's and Titchener's view, psychology needed to be concerned largely with the study of _________ mental events--feelings, thoughts, perceptions, and recollections. They concluded that the only way to study thoughts is for each of us to _________, or "look within", to observe and record the content of our own mental lives and the sequence of our own experiences.

conscious; introspect

Which of the following behaviors is most difficult to explain from a behaviorist perspective? a) Your response to a stimulus is dependent on how you interpret that stimulus. b) You are very likely to respond differently to a novel stimulus than to a familiar one. c) Once you have learned that a particular response is rewarded, you are likely to repeat that response. d) Often someone's responses are different from what they said initially that they planned or hoped to do.

d) Often someone's responses are different from what they said initially that they planned or hoped to do.

What is the most precise explanation for why many aspects of psychology (and most of cognitive psychology) rely on inferential methods? a) Language processing requires the ability to draw inferences. b) It is hard to know why the behavior of a particular individual changes. c) Psychology is an inaccurate science. d) Psychology often demands hypotheses about processes that cannot be observed directly in order to explain the capacities and the behaviors that we can observe.

d) Psychology often demands hypotheses about processes that cannot be observed directly in order to explain the capacities and the behaviors that we can observe.

Which of the following strategies might you suggest to a child who is having trouble remembering a list of things? a) Repeat a nonword over and over while memorizing, in order to prevent other real words from interfering with what he's trying to remember. b) It does not matter if she rehearses the words or not, because rehearsal has only minor and transient effects on memory. c) Insist on actually the saying the words out loud, since the words must actually be heard through the ears for the rehearsal loop to work. d) Repeat the list over and over either inside the head or out loud; either will be very effective.

d) Repeat the list over and over either inside the head or out loud; either will be very effective.

Which of the following pieces of evidence would NOT be consistent with claims about the articulatory rehearsal loop? a) In working-memory tasks, when people hear "F" spoken, they sometimes remember "S" instead. b) In working-memory tasks, when people see the letter "F," they sometimes remember "S" instead. c) Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a string of letters in working memory. d) Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a sequence of abstract shapes in working memory.

d) Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a sequence of abstract shapes in working memory.

If a patient were to suffer amnesia similar to H.M.'s, which of the following would pose a particular problem? a) recalling the name of childhood pets. b) accessing the background knowledge necessary to understand simple stories. c) navigating streets he knew well before brain surgery. d) remembering her divorce after brain surgery.

d) remembering her divorce after brain surgery.

When reading a story about a girl shaking a piggy bank because she wants to buy something, we understand the reasons for her action because a) our working memory fills in the background information. b) all the necessary information is already present in the story. c) the capacity of working memory is unlimited. d) we provide additional background knowledge based on our own experience.

d) we provide additional background knowledge based on our own experience.

Even though the articulatory loop cannot be seen directly, we are confident it exists because: a. it is the only possible explanation b. without it, we could not remember phone numbers c. people with anarthria show deficits in the phonological buffer d. behavioral manipulation, like articulatory suppression, suggest it is a distinct component

d. behavioral manipulation, like articulatory suppression, suggest it is a distinct component

The "cognitive revolution" is named as such because: a. the change was accomplished by violence b. the focus changed from animals to humans c. philosophers such as Kant were strongly opposed to change d. the focus changed from behaviors to the processes underlying those behaviors

d. the focus changed from behaviors to the processes underlying those behaviors

Stimuli that are physically ________ from each other ("Salt, please" and the bit about the ions) have similar effects. Stimuli that are physically ________ to each other ("Pass the salt" and "Sass the palt") have different effects. _______ similarity, therefore, is not what unites the various stimuli that evoke salt passing. It is clear, though, that the various stimuli that evoke salt passing do have something in common with each other: they all mean the same thing. This shows that it depends on the _______ of the words, not the _________.

different; similar; physical; utterance; physical stimulus

Repressed memories that have been recovered are not very reliable. The issue of _________ emerged after WWII. After battles, intelligence agents routinely recover piles (literally) of documents written in ___________.

document translation; foreign languages

How people act is shaped by how they ______ the situation and how they _________ the stimuli.

perceive; understand

Subvocalization produces a representation of the numbers in the __________. In other words, an auditory image is created in the "inner ear." This image will fade away after a second or two, but before it does, subvocalization can be used once again to create a new image.

phonological buffer

A passive storage device that serves as part of the articulatory rehearsal loop is called the _____________. It serves as part of the mechanisms ordinarily needed for hearing. In memory rehearsal, however, it is loaded by means of __________. Materials within this storage device fade, but can be refreshed by new covert speech under the control of the __________.

phonological buffer; subvocalization; central executive

In the case of H.M., in which his memory loss was the unanticipated by-product of brain surgery intended to control his epilepsy, he had no trouble remembering events _______ the surgery, but he seemed completely unable to recall any event that occurred _______ his operation.

prior to; after

The example of a child learning language, in which they "know" what "it" is when looking at a rabbit but we assume they know that it's a rabbit when they are really pointing at something "on" the rabbit, demonstrates the __________.

problem of reference

People make "sound-alike" errors in a span task, because they're relying on the _________, which involves a mechanism (the "inner ear") ordinarily used for actual hearing. In other words, the memory items are briefly _______ as (internal representations of) sounds.

rehearsal loop; stored

Imagine people are provided shapes and are asked to echo the sequence back by drawing what they have seen. If we choose shapes that are not easily named, then the shapes cannot be _________ via the inner-voice/inner-ear combination. With these stimuli, therefore, there should be no effect of ___________. If people aren't using the rehearsal loop, there should be no cost attached to denying them use of the loop.

rehearsed; concurrent articulation

H.M. sometimes commented on the fact that he didn't know who he was. In a certain sense, this demonstrated that without a memory, there is no _______.

self

Working memory is hypothesized to have a ______ capacity, and so, with _______ items held in this store, you will never have a problem locating just the item you want.

small; few

With concurrent articulation and visual presentation of the items, _________ errors are largely eliminated.

sound-alike

One way to measure working memory's capacity is via a __________. In this test, we read to someone a list of, say, four items, perhaps four letters ("A D G W"). The person has to report these back, immediately, in sequence. If she succeeds, we try it again with five letters ("Q D W U F"). If she can repeat these back correctly, we try six letters, and so on, until we find a list that the person cannot report back accurately. Generally, people start making errors with sequences of ____ or ____ letters. Most people's letter span, therefore, is about ______ or ______.

span test; seven, eight; seven; eight

Recent developments in brain-imaging technology tell us that when a participant is engaged in working-memory rehearsal, considerable activity is observed in brain areas that we know are crucially involved in the production of ______ language, as well as in areas that play an important role in the _______ of _______ language. This shows that the "inner voice" uses brain mechanisms that are ordinarily used for overt _______, and the "inner ear" uses brain mechanisms ordinarily used for actual _______.

spoken; perception; spoken; speech; hearing

To launch the rehearsal loop, you rely on the process of __________, or silent speech. The executive is required to initiate this silent speech, but then it can turn to other matters, and thats exactly what we want: The chore of holding onto the numbers is now carried by the "_______," not the executive.

subvocalization; inner voice

The rehearsal loop requires two elements, working in tandem: _________ (the "inner voice") and the __________ (the "inner ear")

subvocalization; phonological buffer

A problem with introspection is that the ________ of claims is often unattainable. For example, imagine that I insist my headaches are worse than yours. How could we ever test the claim? We're left with the fact that our only information about my headaches is what comes to us through the filter of my description, and we have no way to know how that filter is coloring the evidence. This is not acceptable with science. Instead, we need _______ observations, observations that aren't dependent on a particular point of view or a particular descriptive style.

testability; objective

Cognitive psychologists can study things that are NOT directly observable by the ___________. ________ believed that we can work backwards from observations to determine the cause.

transcendental method; Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant's ___________ can be used by first starting with the observable facts and then working backwards from these observations. One might ask, what must the underlying _______ be that led to these ______? This method is sometimes called "_____________" and is sometimes used to study objects or events that cannot be observed directly.

transcendental method; causes; effects; inference to best explanation

Psychologists gradually became disenchanted with introspection, because researchers realized that some thoughts are ___________, and followed from the fact that introspection is the study of _______ experiences so it can tell us nothing about _________ events.

unconscious; conscious; unconscious

The memory you use for information you are actively working on is called ____________. This type of memory holds information in an easily accessible form, so that the information is instantly available when you need it.

working memory

Baddeley and Hitch proposed a model that stipulated that working memory is not a single entity. Instead, working memory has several different parts, and so they prefer to speak of a __________. At the heart of the system is the _________. This is the part that runs the show, does the real work, and is helped out by a number of low-level "assistants." These assistants are not at all sophisticated; and so, if you need to analyze or interpret some information, the assistants can't do it--the _______ is needed for that. What the assistants can do, however, is provide _______.

working-memory system; central executive; executive; storage