Cognitive Psychology (PSYC 4455) - Study Guide for Exam 3 Final Exam
Which of the following is true regarding {Taking regularities of the environment into account}?
-Based on experiences, we know that {light comes from above} which affects our perception of a textured surface (e.g., protruding or indented). -Oblique effect supports the account by showing that we are more sensitive to regularities of the environment.
Which of the following was introduced as an underlying mechanism of perception?
-Bayesian inference -Helmholtz likelihood principle -Taking regularities into account -Gestalt principles of organization
Which of the following phenomena cannot be explained by behaviorism?
-Cognitive map -Language learning (e.g., Mom I hate you!, Don't giggle me!, I helded the ball.) -Aha experience or insight learning -Observational learning
According to the textbook and the video regarding introspection, which of the following is true regarding introspection?
-It has a low validity (subjective and hard to verify what the subject is reporting). -It has a low reliability (subjects may report various experiences regarding the same stimulus). -It requires intensive training (repeated request on focusing on current experience). -It triggered behaviorism
Neural mind reading involves
-Measuring brain activation patterns while showing various stimuli to participant and identifying specific brain activation pattern associated with each stimulus. -Asking the participant imagine one of the stimuli she had seen while measuring her brain activation pattern. -Comparing the brain activation pattern during the imagination to the pre-identified brain patterns associated with each stimulus in order to guess what the participant is imagining.
supports the idea that experience changes the brain (experience-dependent plasticity).
-Oblique effect -A cat's lack of sensitivity to vertical lines after being reared in a horizontal-line-only environment -Increased FFA response to Greebles after extensive name-matching training on Greebles
Treisman modified Broadbent's early selection model (the Bottleneck Model) because __________.
-Participants recognized their own names released from the unattended ear -Of the Dear Aunt Jane experiment
According to Anne Treisman's Feature Integration Theory, ________
-Perception goes through the pre-attentive stage followed by focused attention stage. -During the pre-attentive stage, features are free floating. -During the focused attention stage, features are combined with the help of attention (attention plays a role as a glue to combine features from an object) -We can find physiological evidence supporting the theory from Balint's syndrome patients.
Which of the following demonstrates the top-down processing?
-Phonemic restoration effect: filling in the missing phoneme based on the context -An image presented before an ambiguous image (young-lady-old-lady, duck-or-rabbit) affects how the ambiguous image is interpreted -The fate of ink blob demonstration: the same ink-blob is recognized differently depending on the context
Which of the following was(were) the suggestion(s) for being creative?
-Put more (not less) restrictions on how to solve the problem -Take a break after a deep work on the problem
Jay's problem was to make a large amount of money for a down-payment. He approached the problem by _____.
-Restructuring the representation of the problem (not a matter of saving, but a matter of making extra income) -Getting out of the mental set (you can get paid only after the work à you can get paid before the work) and functional fixedness (psychological knowledge and skills are for only classes and research à they can be used for something else) -Using analogical problem solving (a novelist who received money before he wrote novels)
According to the cognitive interview technique, we should let eyewitness _____________.
-Talk with minimal interruption / feedback -Recreate the situation/emotion that they had at the crime scene
According to Schneider and Shiffrin (1977) who studied divided attention using an experimental paradigm in which the target frame is followed by a rapid sequence of frames with or without the target, _______________.
-The experimental paradigm required divided attention between the target to be remembered and the test frames to be monitored. -With much practice, a task could become automatic and participants could report the feeling of automaticity, meaning that the process occurred without intention and used only few of the cognitive resources. -When the task was too hard, participants never reported the feeling of "automaticity."
Phonemic restoration effect is most similar to ____
-Vanishing head illusion, especially perceiving a continuous black bar -Perceiving a complete X although the X has a hole in the middle
Which of the following is a correct description of the coding in short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM)?
-Visual coding is for image, auditory coding is for sound, and the semantic coding is for category or meaning. -Both STM and LTM use visual, auditory, and semantic coding. -Auditory coding is more dominant in short term memory and semantic coding is more dominant in long term memory.
According to Peterson and Peterson, we lose the information in the short-term memory in about __________ second(s).
18-20
Here's the Wason four-card problem with the following rule, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Suppose you are presented with four cards as follows: [A, 2, M, 13], each showing one side of each of the four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing _____________.
A and 13.
Which of the following is a good example of the distinction between sensation and perception?
A patient with visual agnosia who sees something but does not know what it is.
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take the longest to verify which statement below (contrary to the actual response time of participants)?
A pig is an animal.
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the results from eyewitness-testimony experiments?
All of the above . -More than half of the time, viewers of a crime scene tend to pick someone from a line-up as a perpetrator even when the line-up does not include the real perpetrator. -Eyewitness tends to pick a familiar face from the line-up as a perpetrator. -Eyewitness' confidence on their own testimony is affected by the type of feedback they received from the investigator.
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the flashbulb memories?
All the above. -Flashbulb memories were originally considered as photographic memories that do not alter. -People often make source monitoring errors and believe that they learned about the flashbulb-memory-events from TV even though that was not how they had learnt the news. -People show higher confidence in recalling flashbulb memories than the memories of everyday events. -Flashbulb memories are not necessarily more accurate than the memories of everyday events.
Applying a solution from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem-solving situation is the most related to ________.
Analogy (analogical transfer).
Because of the ___________, we are more likely to overestimate the risk of pregnancy than the risk of asthma.
Availability (of specific cases) heuristic
Considering that the members of the dot pattern A and B in Posner's experiment were generated by moving seed patterns of A and B a little, the answer of the above question suggests that participants __________.
Averaged dots of pattern A and B, respectively.
In the semantic network approach, the cognitive economy refers to ____________.
Avoidance of repetitive assignment of category-specific characteristics to individual members of the category
Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ________ in which feedback adjusts the weights
Back propagation
According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience and is often used to name objects.
Basic
Which of the following represents the basic level item? (Make sure to read all the alternatives)
Basic level is dependent on an individual's knowledge and experiences
According to the class discussion, why Ebbinghaus used saving method (ratio of relearning time to the original learning time) as a measure of memory instead of the number of nonsense syllables he could explicitly remember?
Because not being able to recall study material does not necessarily mean not remembering anything about the study material (i.e., you do remember something but just cannot explicitly recall it).
Among the following statements, what are the two criticisms of the specificity coding? 1. A single neuron typically responds to just a single stimulus. 2. A single neuron typically responds to multiple stimuli. 3. There are too many kinds of stimuli that we can represent while the number of neurons are limited. 4. The number of neurons (100 billion) is greater than the number of objects that we can represent.
Both 2 and 3
Perception being affected by the sensation} corresponds to _______________ and {Sensations being consciously/unconsciously re-constructed based on person's knowledge, experience, expectations, and context} corresponds to ____________.
Bottom-up processing; top-down processing
Travis got a locker in gym class with the combination of 19-5-4. In order to remember it, he thinks of it as the year 1954. His method of remembering best illustrates:
Chunking
What is the primary difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning explains learning about two external events while operant conditioning explains learning about an agent's behavior and consequences
During class, you saw an image of a store in Korea with a Korean sign "스타벅스커피." Even though you don't know Korean, you knew it was an image of a Starbucks store (not Burger King). Which of the following is a correct description of the cognitive process underlying such a categorization process? You categorized the store as Starbucks by _______________.
Comparing the current image to the standard image you have about Starbucks.
Connectionist (network) approach and back propagation
Connectionism is an approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes. We will focus on connectionist models designed to represent concepts.
One of the key properties of the _________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network as if neurons work.
Connectionist
In order to demonstrate the double dissociation, we need to see that _______________.
Damage to one region of the brain causes a deficit on process A but not on process B Damage to another region causes a deficit on process B but not on process A
definitional approach to categorization works well for
Definitions work well for some things, such as geometric objects. Thus, defining a square as "a plane figure having four equal sides, with all internal angles the same" works
Based on the discussion of the what-pathway and where/action pathway, if your temporal lobe is damaged you would not be able to ________________. On the other hand, if your parietal lobe is damaged, you would not be able to _________________.
Discriminate two brand logos (e.g., Nike vs. Addidas); insert your key into a keyhole
According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have an administrator of the lineup procedure who _________ know whether or not the lineup has a real suspect/perpetrator while letting the eyewitness know that there _________ be the suspect.
Does not; may not
In the candle problem, subjects who were presented with ______ boxes were twice as likely to solve the problem as subjects who were presented with _______ boxes.
Empty; full
According to the class discussion, which of the following is a good example of practical application of the saving method?
Evaluating the efficiency of using flight-training simulator
According to Tolman, rats learn about the physical map of their environment (relative positions of things) _________________.
Even though the learning process has not been explicitly reinforced or punished
If you say that "Starbucks on the first floor of the Social Science building is my idea of a typical Starbucks," you are using the _____ approach to categorization.
Exemplar Exemplars are actual members of the category that a person has encountered in the past. Thus, if a person has encountered sparrows, robins, and blue jays in the past, each of these would be an exemplar for the category "birds."
In the first phase of Posner's dot pattern experiment, participants learn the dot-pattern A and B based on the __________. In the second phase, when they see old (the same dot patterns from the first phase) and new dot patterns, they tend to recognize the seed pattern of A and B as _____.
Feedback; old
Specificity coding suggests that our mind represents a specific stimulus based on the _____________________.
Firing of a specifically tuned neuron toward the stimulus (e.g., grandma cell).
People favor one option over the other depending on how the two options are described even though the two options are essentially the same. Such phenomenon is called ____________.
Framing effect
Which of the following shows correct connection between brain areas and their functions?
Frontal lobe: Coordination of information received from all senses & decision making. Occipital lobe: vision Temporal lobe: hearing, taste, smell Parietal lobe: touch, temperature, pain
Intuitive decision-making process based on past experiences is called _______ which is _______.
Heuristic, not foolproof
Which of the following is NOT an example of semantic memory?
I remember not only when and where my last car accident happened but also remember that I was texting and my friends were in the same car talking about school and we were listening to our favorite music.
Watching a comedy film or receiving a basket of candy ________ the problem-solving performance while monetary reward improves the performance only if the task is _______.
Improves; easy
Which of the following will most likely cause the recency effect to disappear from the serial position curve?
Inserting the backward counting task for 30 seconds before recall
The Graf et al. experiment with Korsakoff syndrome patients and two control groups had two phases where the patients first performed the _________ and then _________ later.
Likability rating of 10 words; either surprise free-recall of the 10 words or word-fragment task.
Lydia is 48 years old, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?
Lydia is a housewife.
Peterson and Peterson observed that subjects' recall rate of the trigrams decreases as the delay increases (i.e., the longer the subjects count backwards). Based on this observation, Peterson and Peterson concluded that __________.
Memory decays as time goes
What is flashbulb memory?
Memory for circumstances surrounding shocking or highly charged important events.
When sentence A, The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books. is followed by sentence B, The flimsy shelf ________ under the weight of the books. People often fill in the blank with "collapsed". This demonstrates that ____________.
Memory is reconstructed based on previous / typical language usage
According to the typicality effect, members that are high in typicality (e.g., apple) are judged as being a member of a group ___________ than members that are low in typicality (e.g., pomegranate)
More rapidly
According to the experiment that involves emotional and neutral picture surrounded by color frames, people are ______ confident to recognize emotional pictures than to recognize neutral pictures, but their memory for the frame color is ________ accurate for the emotional pictures.
More; less
In order to measure the capacity of working memory, _______ task is typically used.
N-back
John B. Watson used classical conditioning (loud noise associated with a certain kind of stimulus) to explain __________________.
Negative emotional response to a certain specific stimuli
People tend to overestimate _______________________.
Negative feelings following a bad decision/consequence more so than positive feelings following a good decision/consequence.
Functional fixedness would be LOWEST (i.e., less functional fixedness) for a(n) _____________.
New and unfamiliar object.
According to the PowerPoint about dual-tasking, what is the primary cause of the dual-task cost?
Not being able to make two decisions regarding two stimuli at the same time.
The choice reaction time is _________ longer than simple reaction time, suggesting that we need that amount of time to _________.
One-tenth of a second; make a simple decision
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the effect of emotion on memory?
People are less confident with remembering emotional events.
According to the Nerve net theory which was proposed before Golgi and Cajal, neuronal network was believed to be a __________ network.
Physically connected
As a supporting evidence of the cognitive hypothesis of the reminiscence bump, researchers found that people who immigrated at the age of 34-35 show a reminiscence bump that is ______.
Postponed comparing to those of people who immigrated at the age of 20-24
is the primary brain area of short-term memory.
Pre-frontal cortex
According to Bayesian inference, our final experience is determined based on ________ and __________.
Prior (initial belief); likelihood (current evidence)
Jill's friends tell her she has a really good memory. Therefore, she decides to test her memory. Jill receives a list of to-do tasks each day at work. Usually, she checks off each item as the day progresses, but this week, she is determined to memorize the to-do lists. On Monday, Jill is proud to find that she remembers 95 percent of the tasks without referring to the list. On Tuesday, her memory drops to 80 percent, and by Thursday, she is dismayed to see her performance has declined to 20 percent. Jill does not realize that she is demonstrating a natural mechanism of forgetting known as ________
Proactive interference.
Unlike the conclusion of Peterson and Peterson, Keppel and Underwood proposed _________ as an alternative explanation of forgetting. This account was proposed based on the observation that ____________.
Proactive interference; subjects could recall the trigram even after 18 seconds in the first trial
interference refers to that old information learnt previously interferes with learning/remembering new information, while __________ interference refers to that newly learned information interferes with remembering old information.
Proactive; Retroactive
Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?
Procedural memory Priming (e.g., the propaganda effect) Classical Conditioning
Broca's area is responsible for language __________ while Wernicke's area is responsible for language ___________.
Production; comprehension
Posner's dot pattern experiment was designed to demonstrate the ___________ in category-standard formation.
Prototype
Only 30% of subjects could solve the Duncker's radiation problem after _________. In contrast, 75% of subjects could solve the problem after __________.
Reading the fortress story; being nudged to apply the fortress story to solve the radiation problem
Which of the following involves procedural memory?
Reading the words on this test
Wickens et al. (1976) observed that if the category of words suddenly changed, then the memory accuracy, which was decreasing as trial goes, suddenly increases. They called it _______.
Release from PI (proactive interference)
The claim in Q2 (primacy effect is associated with a certain specific kind of memory) was supported by the finding that __________.
Repeating-words-out-loud during intervals between words showed that the number of repetition of each word corresponded well to the memory performance for the first few words
Tom is masculine, wears training pants, and regularly goes to a gym. If we judge the probability that Tom is a professional bodybuilder to be quite high because the description resembles our stereotype of a professional bodybuilder, we are using the __________________.
Representativeness heuristic.
Rosh's Experiment using color words and patches *Figure 9.6 participant task, results, and implication of the results
Rosch (1975b) demonstrated that prototypical members of a category are more affected by a priming stimulus than are nonprototypical members. The procedure for Rosch's experiment is shown in Figure 9.6. Subjects first heard the prime, which was the name of a color, such as "green." Two seconds later they saw a pair of colors side by side and indicated, by pressing a key as quickly as possible, whether the two colors were the same or different. The side-by-side colors that subjects saw after hearing the prime were paired in three different ways: (1) colors were the same and were good examples of the category (primary reds, blues, greens, etc.; Figure 9.6a); (2) colors were the same but were poor examples of the category (less rich versions of the good colors, such as light blue, light green, etc.; Figure 9.6b); (3) colors were different, with the two colors coming from different categories (for example, pairing red with blue; Figure 9.6c). The most important result occurred for the two "same" groups. In this condition, priming resulted in faster "same" judgments for the prototypical (good) colors (reaction time, RT = 610 ms) than for the nonprototypical (poor) colors (RT = 780 ms). Thus, when subjects heard the word green, they judged two patches of primary green as being the same more rapidly than two patches of light green.
H.M. underwent brain surgery (lobotomy) to relieve severe epileptic seizures. H.M.'s case has been extremely informative to psychologists by demonstrating that __________________, which is similar to Clive Wearing's (an old pianist) symptoms.
STM can operate (relatively) normally while LTM is impaired due to the damage of hippocampus.
The above finding in Q5 indicates _______ coding in the short-term memory.
Semantic
In the beginning of Ch 3, we learned that: {sensory receptors being stimulated by energies from environment} corresponds to ____________ and {the processing of sensory information by specialized areas of the brain, resulting in meaningful experiences} corresponds to ____________.
Sensation; perception
According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have ________ lineup and ________ in the lineup.
Serial; fillers (someone similar to the suspect/perpetrator)
Observations that people may actually process and manipulate information on a mental work table rather than simply storing it for brief periods of time challenged the conceptualization of ____
Short-term memory
According to the class discussion, as a car sales person, if you ask your customer about their idea of SUV, they tend to think of ______.
Specific SUVs they have some experience with
Localization of function in the brain suggests that ________________?
Specific functions are served by specific areas of the brain.
According to a video clip played in the class where a neuro surgeon operates a brain surgery, we can stimulate a person�s brain while he/she is awake so that we can map which brain area is responsible for which function.
TRUE
Cocktail party effect refers to ____
The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli.
Funahashi and colleagues (1989) claimed that some neurons in visual cortex are responsible for short-term memory based on the observation of the neurons are firing the most strongly during _____
The absence of the visual stimulus
Which problem provides an example of how restructuring the mental representation of a problem can facilitate problem solving?
The circle problem: determining the length of a line of a triangle inside a circle
The semantic network model (e.g., Collins and Quillians's Hierarchical model) predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information or answer a question should be determined by ______________.
The distance that must be traveled through the network.
exemplar approach
The exemplar approach to categorization, like the prototype approach, involves determining whether an object is similar to other objects. However, whereas the standard for the prototype approach is a single "average" member of the category, the standard for the exemplar approach involves many examples, each one called an exemplar.
The reason you see a trail of sparkler or smooth movement from a fast sequence of static images is because __
The iconic memory keeps old visual information temporarily until new visual information comes
prototype approach to categorization ( starbucks example)
The idea that we decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether it is similar to a standard representation of the category, called a prototype. Ex: form a standard representation of a category based on averaging category members encountered in the past. For example, you have the idea of Starbucks stores by averaging many Starbucks stores you have visited.
The primary principle of cognitive psychology is that _________________.
The mind cannot be measured directly (e.g., based on subjective reporting), therefore must be inferred from observable behavior.
Criticism of Collins and Quillian's model
They pointed out that the theory couldn't explain the typicality effect, in which reaction times for statements about an object are faster for more typical members of a category than for less typical members (see page 250; Rips et al., 1973). Thus, the statement "A canary is a bird" is verified more quickly than "An ostrich is a bird," but the model predicts equally fast reaction times because "canary" and "ostrich" are both one node away from "bird. Researchers also questioned the concept of cognitive economy because of evidence that people may, in fact, store specific properties of concepts (like "has wings" for "canary") right at the node for that concept (Conrad, 1972).
According to the class discussion, which of the following is an example of practical application of introspection?
Think-aloud testing in user experience (UX) design (especially, usability testing)
In Peterson-Peterson task, subjects receive trigrams (e.g., JKH) followed by a number from which they need to do the backward counting. What is the purpose of the backward counting?
To prevent subjects from rehearsing the trigram
According to McKay who proposed the late selection model based on the experiment where he released either "river" or "money" along with "They were throwing stones at the bank," unattended information can be processed fully (i.e., their meanings can be processed) without attention.
True
Graf and colleagues picked the 10 words for the likability rating so that they help the word-fragment task.
True
Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder problem solving?
Two-string problem
Lucky contestants of the deal-no-deal tend to accept a banker's offer early while unlucky contestants tend to keep playing. This is because ____________
Unlucky contestants want to avoid the negative feeling of being a loser and take more risks in the hope of beating the odds.
According to the class discussion, which of the following is a good example of the practical application of mental chronometry?
Using GOMS model to evaluate the efficiency of NYNEX phone company's new work station
Which of the following provides the best illustration of functional fixedness?
Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice.
During class, which of the following was used to demonstrate the distinction between bottom-up and top-down processing?
Vanishing head illusion (not seeing a head, but seeing the whole black bar)
According to class discussion regarding the online experiment of simple- vs. choice-reaction time task, experimenters need to ________ temporal interval between trials so that _______________.
Vary: participants cannot predict when the target would appear
The rate of the action potential is ______________, ____________ the strength of the stimulation.
Varying; depending on
If you hear "red", then, it primes ______, which is an example of _______.
Vivid red; typicality effect
The defining characteristic of implicit memory is that ______________.
We are not consciously aware of the fact we have them and under the influence of them.
Imagine that your grandfather speaks fluently but what he says does not make sense and he does not seem to understand what you had ask although he continuously speaks. Also, he does not recognize people he used to know. Then, the following brain areas might have been damaged.
Wernike; Fusiform face area (FFA)
Graf and colleagues used Korsakoff syndrome patients so that ___________.
although the patients cannot explicitly remember the 10 words from the likability rating task, they can perform well in the word-fragment test with the help of the implicit memory of the 10 words that are related to the word-fragment task.
When the option is stated in terms of gains, people tend to _____ risks; When the option is stated in terms of losses, people tends to ______ risks.
avoid; take
back propagation
back propagation (since the signals are being sent backward in the network starting from the property units). The error signals that are sent back to the hidden units and the representation units provide information about how the connection weights should be adjusted so that the correct property units will be activated.
The water-jug problem demonstrates that when we have a well-learned procedure that solves a problem from the past, then it may prevent us from __________________________.
being able to find more efficient solutions for similar problems
At the High museum, you appreciate the incredible beauty of paintings displayed on the wall. Your ability to see each painting as a complete picture rather than individual, disconnected features such as color, texture, and location is because of a process called
binding
Sperling devised the partial report condition for measuring the ________, while devised the delayed partial report condition for measuring the _________ of the ________ memory.
capacity, duration, sensory
Brenda is watching a political debate. When her preferred candidate gets up to speak, she nods her head when he makes points with which she agrees. When he is saying things that she does not support, however, she simply turns away and talks to her roommate. Brenda's tendency to seek out information that is consistent with her beliefs is called the ____________.
confirmation bias
Bartlett's experiment in which English participants were asked to recall the "War of the Ghosts" story that was based on Canadian Indian culture demonstrated the constructive nature of memory. Specifically, it demonstrated that memory is altered based on one's
cultural background.
The definitional approach to categorization doesnt work well for
doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.
Golgi method stains ______ of the neurons to which the staining method was applied.
few (1%)
Murdoch's experiment from which the serial position curve was reported showed that memory is best for the ______ of a list.
first few and the last few words
You look at a rope coiled on a beach and are able to perceive it as a single strand because of the principle of __________.
good continuation
Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the underlying structure is as simple as possible" refers to which Gestalt law?
good figure / simplicity / pragnanz
For a non-insight problem, warmth feeling (i.e., how close you are to the solution) ______________; For an insight problem, it _____________ prior to the solution
gradually rises; rises suddenly just
Cajal applied Golgi stain method to ____________ animal brains that have _______ density of cells, so that he can easily see the neuronal structure.
infant; low
Your text describes an "Italian woman" who, after an attack of encephalitis, had difficulty remembering people or facts she knew before. She could, however, remember her life events and daily tasks. Her memory behavior reflects ____________________.
intact episodic memory but impaired semantic memory.
According to the split-brain online experiment, an object image presented in the ______ visual field goes to the ______ hemisphere and the split-brain patient _________
left; right; cannot verball identify the object but can grab the object without understanding why he grabbed it.
According to the class discussion regarding the online experiment of simple- vs. choice-reaction time task, we need the white placeholder at the target location to _______________.
let the participants know where the target would appear so that they can pay the attention to the potential target locations
Levels of categories and privileged level
levels of categories, is called a hierarchical organization. The research we will describe indicates that although it is possible to demonstrate that there is a basic level of categories with special psychological properties, the basic level may not be the same for everyone. We begin by describing Rosch's research, in which she introduced the idea of basic level categories.
The primacy effect (from the serial position curve experiment) is associated with memory.
long-term
Feature detectors refer to ______________.
neurons in the visual cortex that respond best to only specific orientations.
When the "abstract" version of the Wason four-card problem is compared to a "concrete" version of the problem (in which beer, soda, young boy, and old man are substituted for the letters and numbers), ____________________.
performance is better for the concrete task.
The application of a(n) _________ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer/soda" version of the Wason problem, because it encourages to use __________.
permission schema; falsification rule
To obtain an insight to solve a problem, Gestalt psychologists suggest that it is important to ___________.
restructure the mental representation of the problem
Semantic network model such as Collins and Quillians's Hierarchical model à distance traveled through network / cognitive economy
semantic network approach, proposes that concepts are arranged in networks. Putting aside any possible connection between the network and actual physiology, we can ask how accurately Collins and Quillian's model represents how concepts are organized in the mind. The beauty of the network's hierarchical organization, in which general concepts are at the top and specific ones at the bottom, is that it results in the testable prediction that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by the distance that must be traveled through the network. Thus, the model predicts that when using the sentence verification technique, in which subjects are asked to answer "yes" or "no" to statements about concepts (see Method: Sentence Verification Technique, page 250), it should take longer to answer "yes" to the statement "A canary is an animal" than to "A canary is a bird." This prediction follows from the fact, indicated by the dashed lines in Figure 9.12, that it is necessary to travel along two links to get from "canary" to "animal" but only one to get to "bird."
You are at a parade where there are a number of marching bands. You perceive the bands that are all in the same uniforms as being grouped together. The red uniforms are one band, the green uniforms another, and so forth. You have this perceptual experience because of the principle of _________.
similarity
The Stroop effect demonstrates
the difficulty of not performing a well-practiced or automatic task at the cost of an intended processing.
definitional approach to categorization
the idea that we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether the object meets the definition of the category
The strength of the action potential is ______________, ____________ the strength of the stimulation.
the same; regardless of
Loftus and Palmer's "car-crash films" experiment shows how a seemingly minor word change can produce a large change in eyewitness reporting (especially the estimated speed of the cars). In this study, the critical words were _______________.
"hit vs. smashed."
When a neuron is stimulated, the charge inside of the neuron rises to ____ mV due to the rush of positive sodium ions (Na+) into the cell body, which lasts about 1 millisecond.
(+)40
According to Edgar Adrian who studied pressure-sensitive receptors, when neurons are resting, the inside of the neuron�s cell body shows ________ mV relative to the outside.
(-)70
What are the two major characteristics of sensory memory in terms of its capacity and duration?
(Almost) Unlimited capacity, very short duration
In the experiment in which participants sat in a psychology-experiment office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of on memory.
(scene) schemas
