Combo with "Geology Ch 2" and 27 others
Wet igneous rock (rock that contains volatiles) melts at a lower temperature than does the dry version of that same rock.
True
Yellowstone National Park marks the end of a continental hot-spot track.
True
Every metamorphic rock has a parent rock. (T or F?)
True.
Contact Metamorphism
via heat, closer to magma, mineral changes ex) limestone to marble
3 V's of Volcanology
viscosity volatiles volume
Hotter magma is less...
viscous than cooler magma because heat breaks bonds allowing atoms to move easily
Which of the following volcanic features is NOT generally associated with basalt?
volcanic domes
What adds C14? (which we don't need more of in the atmosphere)
volcanic eruptions deforestation
hanging wall
wall rock above an inclined fault
footwall
wall rock beneath an inclined fault
Positive Feedback
warm to even warmer or cold to even colder ex) warmer temp melt more glacial ice, results in even warmer temperatures
Our Moon
was formed by the collision of Earth with a Mars-sized protoplanet
Uniformitarianism
was the foundation of geology and stated that the present is the key to the past
WIPP plant
waste isolation pilot plant carlsbad NM only US site for trans uranic waste 1/2 mile underground
The presence of _________________ in subduction zones lowers the melting temperature and viscosity of resulting magmas over subduction zones.
water
The probable source of Earth's oceans and atmosphere is:
water and atmosphere escaped from Earth's interior in volcanic eruptions
Unconfined aquifer
water can infiltrate easily, above the aquitard
Two distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula
Ture
Divergent
Two plates move apart relative to one another. In most cases, magma fills the space between the plates
transform plate boundaries
Two plates move horizontally past one another, • Transform faults: Horizontal slippage (no subduction, no seafloor spreading) • In the ocean, transform faults are associated with mid-ocean ridges. • At a mid-ocean ridge, no open gaps exist because new material derived from the underlying mantle fills the space as fast as it opens, forming new oceanic crust. The openings are linked by faults where the two plates slide past one another horizontally.
Potable
water safe to drink and taste good enough for people to want to drink it
Infiltration
water soaked into ground forces down due to gravity
Runoff
water that flows across the surface
What is meant by competence and capacity? What controls them?
water velocity controls these two factors. competence: largest particle size that water can carry capacity: the total amount of sediment that water can carry.
Convergent plate boundaries
Two plates move toward one another, usually one plate slides under the other types: Ocean to ocean, ocean to continent, continent to continent
sedimentary rock
Type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or plant and animal remains are pressed and cemented together.
u-shaped valleys
U EROSION
planktonic foraminifera
Unicellular organisms with a eukaryotic cell structure Good guide fossil
Smackover Limestone
Upper Jurassic
What happens as a wave approaches the shore?
wavelength decreases
Uranium enrichment
weapons- 90% power plant-3-5% **
Sedimentary Rock Process
weathering erosion deposition lithification
What is the main process by which soils form? a). Deposition of silt on a floodplain. b). Dinosaurs breaking up rocks with their tails. c). Deposition of silt by the wind. d). Weathering. e). Lakes.
Weathering.
Continental Drift
Wegener. supercontinent of pangea then it separated
higher velocity of water
what does a higher gradient in a stream mean?
Basin
what holds the sediment
measure of open space in rocks
what is porosity?
hot igneous material
what is the source of heat in most hot springs?
Original Horizontality
when first formed, sedimentary rock is horizontal
Fractional Crystallization
when freezing magma, some is taken or given during the process
Echinoids
Well documented five-point symmetrical Starfish Good guide fossils
Clay minerals and quartz are the most common minerals in clastic rocks because clays are common products of chemical weathering and quartz is very resistant to weathering.
What are the most common minerals in clastic rocks? why?
nitrogen
What is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere?
Magma or lava solidifies.
What process occurs at point A?
weathering, erosion, deposition
What three processes can occur at point B?
metamorphism (D) and melting (E)
What two processes can occur at point D and E?
compaction
When layers of sediment build up over time and press down on the layers beneath them.
Basalt forms when basaltic lava hardens; gabbro, the coarse-grained (intrusive) equivalent of basalt, forms when basaltic magma hardens.
Which igneous rock forms when basaltic lava hardens? What about when basaltic magma hardens?
igneous basalt
Which of the following forms partly as the result of surface processes? a. metamorphic slate b. igneous basalt c. magma d. intrusive granite
anthracite
Which of the following is NOT one of the three major types of rocks? a. anthracite b. igneous c. metamorphic d. sedimentary
melting
Which of the following would NOT be a major process in the formation of sedimentary rocks? a. internal heat b. the rock cycle c. erosion d. the sun
carbon dioxide
Which of the gases is more important meteorologically (that is, is more important in weather processes) than the others?
sandstone
Which rock is made of the smallest sediments? a. shale b. conglomerate c. breccia d. sandstone
Which national park in the United States is home to a large volcanic caldera formed through a very large explosive eruption 630,000 years ago?
Yellowstone
Which of the following locations is characterized by continental hot spot volcanism?
Yellowstone National Park region
A metamorphic rock will be denser and more compact than its sedimentary parent rock. It will also have a different composition. The layers in a sedimentary rock indicate different periods of deposition whereas the layers in a metamorphic rock are compositional layers.
Your friend shows you a rock with distinct layers. How can you and your friend determine if the rock is a sedimentary rock or a metamorphic rock?
oxbow
________ is an abandoned, cutoff, meander loop. U-shaped bend in the course of a river that has been cutoff.
gradient
________ is defined as the drop in elevation of the stream surface divided by the distance the water flows.
discharge
________ is the quantity of water flowing past a certain stream cross section per unit time.
capacity
________ is the total quantity of sediment carried by a river.
A convergent plate boundary is most likely associated with a(n):
a and b only
Which of the following is a major source of earthquakes associated with continental collisions? a). Thrust faults. b). Slip along the plate boundary. c). Earthquakes associated with the abundant volcanoes. d). All of these. e). a and b only
a and b only.
unconformity
a boundary between underlying and overlying rock strata, representing a significant break or gap in the geologic record; represents an interval of non-deposition or erosion, commonly accompanied by uplift.
Land Breeze
a breeze from the land that flows over the sea at night
Sea Breeze
a breeze from the sea that flows over the land during the day
burrow
a commonly tubular opening formed when creatures wiggle or tunnel into mud; can be filled with a different type of sediment to form a trace fossil.
strike-slip fault
a fault in which the relative movement is essentially horizontal, parallel to the strike of the fault surface
how much time passed from wondering whether the volcano was "waking up" to when it actually erupted?
a few weeks
A nonconformity is:
a gap in the geologic record bounded below by metamorphic or igneous rocks and bounded above by sedimentary rocks.
veins
a generally tabular accumulation of minerals that filled a fracture or other discontinuity in a rock; formed by precipitation of material from fluids, especially hydrothermal fluids.
shear zone
a generally tabular zone of rock that is more highly sheared and deformed than rocks outside the zone
rock cycle
a group of processes through which earth materials may pass as they are transformed from one rock type to another
concretions
a hard, compact accumulation of mineral matter in the pores of sedimentary or volcanic rocks; representing a concentration of constituents of the rock or cementing material.
megathrust
a huge thrust fault, representing the boundary between the subducted slab and overriding plate
What seismologicial even signaled the scientists that this maybe a "precursor to a historic event"?
a large earthquake signaling an explosion
What did Mt. Pinatubo do during the first "throat-cleaning" part of the eruption?
a large steam and ash eruption
lineation
a linear structure in a metamorphic rock
gneissic structure
a metamorphic foliation defined by a preferred orientation of crystals and generally by alternating lighter and darker colored bands representing varying percentages of different minerals
schistosity
a metamorphic foliation representing the parallel arrangement of mineral grains, especially mica in coarse-grained metamorphic rocks
What is a pyroclastic flow/nuee ardente?
a mix of gas and dust emitted by a volcano that is so dense that it hugs the ground.
Big Bang Theory
a model for the evolution of the universe in which a dense, hot state was followed by expansion, cooling and a less dense state
stromatolite
a mound or- column- shaped feature of concentrically laminated carbonate materials, generally in ancient sedimentary rocks, interpreted to have been constructed by microscopic algae; also modern, live examples
petrified wood
a piece of fossilized wood that has been replaced by silica and other material, preserving some of the original structure of the wood.
accretionary prism
a prism- or wedge-shaped, structurally complex zone of faults, folds, and mostly metamorphosed rocks that form along the upper parts of a subduction zone; material derived from sediment contributed by adjacent volcanoes or a continent, along with oceanic crust scraped off the down-going slab
force
a push or pull that causes, or tends to cause, change in the motion of a body.
thrust fault
a reverse fault that has a gentle dip
The sediment in this photographic most likely formed in:
a river
sedimentary rock
a rock composed of sediment ex. sandstone, limestone
Chrysotile
a sheet silicate whose habit would more likely resemble a stretched roll of wrapping paper (A kind of asbestos
Formation of the moon
a small planentoid collides with earth. the debris forms a ring which compacts into the moon
TRUE
a stream with a boulder-strewn bed would be more turbulent than one with a sandy bed.
the water table
a surface separating the saturated and unsaturated zones.
solar nebular theory
a theory for the evolution of the of the solar system from a rotating cloud of gas the inner and outer planets are different slow rotation of the sun the presence of the asteroid belt
A lahar is
a volcanic mud-and-debris flow that resembles fluid concrete.
Artesian Well
a well in which water rises because of pressure within the aquifer
Which of the following is a principle to interpret relative ages?
a younger rock can include pieces of an older rock
Distinctive rock sequences on South America terminate at the Atlantic Ocean but reappear on the continent of ____________. a. Africa b. Australia c. Europe d. North America
a. Africa
How is chloride different from chlorine? a. Chloride is chlorine's anion. b. Chloride has more protons than chlorine. c. Chloride has fewer protons than chlorine. d. A and B are correct. e. A and C are correct.
a. Chloride is chlorine's anion.
____________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of marble. a. Limestone b. Sandstone c. Shale d. Slate
a. Limestone
Which earthquake intensity scale assesses the effects of an earthquake on humans and human-made structures? a. Mercalli scale b. Richter scale c. seismic-moment magnitude scale
a. Mercalli scale
Glacial till is composed of ____________ sized particles. a. clay- to boulder- b. mostly boulder- c. mostly clay- d. mostly sand-
a. clay- to boulder-
As compared to aphanitic igneous rocks, phaneritic rocks are ____________. a. coarser grained b. finer grained c. more mafic d. more felsic
a. coarser grained
Trace amounts of impurity in a mineral can commonly produce significant differences in ____________ among individual crystals of this mineral. a. color b. specific gravity c. luster d. streak
a. color
Wegener proposed continental drift after he observed evidence from fossils, glacial deposits, and the fit of the continents that suggested all of the continents were once ____________. a. combined to form a supercontinent (he termed Pangaea) in the Late Paleozoic through the Mesozoic b. combined to form a supercontinent (he termed Rodinia) in the Proterozoic c. aligned east to west along the equator during the Late Mesozoic through the Cenozoic d. aligned north to south along the prime meridian during the Late Cenozoic
a. combined to form a supercontinent (he termed Pangaea) in the Late Paleozoic through the Mesozoic
As compared to the rocks that make up the crust, Earth as a whole is ____________. a. considerably more dense b. considerably less dense c. slightly less dense d. about the same density
a. considerably more dense
Consult the figure below. As compared to the amphibolite metamorphic facies, the greenschist facies ____________. a. consist of lower-grade rocks b. consist of higher-grade rocks c. is an identical temperature and pressure regime; greenschists and amphibolites bear different mineral assemblages only because of differences in protolith chemistry
a. consist of lower-grade rocks
Large, thick, nonvolcanic mountain belts, like the Himalayas, have features associated with ____________ plate boundaries. a. convergent b. divergent c. transform
a. convergent
The volcanoes of the Cascades Mountains are related to melting of rock associated with a ____________ plate boundary. a. convergent b. divergent c. transform
a. convergent
Medium- and deep-focus earthquakes occur along ____________. a. convergent-plate boundaries only b. divergent-plate boundaries only c. transform-plate boundaries only d. All of the above are correct.
a. convergent-plate boundaries only
As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, all fine-grained igneous rocks ____________. a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temperatures d. solidify at lower temperatures
a. cool and solidify more quickly
Which layer of the Earth has the greatest density? a. core b. mantle c. crust
a. core
The lithosphere is composed of the ____________. a. crust and the uppermost part of the mantle b. crust only c. crust, mantle, and outer core d. top 100 m of sediments and sedimentary rocks
a. crust and the uppermost part of the mantle
From left to right, correctly label each section of this slice of the Earth. a. crust, upper mantle, transition zone, lower mantle, liquid outer core, solid inner core b. transition zone, crust, liquid outer core, solid inner core, upper mantle, lower mantle c. transition zone, crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, liquid outer core, solid inner core d. crust, liquid outer core, transition zone, solid inner core, upper mantle, lower mantle
a. crust, upper mantle, transition zone, lower mantle, liquid outer core, solid inner core
A buried body of aragonitic limestone is recrystallized at low temperatures and pressures, producing calcite; this is an example of ____________. a. diagenesis b. erosion c. metamorphism d. weathering
a. diagenesis
Normal, reverse, and thrust are all examples of ____________ faults. a. dip-slip b. strike-slip c. oblique-slip
a. dip-slip
Under the theory of plate tectonics, the plates themselves are ____________. a. discrete pieces of lithosphere at the surface of the solid Earth that move with respect to one another b. composed only of continental rocks that plow through the weaker oceanic rocks c. very thick (approximately one-quarter of Earth's radius) d. discrete layers of lithosphere that are vertically stacked one atop the other
a. discrete pieces of lithosphere at the surface of the solid Earth that move with respect to one another
The apparent polar wander path obtained from magnetite crystals in basalts on the North American continent is now interpreted to be the result of ____________. a. drifting of the North American continent b. wandering of the geomagnetic North Pole
a. drifting of the North American continent
At transform plate boundaries ____________. a. earthquakes are common but volcanoes are absent b. volcanoes are common but earthquakes do not occur c. both earthquakes and volcanoes are common
a. earthquakes are common but volcanoes are absent
The point on Earth's surface directly above the point where an earthquake occurs is termed the ____________. a. epicenter b. eye of the fault c. hypocenter (focus) d. vertex
a. epicenter
A joint always occurs as a single, isolated plane within a rock. a. false b. true
a. false
All discovered faults are likely to experience earthquakes in the next few hundred years. a. false b. true
a. false
All portions of the mid-ocean ridge system have a well-defined axial trough (central rift). a. false b. true
a. false
An average everyday compass depicts inclination. a. false b. true
a. false
It is not the continents that move relative to a fixed pole, but rather it is the pole that moves relative to fixed continents. a. false b. true
a. false
Motion along all faults is either strike slip or dip slip; combinations of these two types of displacement are never found together in a single fault. a. false b. true
a. false
Mountain ranges are important sites for the formation of igneous and metamorphic rocks, but do not have any apparent relationship with the formation of sedimentary rocks. a. false b. true
a. false
Nearly all of the present mountain ranges are the products of single orogenic events. a. false b. true
a. false
Tectonic foliation, such as elongation of quartz grains, always occurs parallel to the original bedding plane of a body of rock. a. false b. true
a. false
The only igneous rocks produced at the mid-ocean ridges consist of basalt. a. false b. true
a. false
Virtually all of the deaths attributed to major earthquakes have resulted from the collapse of buildings. a. false b. true
a. false
Which type of magma has the greatest silica content? a. felsic b. intermediate c. mafic d. ultramafic
a. felsic
Large igneous provinces are formed by ___________, which can flow tens to hundreds of kilometers. a. flood basalts b. sills c. super plumes d. None of the above are correct.
a. flood basalts
Earth's magnetic field is generated by the ____________. a. flow of the liquid outer core b. magnetic minerals within the crust c. convective flow of the mantle d. flow of the liquid inner core
a. flow of the liquid outer core
Beneath a blanket of sediments, oceanic crust is primarily composed of two rocks, ____________ and ____________. a. gabbro; basalt b. granite; diorite c. sandstone; shale d. slate; gneiss
a. gabbro; basalt
Clastic sedimentary rocks are primarily classified on the basis of ____________. a. grain size b. degree of sorting c. angularity d. mineral composition
a. grain size
The central portion of high curvature on a fold is termed the fold ____________. a. hinge b. thorax c. limb d. midsection
a. hinge
Hawaii is an example of ____________. a. hot-spot volcanism b. volcanic island arc c. transform margin d. mid-ocean ridge volcanism
a. hot-spot volcanism
Two types of bonds that depend upon polarity are ____________ and ____________. a. hydrogen bonds; van der Waals bonds b. ionic bonds; covalent bonds c. hydrogen bonds; metallic bonds d. ionic bonds; van der Waals bonds
a. hydrogen bonds; van der Waals bonds
Which transport medium carries the largest particles? a. ice b. water c. wind
a. ice
Thermal (contact) metamorphism occurs ____________. a. in areas surrounding igneous intrusions b. only where gneiss is in contact with schist c. as a consequence of the sinking of a broad region to great depth d. only at the surface, where rock is in contact with the atmosphere
a. in areas surrounding igneous intrusions
If a body of magma becomes more felsic, its viscosity will ____________. a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same
a. increase
The densest layer of Earth is the ____________. a. inner core b. outer core c. mantle d. crust
a. inner core
When magma crystallizes, ____________ are formed. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. extrusive igneous rocks c. volatiles d. pyroclastic debris
a. intrusive igneous rocks
The Moho ____________. a. is found deeper underneath continents than under oceans b. lies at uniform depth everywhere it is found in Earth c. is found well below the crust/mantle boundary d. is found deeper underneath oceans than under continents
a. is found deeper underneath continents than under oceans
Diamonds are usually found in pipes 50 to 200 m across made of _____________. a. kimberlite b. graphite c. metamorphic rocks
a. kimberlite
In the map below, the vertical, north-south trending fault is a ____________ fault. a. left-lateral strike-slip b. normal dip-slip c. right-lateral strike-slip d. reverse dip-slip
a. left-lateral strike-slip
The sides of a fold, where curvature is at a minimum, are termed ____________. a. limbs b. hinges c. axial planes d. branches
a. limbs
Sandy substrate is susceptible to ____________ during an earthquake. a. liquifaction b. displacement c. collapse d. faulting
a. liquifaction
If you were using both a compass and a map marked with latitude and longitude to navigate, you might note the angle difference between your compass and what is marked on the map, called _____________. a. magnetic declination b. magnetic inclination c. magnetic reversal d. magnetic dipole
a. magnetic declination
What mineral is integral to paleomagnestim? a. magnetite b. potassium feldspar c. iron d. quartz
a. magnetite
People have speculated about Earth's interior since ancient times. The astronomer Nevil Maskelyne estimated Earth's ____________ in 1776, whereas the author Jules Verne described the interior of the Earth as a series of interconnected ____________ in 1864 and the physicist Emil Weichert determined that Earth's interior must contain ____________ in 1896. a. mass; caverns; metal b. weight; caverns; metal c. weight; dungeons; rocks d. circumference; dungeons; rocks
a. mass; caverns; metal
A great boost in sea-floor exploration and a greater understanding of sea-floor bathymetry was a result of _______________. a. military needs in World War II b. military needs in World War I c. scientific advances in the 1920s d. scientific advances in the 1950s
a. military needs in World War II
At a divergent plate boundary (shown below), two opposed plates ____________. a. move away from one another b. move toward one another c. slide past one another
a. move away from one another
Magma tends to _____________. a. move upward, away from where it formed b. move downward, away from where it formed c. move laterally d. stay in one place
a. move upward, away from where it formed
Squashing a fly with a flyswatter is an application of ____________. a. normal stress b. shear stress
a. normal stress
In Bowen's discontinuous reaction series, the first mineral to crystallize from a mafic melt is ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz
a. olivine
Continental coastlines that occur within the interior of a tectonic plate are called ____________. a. passive margins b. inert margins c. active margins d. internal margins
a. passive margins
Stoping by magmas occurs when ____________. a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated b. the magma stops flowing and starts to solidify c. the magma becomes fully solidified to form intrusive rock d. the magma alters a thin rind of surrounding country rock
a. pieces of surrounding country rock are broken off and assimilated
Hot-spot tracks result from moving _____________. a. plates b. asthenosphere c. mantle plumes d. hot spots
a. plates
An igneous rock with a mixed texture of coarse grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by fine crystals (groundmass) is termed ____________. a. porphyritic b. phaneritic c. aphanitic d. necrotic
a. porphyritic
Which of the following minerals is hardest? a. quartz b. calcite c. talc d. fluorite
a. quartz
If, during an earthquake, a hanging wall slides upward relative to a footwall, the fault is termed ____________ if the fault is steep (closer to vertical than horizontal). a. reverse b. thrust c. strike slip d. normal
a. reverse
A well-sorted sandstone with asymmetric ripples was most likely deposited as sand by a ____________. a. river b. glacier c. beach d. alluvial fan
a. river
Dynamothermal (regional) metamorphism occurs when ____________. a. rock becomes buried deeply during continental collision and mountain building b. regression of the sea leads to erosion of sedimentary cover atop a body of rock c. the upper surface of a body of rock develops a thick soil profile d. a pluton causes metamorphism in a small surrounding region
a. rock becomes buried deeply during continental collision and mountain building
Which earthquake severity scale takes into account the type of rock that has been fractured? Select one: a. seismic-moment magnitude scale b. Mercalli scale c. Richter scale
a. seismic-moment magnitude scale
Siltstone or mudstone containing marine fossils likely formed in a ___________ environment. a. shallow-marine b. deep-marine c. marine-delta d. coastal-beach
a. shallow-marine
A sill is a (an)____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock
A body of rock affected by compressive stress will likely undergo ____________. a. shortening b. stretching c. shear strain
a. shortening
The most abundant minerals belong to chemical group termed the ____________. a. silicates b. carbonates c. halides d. oxides
a. silicates
A polished surface produced by scraping of rock along a fault is termed a (an) ____________. a. slickenside b. phylogeny c. orogeny d. aureole
a. slickenside
At a transform plate boundary (shown below), two opposed plates ____________. a. slide past one another b. move toward one another c. move away from one another
a. slide past one another
Periods of intermittent sliding on a fault as a result of the release of stress during episodes of displacement, followed by stress buildup to the point that the fault is reactivated is termed ____________. a. stick-slip behavior b. chaotic faulting c. reverse faulting d. thrust faulting
a. stick-slip behavior
Seismic retrofitting is the process of __________. a. strengthening existing buildings and structures b. mapping areas prone to earthquakes c. predicting earthquakes d. releasing energy
a. strengthening existing buildings and structures
Right lateral and left lateral are both examples of ____________ faults. a. strike-slip b. dip-slip c. oblique-slip
a. strike-slip
A fold shaped like an elongate trough is a (an) ____________. a. syncline b. basin c. dome d. anticline
a. syncline
The primary difference between lithospheric and asthenospheric mantle that gives rise to numerous divergent patterns of physical behavior, is ____________. a. temperature (the lithosphere is cooler than the asthenosphere) b. physical state (the lithosphere is solid; the asthenosphere is liquid) c. chemical composition (the lithosphere is mafic; the asthenosphere is felsic) d. chemical composition (the lithosphere is felsic; the asthenosphere is mafic)
a. temperature (the lithosphere is cooler than the asthenosphere)
An island volcanic arc occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Mt. St. Helens, Washington
a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska
The boundary between the crust and the mantle is marked by a seismic-velocity discontinuity called ____________. a. the Moho b. the Edsel c. Lyell's surface d. the crantle
a. the Moho
Stratification refers to ____________. a. the development of layering within sedimentary rocks b. the act of deposition of sediment that will ultimately form sedimentary rock c. physical and chemical alterations, including compaction and cementation, that occur as sediment is transformed into rock
a. the development of layering within sedimentary rocks
Asymmetric ripples are indicative of unidirectional flow, whereas symmetric ripples are indicative of flow in multiple directions. a. true b. false
a. true
In nature most examples of minerals do NOT grow as large, well-formed, euhedral crystals. a. true b. false
a. true
Meteorite impacts have been known to induce metamorphism of sediments and rocks. a. true b. false
a. true
Most fault surfaces, like joints, are roughly planar in orientation. a. true b. false
a. true
The number of lithospheric plates on the Earth has been variable through geologic time. Hundreds of millions of years ago, there were plates that no longer exist today. a. true b. false
a. true
Two different distinct minerals may have the same chemical formula. a. true b. false
a. true
Very early in Earth's history, it was so hot that the surface was likely entirely molten. a. true b. false
a. true
As compared to a slowly spreading mid-ocean ridge, a rapidly spreading ridge is ____________. a. wider b. more silicic in lava composition c. narrower
a. wider
Hot spots can occur ____________. a. within either continental or oceanic plates b. only within continental plates c. only when the thickness of the crust is less than 10 km d. only within oceanic plates
a. within either continental or oceanic plates
How did the size of the Mt. Pinatubo eruption compare to the mt.st helens eruption?
about 10x large than mt st helens
renewable energy advantages
abundant produce little pollution low maintenance safe
steps to the formation of a stony planet
accumulate into larger mass because of gravity. form a proto-planet. heats up and softens. gravity shapes the planet.
Archean is an eon that comes:
after hadean and before proterozic
relative age
age of a fossil, organism, rock, geologic feature, or event as defined relative to other geologic features or events.
Principle of original horizontality
all beds are originally horizontal, inclined beds are tilted after
Geology can help us learn about Earth's past by studying:
all of these
Which data were used to develop the hypothesis of continental drift?
all of these
Aphanetic
all small grains, but can be seen with magnification
unsaturated zone
also known as.. aeration or vadose
Richter Scale
amount of ground motion or shaking in area of the epicenter (10 fold increments)
The hardness of a miner is determined by
an ability to resist being scratched by other substances.
rock
an aggregate of one or more minerals (eg. limestone or granite) or a consolidated aggregate of rock fragments, as in conglomerate includes rock-like materials like coal and natural glass
parent atom (parent isotope)
an atom before it undergoes radioactive decay
Principle of cross-cutting relationships
an igneous rock, fault, or other geologic feature must be younger than any rock across which it cuts
an aquitard
an impermeable layer of rock that hinders water movement, clay.
aquitard
an impermeable layer that helps confine some aquifers between the unconfined aquifer and confined aquifer
mass spectrometer
an instrument used to measure the abundance of different atoms and isotopes in a material, such as a rock or mineral to be numerically dated.
nonconformity
ancient erosion surface in whic the older rocks below the unconformity are not layered.
disconformity
ancient erosion surface in which the bedding planes above and below the break are essentially parallel, but recording erosion or some other interruption in the deposition of layers.
angular unconformity
ancient erosion surface in which the older, underlying strata dip more steeply or at a different angle than the younger, overlying strata
shale
and mudstone = lithofied mud
mudstone
and shale = lithofied mud
Intermediate igneous volcanic rock is
andesite
Which of the following igneous rocks has the same chemical composition as a diorite?
andesite
Subduction zone volcanoes produce rock of dominantly _____ composition.
andesitic
stratovolcano (composite)
andesitic and rhyolitic basaltic volcanism
angular unconformity
angular relationship between older deformed sedimentary layer and younger less deformed layers
The unconformity along which tilted older seidmentary beds have been eroded off before deposition of horizontal sedimentary beds is called:
angular unconformity
Mineral formation
anhedral-grown in tight space, no crystal faces euhedral-grow in open space, good crystal faces
fractures
any cracks
fossils
any remains, trace, or implant of a plant or animal that has been preserved from some past geologic or prehistoric time
fossil
any remains, trace, or imprint of a plant or animal that has been preserved from some past geologic or prehistoric time.
metamorphic rock
any rock altered by high temps and pressure and the chemical activities of fluids ex. slate, gneiss, marble
igneous rock
any rock formed by cooling and crystallization of magma or by the accumulation and consolidation of pyroclastic materials such as ash
Principle of superposition
any vertical sequence of bed rocks, OLDEST ON BOTTOM, YOUNGEST ON TOP
Igneous rocks with crystals too small to be seen without a microscope are:
aphanitic
Proterozoic eon
aquatic plants
Pillow basalts
are formed in a submarine environment.
S Wave shadow zone
area on the other side of quake where S waves cannot be received because of liquid nature of outer core
seismic gaps
areas of active faults where no movement has been recently recorded are areas where stress is building up and the fault is locked by friction
How fast do tectonic plates move?
around 3 cm a year, a relatively quick speed would be 10 cm a year
Ventifacts
artifact made by the wind
Divergence at Mid-ocean Ridge
as two oceanic plates move apart. These boundaries are also called spreading centers due to the way the plates spread apart 1. A narrow trough, or rift, runs along the axis. The movement causes faulting 2. As the plates move apart, solid mantle in the asthenosphere rises toward the surface. The molten rock rises and accumulates in magma and eventually becomes part of the oceanic lithosphere. 3. Some magma gets onto the seafloor, These eruptions create new ocean crust. 4. Mid-ocean ridges are elevated above the surrounding seafloor. They are higher because underlying lithosphere in thinner beneath ridges than beneath typical seafloor. • Active or extinct spreading ridges • Earthquakes, volcanoes
The ___________ is the main source of magma for the production of igneous rocks.
asthenosphere
The main difference between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere is the:
asthenosphere is less rigid
Roche Moutonnee
asymmetrical, large, formed by plucking (looks like shark fin) -when asked will move towards the steep side EROSION
Lava is found _______, while magma occurs _______.
at Earth's surface; beneath the surface
Basil Slip
at the base a thin film of water allows the glacier to slip at a faster pace
crystalline structure
atoms are arranged in a specific order
Tectonic plates move at rates that are approximately ____________. a. 10 to 100 m/year b. 1 to 15 cm/year c. 1 to 5 cm every 1,000 years d. 1 to 15 m/year
b. 1 to 15 cm/year
Continental crust is typically 35-km thick, but may be up to ____________ thicker under mountain ranges. a. 200% b. 100% c. 50% d. 20%
b. 100%
The average thickness of continental lithosphere is about ____________. a. 60 km b. 150 km c. 30 km d. 10,000 km
b. 150 km
The Wadati-Benioff zone extends down within the mantle to a maximum depth of ____________. a. 990 km b. 670 km c. 30 km d. 150 km
b. 670 km
Which plant genus dominated glaciated regions during the Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic? a. Neuropteris b. Glossopteris c. Quercas d. Ginkgo
b. Glossopteris
On December 26, 2004, a magnitude 9 earthquake generated a tsunami that devastated coastlines on the ____________. a. Atlantic Ocean b. Indian Ocean c. Arctic Ocean d. Pacific Ocean
b. Indian Ocean
____________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of quartzite. a. Limestone b. Sandstone c. Shale d. Slate
b. Sandstone
______________ is an example of a continental rift and the ______________ is/are the result of collision. a. The Basin and Range Province; mid-ocean ridge b. The Basin and Range Province; Himalayan Mountains c. A mid-ocean ridge; Himalayan Mountains d. The San Andreas Fault; Himalayan Mountains
b. The Basin and Range Province; Himalayan Mountains
Which of these areas of the United States would you expect to have the highest occurance of seismic activity? a. Southeast b. West c. Central d. Northeast
b. West
The internal ordering of mineral crystals is detected using ____________. a. magnetic resonance imaging b. X-ray diffraction c. a scanning electron microscope (SEM) d. cathodized axial tomography
b. X-ray diffraction
Cleavage in minerals refers to ____________. a. a tendency to break in an irregular pattern b. a tendency to break along planes of weakness c. the sharpness of edges between crystal faces d. the development of distinct crystal faces
b. a tendency to break along planes of weakness
Earthquakes only occur ____________ the brittle/ductile transition depth. a. below b. above c. at or near
b. above
Within the sea floor, the rate of geothermal heat flow is greatest ____________. a. at the edges of ocean basins b. along mid-ocean ridges c. along fracture zones d. in the center of abyssal plains
b. along mid-ocean ridges
A mixture of copper and tin would be called ___________. a. a melt b. an alloy c. a volatile d. a metal
b. an alloy
A guyot is ____________. a. an extinct oceanic hot-spot volcano that has not yet subsided below sea level b. an extinct oceanic hot-spot volcano that has subsided below sea level c. any portion of the ocean floor that is topographically higher than surrounding sea floor d. synonymous with the term hot spot
b. an extinct oceanic hot-spot volcano that has subsided below sea level
A volcanic island arc forms when _______________. a. an oceanic plate subducts beneath continental lithosphere b. an oceanic plate subducts beneath another oceanic plate c. continental lithosphere subducts beneath an oceanic plate d. two oceanic plates collide
b. an oceanic plate subducts beneath another oceanic plate
Most commonly, felsic igneous rocks ____________. a. contain more iron and magnesium than intermediate rocks b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks c. are darker in color than mafic rocks d. are found in oceanic crust
b. are lighter in color than mafic rocks
Consult the figure below. The region of thermally metamorphosed rock surrounding a cooled pluton is called a (an) ____________. a. shear zone b. aureole c. oriole d. oleo
b. aureole
Beach sediments would travel ___________ the ocean during a transgression and ___________ the ocean during a regression. a. toward; away from b. away from; toward
b. away from; toward
Marble and quartzite are nonfoliated rocks because ____________. a. they are never found beneath fault zones or collisional mountain ranges b. both are dominated by minerals that produce equant grains c. both are dominated by minerals with crystalline structures that cannot be dissolved d. dynamothermal metamorphism can break down the structures of their constituent minerals, but neither of these minerals is stable in that metamorphic environment
b. both are dominated by minerals that produce equant grains
Faulting and earthquakes are examples of ____________. a. ductile behavior b. brittle behavior
b. brittle behavior
Biochemical limestones are dominated by carbonate mud and fragments of ____________. a. siliceous shells of planktonic diatoms and foraminifera b. calcitic and aragonitic skeletons of marine invertebrates c. the phosphatic bones of fish d. the organic breakdown products of wood from trees
b. calcitic and aragonitic skeletons of marine invertebrates
According to the figure below, the Earth's magnetic reversals are likely due to ______________. a. lightning strikes b. changes in circulation patterns in the outer core c. meteorite impacts d. changes in circulation patterns in the inner core
b. changes in circulation patterns in the outer core
Physical precipitation of gypsum due to evaporation of seawater produces which kind of sedimentary rock? a. biochemical b. chemical c. clastic d. organic
b. chemical
Minerals are classified into groups primarily on a basis of ____________. a. chemistry, specifically the cations within the chemical formula b. chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula c. hardness; hard, soft, and medium are the three primary classes d. number of cleavage directions present
b. chemistry, specifically the anions within the chemical formula
When two bodies of continental lithosphere are pulled together at a convergent boundary, the result is ____________. a. subduction b. collision and mountain formation
b. collision and mountain formation
A coiled spring would be useful in illustrating a ____________ wave. a. surface b. compressional c. shear d. body
b. compressional
Synthetically made glass and natural quartz crystals both exhibit a fracture pattern termed ____________. a. glassy b. conchoidal c. serpentine d. obtuse
b. conchoidal
Heat transfer that occurs through the movement of a fluid, driven by temperature differences among various points within the fluid, is termed ____________. a. adhesion b. convection c. conduction d. radiation
b. convection
Deep oceanic trenches are features of ____________ plate boundaries. a. transform b. convergent c. divergent
b. convergent
The lithosphere of the Earth is generally thickest at and near ____________ plate boundaries. a. divergent b. convergent c. transform
b. convergent
Slab pull occurs because subducting slabs are ____________. a. hotter, and therefore more dense, than surrounding asthenosphere b. cooler, and therefore more dense, than surrounding asthenosphere c. cooler, and therefore less dense, than surrounding asthenosphere d. less mafic, and therefore less dense, than surrounding asthenosphere
b. cooler, and therefore more dense, than surrounding asthenosphere
Consult the figure below. Distinct internal laminations that are inclined at an angle to the boundary of the main sedimentary layer are called ___________. a. graded beds b. cross beds c. horizontal beds
b. cross beds
In the formation of gneiss from granite, the distinctive compositional bands form due to ____________. a. crystals migrating within the rock b. crystals dissolving, and atoms and ions migrating and reorganizing as new crystals c. crystals melting, with new crystals solidifying in color bands d. the bizarre and seemingly unknowable nature of the blueschist metamorphic facies
b. crystals dissolving, and atoms and ions migrating and reorganizing as new crystals
If the volatile content of magma is increased, its viscosity will ____________. a. increase b. decrease c. stay the same
b. decrease
What effect would plants have on a sand dune environment? a. encourage sand movement b. deter sand movement c. Plants have no effect on a sand dune environment.
b. deter sand movement
The shape of Earth's magnetic field is approximately that of a ____________. a. monopole b. dipole (such as that produced by a bar magnet) c. torus, a donut-shaped ring parallel to Earth's equator
b. dipole (such as that produced by a bar magnet)
The quantity of offset that occurs along a fault is termed ____________. a. the fault gauge b. displacement c. accumulation d. fault gouge
b. displacement
Iceland is one of the few places in the world that is both above sea level and situated atop a ____________ plate boundary. a. convergent b. divergent c. transform
b. divergent
The lithosphere of the Earth is generally thinnest at and near ____________ plate boundaries. a. transform b. divergent c. convergent
b. divergent
Mid-ocean ridges are ____________. a. convergent plate boundaries b. divergent plate boundaries c. transform plate boundaries
b. divergent plate boundaries
When limestone becomes chemically altered so that half of the calcium atoms are replaced by magnesium, the resultant rock is termed ____________. a. agate b. dolostone c. jasper d. travertine
b. dolostone
On a geologic map, if the contacts between sedimentary rock units form a bull's-eye pattern of concentric circles, with the oldest unit in the center, the underlying structure is a (an) ____________. a. syncline b. dome c. basin d. anticline
b. dome
A body of rock under high pressure is more likely to exhibit ____________ than is a body of rock at low pressure. a. brittle behavior b. ductile behavior
b. ductile behavior
A hot body of rock is more likely to exhibit ____________ than is a cold body of rock. a. brittle behavior b. ductile behavior
b. ductile behavior
Which type of metamorphism affects the greatest volumes of rock? a. thermal metamorphism b. dynamothermal metamorphism c. dynamic metamorphism
b. dynamothermal metamorphism
Five trillion atoms can fit into the head of an atom. Which of the following is in the correct order of smallest to largest? a. atom, nucleus, proton, electron b. electron, proton, nucleus, atom c. proton, electron, nucleus, atom d. atom, electron, nucleus, proton
b. electron, proton, nucleus, atom
The removal of detritus from weathered rock at an outcrop is termed ____________. a. deposition b. erosion c. weathering
b. erosion
Pillow basalts, shown below, attain their distinctive blob-like shapes because their parent lavas do not travel far prior to solidification. This is because the parent lavas ____________. a. are completely devoid of volatiles and thus travel slowly b. erupt underwater and thus cool very quickly c. are highly felsic and thus travel slowly d. are ultramafic and thus freeze at exceptionally high temperatures
b. erupt underwater and thus cool very quickly
The diamonds we see today do not display their natural crystal faces, but rather ____________, a typical engagement ring bearing 57 of them. a. faces b. facets c. cleavage planes d. facades
b. facets
A compass today points directly to geographic north. a. true b. false
b. false
A single mineral may take on multiple crystalline lattice structures. a. true b. false
b. false
All lithospheric plates are approximately the same size and contain a combination of oceanic and continental crust. a. true b. false
b. false
All metamorphic rocks are formed within a fairly narrow range of temperature, approximately 400 to 600°C. a. true b. false
b. false
All minerals are chemical compounds (composed of more than one element). a. true b. false
b. false
All minerals are held together by ionic bonds. a. true b. false
b. false
All of the Earth's internal heat was acquired very early in its history through meteoric impact and differentiation of the core. The Earth's interior loses heat to space but does not currently receive heat through any known process. a. true b. false
b. false
Diamond and graphite are both polymorphs of pure silicon. a. true b. false
b. false
In a hot-spot volcanic island chain, such as the Hawaiian Islands, all islands possess active volcanoes simultaneously and therefore the risks of volcanic hazards are about the same for all islands. a. true b. false
b. false
It is rare for mineral crystals to display any sort of symmetry (invariance of pattern with respect to a transformation, such as rotation or mirror-image reflection). a. true b. false
b. false
Metamorphism brings changes in mineral arrangement and the texture of rocks, but it never leads to new mineral assemblages. a. true b. false
b. false
Mountain ranges are associated with modern and ancient convergent-plate boundaries, but do not form in association with either divergent- or transform-plate boundaries. a. true b. false
b. false
Sedimentary deposition is a continuous process: rivers, lakes, and the ocean deposit sediments nonstop at a fairly constant rate. a. true b. false
b. false
Similar sediment and depositional thickness can be found in all sedimentary basins. a. true b. false
b. false
Sliding motion along transform faults caused the segments of the mid-ocean ridges to become dislocated with respect to one another. a. true b. false
b. false
The most useful diagnostic property of minerals is their color in a hand sample. a. true b. false
b. false
Theoretically, there is no reason why mountains substantially taller than Mt. Everest might not one day arise on Earth. a. true b. false
b. false
Topaz, with Mohs hardness of 8, is twice as hard as fluorite, with Mohs hardness of 4. a. true b. false
b. false
Virtually all of the sediment atop a downgoing plate becomes subducted into the mantle along with the plate. a. true b. false
b. false
Wegener's evidence for a united Pangaea was so compelling that virtually all geologists agreed with the idea of continental drift during his lifetime. a. true b. false
b. false
Within a platform, sedimentary rocks always have a horizontal orientation. a. true b. false
b. false
Movement along faults often produces sharply angled rock fragments termed ____________. a. slickensides b. fault breccia c. fault gouge d. rock flour
b. fault breccia
The distinction between joints and faults is that ____________. a. faults are joints that are greater than one square meter in areal extent b. faults are fractures along which displacement has occurred; displacement does not occur along joints c. joints are fractures along which displacement has occurred; displacement does not occur along faults d. there is no distinction; the two terms are synonymous
b. faults are fractures along which displacement has occurred; displacement does not occur along joints
Slaty cleavage, schistosity, and compositional banding are all examples of ____________. a. mineral cleavage b. foliation c. recrystallization d. sedimentary structures
b. foliation
Minerals that do not possess cleavage are said to possess ____________. a. invulnerability b. fracture c. solidity d. massiveness
b. fracture
In which type of silicate are the greatest proportion of oxygen atoms shared by pairs of adjacent tetrahedra? a. chain silicates b. framework silicates c. sheet silicates d. Sharing of oxygen atoms does not occur in silicates.
b. framework silicates
The velocities of seismic waves traveling from earthquake foci ____________. a. monotonically increase with depth, at a consistent rate of acceleration b. generally increase with depth, occasionally making abrupt jumps termed seismic velocity discontinuities c. monotonically decrease with depth, at a consistent rate of deceleration d. are uniform throughout all layers of Earth
b. generally increase with depth, occasionally making abrupt jumps termed seismic velocity discontinuities
Vesicles are a term used to describe a texture in __________ igneous rocks. a. crystalline b. glassy c. pyroclastic
b. glassy
As compared to ultramafic rocks, mafic rocks have a ____________. a. lesser proportion of silica b. greater proportion of silica c. greater proportion of iron and magnesium atoms
b. greater proportion of silica
Volcanoes that have submerged beneath the surface of the sea are termed ____________. a. fracture zones b. guyots c. mid-ocean ridges d. continental rises
b. guyots
Short-term predictions of earthquake behavior ____________. a. are primarily based on the behavior patterns of farm animals b. have been largely unreliable c. are correct approximately 50% of the time d. have saved millions of lives in the past decade alone
b. have been largely unreliable
All basalts younger than 700,000 years old ____________. a. are found on the continents b. have normal magnetic polarity c. are found on the ocean floor very far from mid-ocean ridges d. have reverse magnetic polarity
b. have normal magnetic polarity
Consult the figure below. Hot water reacting with crust is the basis for what type of metamorphism? a. contact b. hydrothermal c. regional d. shock
b. hydrothermal
A body of gneiss is subjected to heat and forms a melt. Later the melt cools and crystallizes to form a (an) ____________. a. metamorphic rock b. igneous rock c. sedimentary rock
b. igneous rock
The age of oceanic crust ____________ with increasing distance from a mid-ocean ridge. a. decreases b. increases
b. increases
Consult the figure below. A mineral within a metamorphic rock that can be used to provide a narrow constraint on the temperature and pressure of formation of the rock is termed a (an) ____________. a. thermineral b. index mineral c. mafic mineral d. halide mineral
b. index mineral
In the whole Earth, the four most common elements are oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and ____________. a. copper b. iron c. lead d. zinc
b. iron
Unlike the lithosphere, the asthenosphere ____________. a. has a density similar to the core b. is able to flow over long periods of time c. is relatively cool d. varies in thickness from place to place
b. is able to flow over long periods of time
Compaction and cementation of grains occurs during ____________. a. erosion b. lithification c. transport d. weathering
b. lithification
A majority of the melts in the Earth form through the partial melting of ultramafic mantle rock. These newly formed magmas are ____________. a. ultramafic b. mafic c. felsic d. intermediate
b. mafic
Volcanoes that do NOT occur along either present or emergent plate boundaries are associated with ____________. a. continental rifts b. mantle hot spots c. mid-ocean ridges d. subduction zones
b. mantle hot spots
Swamps, channels, floodplains, and submarine slopes all play a role in the development of ____________. a. deltas b. marine deltas c. alluvial fans
b. marine deltas
Net chemical change in metamorphic rock induced by reaction with hot groundwater is termed ____________. a. foliation b. metasomatism c. anachronism
b. metasomatism
Marine magnetic anomaly belts run parallel to ____________. a. continental coastlines b. mid-ocean ridges c. continental shelves d. fracture zones
b. mid-ocean ridges
When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is ____________. a. more mafic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted c. identical to the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted d. completely unpredictable (it could be more mafic or more felsic)
b. more felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted
If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that results is expected to be ____________. a. identical in chemical composition to the magma b. more mafic than the magma c. more felsic than the magma
b. more mafic than the magma
At a convergent plate boundary (shown below), two opposed plates ____________. a. slide past one another b. move toward one another c. move away from one another
b. move toward one another
Shear stress at sufficient depth within a fault plane can induce ductile shear, forming a fine-grained metamorphic rock named ____________. a. migmatite b. mylonite c. gneiss d. ignimbrite
b. mylonite
Burial metamorphism produces ____________. a. foliated rocks only b. nonfoliated rocks only c. both foliated and nonfoliated rocks
b. nonfoliated rocks only
Thermal (contact) metamorphism produces ____________. a. foliated rocks only b. nonfoliated rocks only c. both foliated and nonfoliated rocks
b. nonfoliated rocks only
If, during an earthquake, a footwall slides upward relative to a hanging wall, the fault is termed ____________. a. reverse b. normal c. thrust d. strike slip
b. normal
Topographically, most of the ocean floor is made up of ____________. a. ocean trenches (5-12 km below sea level) b. ocean plains (2.5-4.5 km below sea level) c. submarine mountains (less than 2.5 km below sea level)
b. ocean plains (2.5-4.5 km below sea level)
The most recently formed portion of any crystal is always found ____________. a. deep within the interior b. on the outer edges
b. on the outer edges
Minerals utilized by humans as a source of metal are termed ____________. a. metallic minerals b. ore minerals c. source minerals
b. ore minerals
Hydrocarbons, such as petroleum and natural gas, are classified as ____________. a. minerals b. organic materials c. alloys d. fluid rocks
b. organic materials
The silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all the silicate minerals is composed of silicon and what other element? a. magnesium b. oxygen c. iron d. carbon
b. oxygen
Broad, sediment-covered continental shelves are found along ____________. a. active margins b. passive margins
b. passive margins
Bowen's continuous reaction series describes the crystallization behavior of a single mineral (with variable chemical composition), ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz
b. plagioclase
The silicate mineral that is found in the greatest variety of igneous rocks is ____________. a. olivine b. plagioclase c. pyroxene d. quartz
b. plagioclase
A blob-like igneous rock body that has cooled beneath the surface of Earth is ____________. a. guyot b. pluton c. lava flow d. andesite
b. pluton
Pegmatites, which occur in dikes, are unusual among shallow intrusive rocks in that they ____________. a. possess porphyritic texture b. possess exceptionally coarse grains c. are mineralogically identical to the extrusive rock basalt d. are glassy, cooling so rapidly that crystals do not have time to form
b. possess exceptionally coarse grains
The ____________ of new solid grains called _____________ results from oversaturated solutions. a. precipitate; precipitation b. precipitation; precipitate
b. precipitation; precipitate
Deformed (bent, stretched, or cracked) lithosphere occurs ____________. a. randomly over the surface of Earth b. primarily on the margins of tectonic plates c. primarily within the interiors of tectonic plates
b. primarily on the margins of tectonic plates
Surface waves ____________. a. are the first waves to arrive at a seismograph station after an earthquake b. produce most of the damage to buildings during earthquakes c. travel more rapidly than body waves d. are the first waves initially produced in an earthquake
b. produce most of the damage to buildings during earthquakes
The process of low-grade metamorphic rocks being altered to form high-grade metamorphic rocks is termed ____________ metamorphism. a. foliated b. prograde c. retrograde d. dynamic
b. prograde
Summed over the entire surface of Earth, ____________. a. the rate of lithospheric production at ridges is greater than the rate of lithospheric consumption at subduction zones b. rates of lithospheric production and consumption are equal c. the rate of lithospheric consumption at subduction zones is greater than the rate of lithospheric production at ridges
b. rates of lithospheric production and consumption are equal
If a geologist were to dig below the current beach and find offshore sediments underlain by beach and swamp deposits then he or she could conclude that ____________ has occurred. a. transgression b. regression
b. regression
In which of the following phenomenon are sediment records NOT preserved? a. transgression b. regression
b. regression
The mid-ocean ridges are elevated above the surrounding sea floor because ____________. a. the lithospheric plates are thickest at the ridges so they stand up taller b. ridge rocks are hot and therefore of relatively low density c. ridge rocks are mafic, whereas the ocean basin crust consists of ultramafic rock d. rising ocean currents leave a vacuum above the ridge
b. ridge rocks are hot and therefore of relatively low density
Consult the figure below. Marine magnetic anomaly belts are widest when and where ____________. a. sea-floor spreading rates are relatively slow b. sea-floor spreading rates are relatively rapid c. continents are joined to form supercontinents
b. sea-floor spreading rates are relatively rapid
Vertical motion seismographs record earthquakes through the production of a squiggly diagram called a ____________. a. wave sheet b. seismogram c. camera lucida d. pictogram
b. seismogram
A fine-grained clastic rock that splits into thin sheets is ____________. a. mudstone b. shale c. sandstone d. arkose
b. shale
Consult the figure below. Limestone is most likely formed in which of the following environments? a. shallow-marine clastic b. shallow-marine carbonate c. marine delta d. deep marine
b. shallow-marine carbonate
Consult the figure below. Spreading peanut butter on bread is an application of ____________. a. normal stress b. shear stress
b. shear stress
As lithosphere cools to the sides of a mid-ocean ridge, it begins to ____________. a. rise with respect to material located closer to the ridge axis b. sink with respect to material located closer to the ridge axis
b. sink with respect to material located closer to the ridge axis
An aurora (shown below) is produced when ____________. a. swamp gases rise upward from the arctic tundra b. solar wind particles are directed toward the poles and excite atmospheric gases c. radiation in the Van Allen belts can be seen on a clear, cold night d. lightning travels from cloud to cloud rather than cloud to ground
b. solar wind particles are directed toward the poles and excite atmospheric gases
Valleys and hillsides carved by glaciers are generally more ____________ in comparison to those produced by rivers and streams. a. shallow sided b. steep sided
b. steep sided
Change in shape, induced by stress, is termed ____________. a. metamorphosis b. strain c. plastic deformation d. pressure release
b. strain
Force per unit area is termed ____________. a. strain b. stress c. power d. work
b. stress
Which of the following is most representative of Earth's hydrosphere? a. lakes and rivers only b. surficial freshwater, the oceans, groundwater, and atmospheric water c. a layer of hydrogen gas in the outer reaches of the atmosphere d. the oceans, but not rivers or lakes
b. surficial freshwater, the oceans, groundwater, and atmospheric water
As compared with metamorphism, diagenesis ____________. a. means exactly the same thing b. takes place at lower temperatures and pressures c. takes place at higher temperatures and pressures d. takes place at greater depths that are well within the mantle
b. takes place at lower temperatures and pressures
The geotherm is the rate of change of ____________. a. pressure with depth in Earth's interior b. temperature with depth in Earth's interior c. temperature with altitude in Earth's atmosphere d. temperature with latitude on Earth's surface
b. temperature with depth in Earth's interior
A continental volcanic arc occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Japan
b. the Andes Mountains
With regard to minerals, hardness refers to ____________. a. the ability to resist breaking when being struck with a hammer b. the ability to resist being scratched by other substances c. the ability to resist chemical reactions with other substances d. an absence of cleavage
b. the ability to resist being scratched by other substances
Minerals in geodes (see below) form spectacular euhedral crystals because ____________. a. all of the elements incorporated in the crystals are in plentiful supply b. the crystals have abundant room to grow in their hollow surroundings c. minerals within geodes are always framework silicates d. minerals within geodes always contain iron
b. the crystals have abundant room to grow in their hollow surroundings
According to the figure below, every plate boundary can be recognized by ____________. a. the presence of active volcanoes b. the presence of an earthquake belt c. a deep chasm that can be seen from space d. None of the above are correct.
b. the presence of an earthquake belt
In a ____________ fault, the fault plane is less than 35° from horizontal and the hanging-wall block moves upward relative to the footwall block. a. detachment b. thrust c. reverse d. normal
b. thrust
The San Andreas Fault zone in southern California is an example of a ____________ plate boundary. a. convergent b. transform c. divergent
b. transform
Sea level rises locally, and marine sediments are deposited on top of terrestrial sediments during events termed ____________. a. regressions b. transgressions c. divarications
b. transgressions
Movement on a fault may occur without generating earthquakes. a. false b. true
b. true
Subducted slabs have never been detected below the Wadati-Benioff zone. a. false b. true
b. true
Consult the figure below. Graded beds tell a geologist that a _____________. a. turbidity current deposited these beds, depositing finer material first b. turbidity current deposited these beds, depositing coarser material first c. slurry deposited these beds with little sorting d. density current deposited these beds, depositing coarser material first
b. turbidity current deposited these beds, depositing coarser material first
Is "Dark side of the moon is the best pink floyd album" a good or bad hypothesis and why?
bad hypothesis: it's just an opinion
pluton
balloon-shaped blobs
Vesuvius erupted in a very violent explosion in 79 C.E. and buried the resident of Pompeii in ash. On the basis of this information, which of the following would you LEAST expect to find at Vesuvius?
basalt
Which of the following lava types erupts in sheets from fissures to build a lava plateau?
basalt
Which of the following type(s) of rock(s) crystallize at the highest temperature?
basalt
almost the entire ocean floor is comprised of which igneous rock?
basalt
What are the most common igneous rocks found in ophiolites?
basalt and gabbros
Which of the following sequences of volcanic rocks are in the correct order of increasing sialic content?
basalt, andesite, rhyolite
The three major rock products of erupted lavas are:
basalt, rhyolite, and andesite.
Oceanic crust is primarily ____________.
basaltic
Basaltic pillow lavas are a strong indicator of:
basaltic lava that erupted into water.
Mass Wasting
basically landslides!
foliation
because of directed stress, minerals form elongated parallel crystals ex. slate
What is the safest material to build on to help prevent earthquake damage?
bedrock
mantle
between crust and core. ultramafic rock. divided into upper, transitional, and lower.
coal advantages
big US coal reserve
erratics
big isolated bolders, dumped DEPOSITION
drumlin
big pile of sediment, asymmetrical when asked move towards non steep side due to DEPOSITION
cirque
big steep bowl shape EROSION
This figure shows three blocks in water. Which of these materials is the least dense?
block 1
Which facies is associated with the subduction zone?
blueschist
Spit
bodies of sand where one end is still attached to the main land
tarns
bodies of water built up in cirques EROSION
covalent bond
bond where you share electrons (not transfer) ex. diamond is a mineral that has this bond and it is the strongest
which type of unconformity has sedimentary rocks both above and below the unconformity surface?
both an angular unconformity and a disconformity
According to the figure below, Earth's magnetic poles move constantly, but don't seem to stray farther than about ____________ from the geographic poles. a. 500 km b. 1,000 km c. 1,500 km d. 2,000 km
c. 1,500 km
According to the moment magnitude scale (Mw)—a magnitude 8 earthquake would be 1,000 times greater than a magnitude ____________ earthquake. a. 9 b. 4 c. 5 d. 7
c. 5
Deformation brought on by orogeny can ____________. a. produce folds in rock b. produce faulting in rock c. All of the above are correct. d. metamorphose rock
c. All of the above are correct.
Earthquakes are likely to occur along ____________. a. transform-plate boundaries only b. divergent-plate boundaries only c. All of the above are correct. d. convergent-plate boundaries only
c. All of the above are correct.
Mt. Everest, the tallest mountain in the world, is located on the continent of ____________. a. North America b. Europe c. Asia d. Africa
c. Asia
Which of the following is NOT true about comets and asteroids? a. Both orbit the sun b. Both are numerous in our Solar System c. Both are composed of rock and ice d. Both are planetesimals
c. Both are composed of rock and ice
A famous example of hot-spot volcanism occurs at ____________. a. the Aleutian Islands of Alaska b. the Andes Mountains c. Hawaii d. Mt. St. Helens, Washington
c. Hawaii
The term and concept of sea-floor spreading (see figure below) was developed by _____________. a. Wegener and Dietz b. Hess and Wegener c. Hess and Dietz d. Wegener
c. Hess and Dietz
Which earthquake severity scale varies from locality to locality for a single earthquake? a. Richter scale b. seismic-moment magnitude scale c. Mercalli scale
c. Mercalli scale
Late Paleozoic glacial deposits are NOT found in which of the following places? a. India b. South America c. North America d. southern Africa
c. North America
Which type of earthquake has the highest velocity? a. L-wave b. R-wave c. P-wave d. S-wave
c. P-wave
Which earthquake severity scale measures the amplitude of deflection of a seismograph pen, standardized to an idealized distance of 100 km between epicenter and seismograph? a. Mercalli scale b. seismic-moment magnitude scale c. Richter scale
c. Richter scale
Which earthquake severity scale takes vibration caused only by the S-waves into account when estimating the size of an earthquake? a. seismic-moment magnitude scale b. Mercalli scale c. Richter scale
c. Richter scale
____________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of slate. a. Limestone b. Sandstone c. Shale d. Slate
c. Shale
Earthquakes that occur in a band called a ____________ can be used to track the motion of subducted oceanic lithosphere. a. Wegener belt b. seismic gap c. Wadati-Benioff zone
c. Wadati-Benioff zone
The discovery that each continent had different and separate polar wander paths proved that _____________. a. both the poles and continents move b. the poles move c. Wegener was right: continents move
c. Wegener was right: continents move
Within the terminology of plate tectonics, an active margin is ____________. a. anywhere on Earth where earthquakes are especially frequent b. synonymous with "subduction zone" c. a continental coastline that coincides with a plate boundary d. a 5-mile radius surrounding an active volcano
c. a continental coastline that coincides with a plate boundary
Foliated metamorphic rocks possess ____________. a. leafy plant fossils (ancient foliage) b. a homogenous texture resulting from randomly oriented grains c. a planar fabric consisting of mineral grains in preferred orientations or preferred patterns of association (banding) d. minerals precipitated directly from sea water
c. a planar fabric consisting of mineral grains in preferred orientations or preferred patterns of association (banding)
Currently, most geologists ____________. a. agree that continental drift occurs; the mechanisms that drive drift are at work in the lower mantle and outer core and were unknown in Wegener's time b. continue to reject continental drift c. agree that continental drift occurs; the mechanisms that drive drift are at work in the ocean basins and upper mantle and were unknown in Wegener's time d. agree that continental drift occurs, but they still do not understand why it occurs
c. agree that continental drift occurs; the mechanisms that drive drift are at work in the ocean basins and upper mantle and were unknown in Wegener's time
The youngest sea floor occurs ____________. a. along passive margins b. randomly over the entire ocean basin c. along mid-ocean ridges d. along active margins
c. along mid-ocean ridges
A fold shaped like an elongate arch is a (an) ____________. a. basin b. dome c. anticline d. syncline
c. anticline
Consult the figure below. Compared to low-grade metamorphic rocks, high-grade rocks ____________. a. always contain more quartz and feldspar b. are produced closer to the surface, high in the stratigraphic column c. are produced at greater temperatures and pressures d. are produced at cooler temperatures, but greater pressures
c. are produced at greater temperatures and pressures
The lithosphere lies directly above the ____________. a. transition zone b. lower mantle c. asthenosphere d. crust
c. asthenosphere
Most of the pushing force driving plate motion is produced ____________. a. at collision zones b. in the interiors of continental plates c. at mid-ocean ridges d. at subduction zones
c. at mid-ocean ridges
Precambrian metamorphic rocks are exposed at the surface ____________. a. on Mars and Venus, but nowhere on Earth b. at places in continental interiors termed platforms c. at places in continental interiors termed shields d. at the bottom of the deep sea
c. at places in continental interiors termed shields
Most of the pulling force driving plate motion is produced ____________. a. in the interiors of continental plates b. at mid-ocean ridges c. at subduction zones d. at collision zones
c. at subduction zones
On a geologic map, if the contacts between sedimentary rock units form a bull's-eye pattern of concentric circles, with the youngest unit in the center, the underlying structure is a (an) ____________. a. syncline b. dome c. basin d. anticline
c. basin
Radioactive isotopes, differentiation of Earth's iron core, gravity-driven compression, and meteoric bombardment all caused early Earth to ____________. a. glow brighter than the Sun b. be much cooler than at present c. be much hotter than at present d. be much more oblong than at present
c. be much hotter than at present
Which environment would most likely produce sedimentary deposits characterized by very well-sorted, very well-rounded grains that are nearly pure quartz? a. river b. glacier c. beach d. alluvial fan
c. beach
Dynamothermal (regional) metamorphism produces ____________. a. foliated rocks only b. nonfoliated rocks only c. both foliated and nonfoliated rocks
c. both foliated and nonfoliated rocks
When in contact with hydrochloric acid, which mineral gives off bubbles of carbon dioxide gas? a. quartz b. halite c. calcite d. fluorite
c. calcite
Subduction zones are ____________. a. divergent plate boundaries b. transform plate boundaries c. convergent plate boundaries
c. convergent plate boundaries
All other factors being equal, intrusive rocks that form deep within Earth ____________ than intrusive rocks that cool near the surface. a. are more felsic b. contain a smaller proportion of volatiles c. cool more slowly d. cool more rapidly
c. cool more slowly
As compared to the asthenosphere, the lithosphere is ____________. a. cooler and more able to flow b. hotter and more able to flow c. cooler and less able to flow d. hotter and less able to flow
c. cooler and less able to flow
Regions of continents that have not been subjected to orogeny during the past one billion years are termed ____________. a. accreted terranes b. exotic terranes c. cratons
c. cratons
Topset, foreset, and bottomset beds are indicative of ____________. a. alluvial fans b. lake bottoms c. deltas d. deep-marine settings
c. deltas
Natural glass is NOT considered a mineral because it ____________. a. is not produced by geologic processes b. is organic c. does not have a fixed crystalline structure d. can be made synthetically as well as being a naturally occurring substance
c. does not have a fixed crystalline structure
Differential stress will cause crystals to align in a preferred orientation unless the crystals are ____________. a. primarily mica b. platy c. equant d. elongate
c. equant
Gemstones are commonly found in pegmatites, which are igneous rocks that are ____________. a. exceptionally mafic b. extrusive, forming from lava c. exceptionally coarse grained d. exceptionally fine grained
c. exceptionally coarse grained
If you found tuff deposits at an ___________ igneous setting, you could conclude that the lava had a ___________ viscosity content. a. intrusive; high b. intrusive; low c. extrusive; high d. extrusive; low
c. extrusive; high
A fracture in the crust, where rocks slide past one another, is termed a ____________. a. flying layer b. frictional discontinuity c. fault d. fold
c. fault
The intersection between a fault plane and the ground surface is called the ____________. a. plunge b. seismic interface c. fault trace d. dip line
c. fault trace
On average, continental crust is approximately ____________ as oceanic crust. a. equally thick b. half as thick c. five times as thick d. 20 times as thick
c. five times as thick
Rocks resulting from thermal (contact) metamorphism will not possess ____________. a. a new mineral assemblage distinct from that found prior to intrusion b. larger crystals than those characterizing the country rock prior to intrusion c. foliation d. silicate minerals
c. foliation
A silica-rich igneous rock that has coarse crystals and which makes up much of the continental crust is ____________. a. gabbro b. basalt c. granite d. peridotite
c. granite
Ore minerals, such as galena and hematite, tend to be distinct in their very ____________. a. dark coloration b. diamond-like crystal habit c. great specific gravity d. vitreous luster
c. great specific gravity
Which common mineral is found in most kitchens? a. flour b. sugar c. halite d. mustard
c. halite
Volatiles refer to substances that ____________. a. crystallize most rapidly out of a melt b. melt immediately upon contact with a hot body of magma c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases
c. have a tendency to evaporate and are stable as gases
Wegener's idea of continental drift was rejected by American geologists because ____________. a. his English was too poor to be understood by them b. he had relatively little evidence supporting the existence of a supercontinent c. he could not conceive of a valid mechanism that would cause continents to shift positions d. the apparent fit of continental coastlines is blurred when the margins are defined by the edges of continental shelves rather than sea level
c. he could not conceive of a valid mechanism that would cause continents to shift positions
The theory of plate tectonics ____________. a. incorporates continental drift but not sea-floor spreading b. incorporates sea-floor spreading but not continental drift c. incorporates and explains both sea-floor spreading and continental drift d. does not incorporate sea-floor spreading or continental drift
c. incorporates and explains both sea-floor spreading and continental drift
A volcanic neck, such as that seen at Shiprock, New Mexico (below), is a (an) ____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano
At a subduction zone, the downgoing (subducting) plate ____________. a. may be composed or either oceanic or continental lithosphere b. is always composed of continental lithosphere c. is always composed of oceanic lithosphere
c. is always composed of oceanic lithosphere
The difference between lava and magma is that magma ____________. a. is light in color, whereas lava is dark b. usually has mafic composition, whereas lava usually has felsic composition c. is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface d. flows more quickly than lava
c. is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface
If we mentally align the continents to fit Wegener's concept of Pangaea, evidence of Late Paleozoic glacial deposits ____________. a. is more difficult to explain than in the modern continental configuration b. makes very little sense in either the Pangaea configuration or the modern configuration c. is much more readily explained than in the modern continental configuration
c. is much more readily explained than in the modern continental configuration
Continental lithosphere ____________. a. contains no crustal material, consisting solely of lithified upper mantle b. is denser than oceanic lithosphere c. is thicker than oceanic lithosphere d. contains more mafic rocks than oceanic lithosphere
c. is thicker than oceanic lithosphere
The lithosphere of Earth can be bent and broken, but will not flow because it ____________. a. contains radioactive elements b. is too dense c. is too cool d. is too old
c. is too cool
Within a single mountain range, ____________. a. only low-grade metamorphic rocks are likely to be found b. only high-grade metamorphic rocks are likely to be found c. it is possible to find a variety of metamorphic rocks produced in distinct facies, including high-, low-, and intermediate-grade rocks
c. it is possible to find a variety of metamorphic rocks produced in distinct facies, including high-, low-, and intermediate-grade rocks
Geologically, melts are equivalent to both ____________ and ____________. a. felsic magma; mafic magma b. felsic lava; mafic lava c. lavas; magmas d. fine-grained igneous rocks; coarse-grained igneous rocks
c. lavas; magmas
For the majority of minerals, the streak color obtained when the mineral is scratched against a porcelain plate is ____________. a. likely to be diagnostic only if the mineral is hard enough to scratch porcelain b. more variable than the color in a hand sample among crystals c. less variable than the color in a hand sample among crystals d. always dark brown or black
c. less variable than the color in a hand sample among crystals
Earthquakes are a result of ____________. a. mantle upwelling b. a sudden change in atmospheric pressure c. lithosphere-plate movement d. erosion
c. lithosphere-plate movement
The shininess of a mineral is a helpful diagnostic property termed ____________. a. color b. specific gravity c. luster d. streak
c. luster
The difference between magma and lava is ____________. a. magma cools more rapidly than lava b. magma is found at the surface, whereas lava is found below the surface c. magma is found beneath the surface, whereas lava is found at the surface d. There is no difference; the two terms mean the same thing.
c. magma is found beneath the surface, whereas lava is found at the surface
Marine magnetic anomalies result from sea-floor spreading in conjunction with ____________. a. magnetic storms on the surface of the Sun b. global warming c. magnetic polarity reversals d. apparent wander of the magnetic poles
c. magnetic polarity reversals
At a subduction zone, the overriding plate ____________. a. is always composed of continental lithosphere b. is always composed of oceanic lithosphere c. may be composed of either oceanic or continental lithosphere
c. may be composed of either oceanic or continental lithosphere
Injecting hot fudge into ice cream is an appropriate analogy for which cause of magma melt? a. Melting due to a decrease in pressure b. melting due to an addition of volatiles c. melting due to heat transfer from rising magma d. All of the above are correct.
c. melting due to heat transfer from rising magma
A buried body of shale is subjected to differential stress, causing clay minerals to realign and produce slate; this is an example of ____________. a. diagenesis b. erosion c. metamorphism d. weathering
c. metamorphism
Clay minerals within a buried body of slate are recrystallized at high temperatures and pressures to form mica, producing a rock called phyllite; this is an example of ____________. a. diagenesis b. erosion c. metamorphism d. weathering
c. metamorphism
A primary difference between phyllite and schist is ____________. a. schist contains mica, whereas phyllite contains only clay b. phyllite contains mica, whereas schist contains only clay c. mica crystals within schist are larger than those within phyllite d. mica crystals within phyllite are larger than those within schist
c. mica crystals within schist are larger than those within phyllite
If a body of igneous (source) rock is subjected to partial melting, the magma that is produced is expected to be ____________. a. identical in chemical composition to the source rock b. more mafic than the source rock c. more felsic than the source rock
c. more felsic than the source rock
Presently, Earth's atmosphere is dominated by which two gases? a. hydrogen and oxygen b. carbon dioxide and methane c. nitrogen and oxygen d. nitrous oxide and sulfur dioxide
c. nitrogen and oxygen
It is possible for offset along an oblique-slip fault to have both ____________ and ____________ components. a. normal; reverse b. right-lateral; left-lateral c. normal; left-lateral
c. normal; left-lateral
Ophiolite sequences are important to geologists because they preserve ____________. a. deep mantle material b. continental crust c. oceanic crust d. asthenosphere
c. oceanic crust
Tectonic plates might consist of ____________. a. continental lithosphere only b. oceanic lithosphere only c. oceanic or continental lithosphere or a combination of both d. either oceanic or continental lithosphere, but not both
c. oceanic or continental lithosphere or a combination of both
Two major sources of energy, coal and oil shale, are considered ____________ sedimentary rocks. a. clastic b. biochemical c. organic d. chemical
c. organic
An episode of mountain building is termed a (an) ____________. a. phylogeny b. aureole c. orogeny d. slickenside
c. orogeny
All else being equal, an earthquake that strikes in the eastern United States would produce shaking that would be felt ____________ than one that occurred in the western United States. a. over a lesser distance b. over the same distance c. over a greater distance
c. over a greater distance
Which common gemstone results from biomineralization? a. diamonds b. garnets c. pearls d. sapphires
c. pearls
Which of the following is NOT a mineral? a. quartz b. diamond c. petroleum d. gold
c. petroleum
Diagenesis refers to ____________. a. the development of layering within sedimentary rocks b. the act of deposition of sediment that will ultimately form sedimentary rock c. physical and chemical alterations, including compaction and cementation, that occur as sediment is transformed into rock
c. physical and chemical alterations, including compaction and cementation, that occur as sediment is transformed into rock
The outer portion of a craton, where deformed rocks are covered by sediments, is termed the ____________. a. convergent margin b. shield c. platform
c. platform
A geologist's compass differs from the more widely known orienteering compass in that the geologist's compass ____________. a. contains a barometer that warns the geologist of approaching storms b. can chemically analyze rock samples in the field c. possesses an inclinometer, allowing the user to measure dip and plunge angles d. needle points directly toward geographic north rather than geomagnetic north
c. possesses an inclinometer, allowing the user to measure dip and plunge angles
The preexisting rock that is subsequently altered to form a metamorphic rock is termed a ____________. a. parent rock b. source rock c. protolith d. premetarock
c. protolith
Two common metamorphic rocks that typically lack foliation are ____________ and ____________. a. slate; phyllite b. gneiss; migmatite c. quartzite; marble d. schist; metaconglomerate
c. quartzite; marble
The process of high-grade metamorphic rocks being altered to form low-grade metamorphic rocks is termed ____________ metamorphism. a. foliated b. prograde c. retrograde d. dynamic
c. retrograde
Pulling a block of clay apart, resulting in the middle portion thinning and sinking, is an adequate analogy for ___________. a. passive margins and subsidence b. foreland basins and diagenesis c. rift basins and subsidence d. intercontinental basins and diagenesis
c. rift basins and subsidence
Mt. Kilimanjaro and the Basin and Range Province are the result of _____________. a. converging plates b. subducting plates c. rifting d. None of the above are correct.
c. rifting
The development of a preferred orientation of large, flaky mica crystals within metamorphic rock is termed ____________. a. slaty cleavage b. phyllitic luster c. schistosity d. compositional banding
c. schistosity
The majority of the rocks that occur at the surface of Earth are ____________. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. extrusive igneous rocks c. sedimentary rocks d. metamorphic rocks
c. sedimentary rocks
Regions where Precambrian metamorphic rocks are exposed at the surface are termed ____________. a. convergent margins b. platforms c. shields
c. shields
The most common minerals within Earth are ____________. a. oxides b. hydroxides c. silicates d. carbonates
c. silicates
Which list properly orders metamorphic rocks from lowest to highest grade? a. conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale b. shale, slate, phyllite, quartzite c. slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss d. gneiss, phyllite, schist, slate
c. slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss
If a fault is nearly vertical in orientation and the two walls of rock on opposite sides slide past one another horizontally, the fault is termed ____________. a. thrust b. normal c. strike slip d. reverse
c. strike slip
On a geologic map, if the contacts between sedimentary rock units form a series of parallel lines, with the youngest unit in the center, the underlying structure is a (an) ____________. a. basin b. dome c. syncline d. anticline
c. syncline
Which of the following minerals is softest? a. quartz b. calcite c. talc d. fluorite
c. talc
If a geologist discovered coal in a modern-day cold, snowy location, he or she could conclude that _____________. a. this discovery was anomalous b. the area was once covered with an ocean c. the area was once covered with swamps and/or jungles d. a meteorite must have struck the area
c. the area was once covered with swamps and/or jungles
A triple junction, like the one shown below, is a place on Earth's surface where ____________. a. three volcanoes form a tight, triangular cluster b. the boundaries of three lithospheric plates meet to form an elongate surface c. the boundaries of three lithospheric plates meet at a single point d. glacial ice, continental rocks, and the ocean can be found together
c. the boundaries of three lithospheric plates meet at a single point
By deep-sea drilling, the Glomar Challenger proved the theory that if the model of sea-floor spreading was correct, then sea-floor sediment should be ____________ and ____________ as one moves away from the spreading axis. a. thinner; younger b. thinner; older c. thicker; older d. thicker; younger
c. thicker; older
How many seismic stations are necessary to find the epicenter of an earthquake? a. one b. four c. three d. two
c. three
If, during an earthquake, a hanging wall slides upward relative to a footwall, the fault is termed ____________ if the fault is shallow (much closer to horizontal than vertical). a. normal b. reverse c. thrust d. strike slip
c. thrust
Evidence that glaciers once covered an area might include ______________. a. backwash and grabens b. backwash and striations c. till and striations d. till and grabens
c. till and striations
If you were measuring the elevation of a mountain, you would be measuring variation in ____________, whereas if you were doing the same on a mid-ocean ridge, you would be measuring variation in ___________. a. bathymetry; isostasy b. topography; isostasy c. topography; bathymetry d. bathymetry; topography
c. topography; bathymetry
Segments of the mid-ocean ridge system are offset. Between the offset segments we observe ____________. a. a second series of ridges, perpendicular to the main set b. deep ocean trenches c. transform faults d. None of the above are correct.
c. transform faults
Grains become rounded primarily during ____________. a. weathering at outcrop b. erosion c. transportation d. deposition
c. transportation
The atmosphere can be divided into several distinct layers. Name from ground up. a. stratosphere, troposphere, mesosphere, thermosphere b. stratosphere, troposphere, thermosphere, mesosphere c. troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere d. troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere
c. troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere
A volcano emits ash, which falls from the sky, settles in layers, and is eventually cemented. The resulting rock is termed ____________. a. pumice b. granite c. tuff d. ignimbrite
c. tuff
If water is the transport mechanism of sediment, the grain size of sedimentary deposits most closely indicates the ____________. a. geographic extent of the weathering source rock at outcrop b. average velocity of the water from the time of erosion until deposition c. velocity of the water at the moment the sediment settled to the bottom
c. velocity of the water at the moment the sediment settled to the bottom
Substances that can be transformed to a gas at relatively low temperatures are termed ____________. a. glasses b. melts c. volatiles d. mineraloids
c. volatiles
Important volatiles in magmas include ____________. a. iron- and magnesium-rich minerals, such as olivine b. potassium and aluminum c. water and carbon dioxide d. trinitrotoluene and nitroglycerin
c. water and carbon dioxide
The breakdown of exposed rock into small fragments and dissolved ions is termed ____________. a. deposition b. erosion c. weathering
c. weathering
Ash and lava fragments that cascade down the sides of a volcano eventually settle and lithify to form ____________. a. basalt b. andesite c. welded tuff d. ash-fall tuff
c. welded tuff
It is unusual for ____________ to carry grains larger than sand. a. ice b. water c. wind
c. wind
What is the term for a large, steep-walled, basin-shaped depression that forms by the collapse of a magma chamber roof after a violent eruption
caldera
What is a caldera? A lahar?
caldera - a volcanic depression much larger than the original crater, formed when the volcano collapses into a vacated magma chamber. Lahar: A mudflow composed of water and volcanic ash. Lahars can be triggered by the flash melting of the snow cap of a volcanic mountain or from heavy rain. Lahars are very dangerous because they can occur suddenly and travel at great speeds.
C14 method
can only track through 10 half lives (thats why it can track saber tooth tiger but not dinosaurs) limited bc some organisms don't get C14 through food chain
When proving/disproving global warming remember
can't use just one place or just one year must know exact amounts of snow, rain etc
What gases is an important constituent of volcanic gas?
carbon dioxide sulfur dioxide water vapor hydrogen sulfide
Climate Proxies
carbon isotopes oxygen isotopes biogeography
organic sediments
carbon rich remains of living organisms (coal)
wave refraction
causes waves to converge on headlands
homo sapiens first appear during which geologic era?
cenozoic
How fast do plates move relative to one another?
centimeter per year
Southern Oscillation
change in air pressure over the Pacific during the El Nino
Precession
change in rotation of the axis, slow, gravity induced
strain
change in shape or volume of a body as a result of stress
What is the slowest type of weathering in deserts?
chemical
What caused the contamination at Love Canal?
chemical waste
geologic timescale
chronologic subdivision of geologic time depicting the sequence of geologic events, including those represented by fossils; ages of boundaries are assigned through numeric dating of key rock units.
A form of subaerial volcano is radically symmetric, consists of tephra, and formed from a single eruption. Is it a shield volcano, stratovolcano, or cinder cone?
cinder cone
Thrust Fault
close to horizontal
Accretion lapilli
clumps formed by falling through most air
Pumice lapilli
clumps formed by falling through most air
Pavements
coarse heavy stuff left behind after deflation takes all the small particles away
talus
collection of rocks at the bottom
Biological molecules may have been brought to Earth soon after it formed via collisions with...
comets
What strategy was described for inferring the environment in which a rock formed?
comparing the characteristic of the rock to deposits from modern environments
Upper mantle
composed of green mineral olivine.
How do you tell what kind of mineral?
composition and structure
principle of superposition
concept that a sedimentary or volcanic layer is younger than any rock unit on which it is deposited
Basic principles of Nebular Theory
condensation and collage of interstellare material in an arm of the Milky way galaxy collapse of this cloud of gases and small grains into counterclockwise rotating disk caused about 90% of the material to be concentrated in the central part of disk central part of this continued to collapse forming our sun localized eddies cause gases and solid particles to condense collisions here resulted in accretion into protoplanets protoplanets formed either inner or outer planets due to the distance they were from the sun the further away the protoplanet was from the sun the refractory elements
Can occur when discharge is much greater than recharge in an aquifer
cone of depression subsidence salinity contamination
Which of the following sedimentary rocks has the largest particle sizes?
conglomerate
oxides
consist of oxygen bonded with such a metal "iron"
Phanerozonic eon
consists of 3 eons - paleozoic, mesozoic, cenozoic
Precambrian eon
consists of proterozoic, archean, and hadean
minerals in the uppermost part of the continental crust
consists of sedimentary rocks. These rocks contain quartz, clays, feldspars, and carbon minerals a. Most continental crust is granite
carbonates
contain a metallic element such as calcium or magnesium. Most common minerals are Calcite "occurs in water related environments" and Dolomite "similar but magnesium substitutes in the structure for some Calcium
Halides
contain chlorine or fluorine which are nonmetals that bond a metal
sulfates
contain sulfur that is only bonded to oxygen. The sulfur-oxygen units are bonded with a metal
Which potential geologic hazard is NOT represented by a feature on this figure?
contaminated groundwater
Why does the Tibetan Plateau, shown in this figure, have high elevation?
continental collision
Which layer in the earth is similar to the composition of granite?
continental crust
Which is NOT a settling for igneous activity?
continental transform-fault zones
The ultimate result of rifting is the formation of
continents
At a ____ plate boundary, subduction consumes old ocean lithosphere.
convergent
The three types of plate boundaries are
convergent, divergent, transform
Photovoltaics
converting sunlight directly into electricity
Intrusive igneous rocks
cool slowly and are coarse-grained.
Pahoehoe
cooling stage of lava, long rope like soft strands
Underwater basalts (pillow basalts)
cools instantly forming a pillow the pillow surface is cracked quenched glass lava pressure ruptures a pillow to form the next blob the process repeats to form a mound of pillow basalts
Mantle plumes are thought to originate at the ___ boundary.
core mantle
Sequence Stratigraphy
correlating strata via unconformaties
Chemostratigraphy
correlation based on chemical markers
Biostratigraphy
correlation based on fossils
Magnetostratigraphy
correlation based on polarity
Lithostratigraphy
correlation based on rock type
wind power advantages
cost down 80% in last 20 years energy payback only ~1 yr
How does the Lithosphere affect climate?
creating rain shadows controlling continental position forming land bridges
Barchan Dune
cresent shaped
top of wave
crest
dike
crosscuts rock layers
1. Lithosphere (defined by physical layer)
crust and uppermost solid mantle, brittle
Earth is a planet made up of the following three layers, of increasing density
crust, mantle, core
The main layer of the Earth in correct order, form the surface moving down are:
crust, mantle, outer core, inner core
algae disadvantages
currently expensive bc of new technique doesn't lower atmosphere CO2 as some claim
The only site in the US for long-term storage of spend nuclear fuel is_____
currently there is no site for long-term storage of spent nuclear fuel
Sediment is deposited as:
currents slow down.
Orogenesis (mountain building) leads to the production of ____________. a. metamorphic rocks only b. igneous rocks only c. sedimentary rocks only d. All of the above are correct
d. All of the above are correct
What geological setting(s) would you expect to produce seismic activity? a. Rift valley b. Basin c. Collisional mountain belt d. All of the above are correct
d. All of the above are correct
Which of the following is part of the process that leads to the exhumation of metamorphic rocks? a. continents squeezing together b. mountain belts collapsing c. erosion d. All of the above are correct
d. All of the above are correct
____________ may help a geologist recognize a fault. a. Displacement b. Fault scarps c. Breccia d. All of the above are correct
d. All of the above are correct
As compared to arkose, quartz sandstone ____________. a. is more mature b. does not contain significant amounts of feldspar c. is likely to be found farther away from weathering granitic source rock d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Diagenesis requires ____________. a. deep burial b. high temperatures and pressures c. warm groundwater d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Evidence for a united Pangaea comes from the fossil record of which type(s) of organisms? a. plants b. large terrestrial animals c. freshwater animals d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Evidence of paleomagnetism can be found in _________________. a. basalt that has cooled from lava b. any rock with magnetic minerals present c. sedimentary rocks where minerals form from ion-bearing groundwater d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
If a geologist found preserved mud cracks, he or she could conclude that the environment in which they formed ____________. a. was once covered in wet mud b. was once covered in hexagonal plates with curled-up edges c. has been covered in sediment d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Igneous rocks ____________. a. are formed through the freezing of melt b. can be produced at the surface of the Earth as well as deep below the surface c. are the most common type of rocks within Earth d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
In order to be defined as a mineral, a substance must ______________. a. be solid b. be naturally occurring c. have atoms arranged in an orderly pattern d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
In silicate minerals, tetrahedra may be coordinated to form ____________. a. long one-dimensional chains b. extensive two-dimensional sheets c. massive three-dimensional frameworks d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Large igneous provinces can cause ______________. a. sea level rise b. climate change c. extinction d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Long-term prediction of earthquake behavior ____________. a. is based on past earthquake activity b. works on the principle that zones of past seismicity will be active in the future c. includes the notion of seismic gaps—places where an earthquake is "overdue" d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Metamorphism may be induced by ____________. a. contact with a hot pluton b. contact with hot groundwater c. heat and pressure associated with deep burial d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Ripples, dunes, and cross bedding are sedimentary structures that can be used to determine _____________. a. wind direction b. current direction c. past environments d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
The metallic content of Earth's core is ____________. a. likely similar to what has been found in metallic meteorites b. partly liquid and partly solid c. an iron alloy (mostly iron with a few other elements mixed in) d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
This map depicts earthquakes, which coincide with areas where ___________. a. volcanoes also regularly occur b. movements of the crust take place c. rocks break and move d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Unlike physically precipitated chert, biochemical chert ____________. a. is bedded (layered) b. is made up of the skeletons of radiolaria and foraminifera c. does not occur as small nodules within bodies of limestone d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Viscosity depends on ____________. a. temperature b. volatile content c. silica content d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
What causes the formation of an alluvial fan? a. load capacity b. friction c. decreased velocity d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Without plate tectonics, we would not have _______________. a. plates in constant motion b. mountain building c. formation of new oceans d. All of the above are correct.
d. All of the above are correct.
Which of the following is NOT a factor controlling the cooling rate of magma? a. depth of intrusion b. shape and size of magma body c. presence of circulating groundwater d. All of the above are factors.
d. All of the above are factors.
Earth's surface is protected from solar wind and cosmic radiation by ____________. a. a large, metallic shield launched into orbit by NASA in the 1960s b. a powerful stream of ions emitted by the Sun c. Earth's gravitational field d. Earth's magnetic field
d. Earth's magnetic field
Which of the following is NOT a mineral? a. petroleum (oil), which is a liquid b. cubic zirconia, which is a synthetic diamond substitute that is not found in nature c. ice, which is water in the solid state d. Neither A nor B are minerals; however, C is a mineral.
d. Neither A nor B are minerals; however, C is a mineral.
Which of the following is NOT an example of sediment? Select one: a. sand b. ground-up seashells c. cobbles on a beach d. None of the above are correct.
d. None of the above are correct.
The single property that can be used to identify any mineral is ____________. a. color b. luster c. cleavage d. None of the above are correct; multiple properties must be used to diagnose a mineral.
d. None of the above are correct; multiple properties must be used to diagnose a mineral.
Consult the figure below. Abundant swamps led to the formation of coal during the Late Paleozoic in which of the following places? a. southern Africa b. India c. South America d. North America
d. North America
Leftovers from the protoplanetery disk that formed our Solar System after the Big Bang can be found where? a. Interplanetary space b. Kuiper belt c. Heliosphere d. Oort cloud
d. Oort cloud
____________ commonly serves as a protolith in the formation of phyllite. a. Limestone b. Sandstone c. Shale d. Slate
d. Slate
Minerals are all naturally occurring solid substances with a definable chemical composition. They must also possess ____________. a. an ability to be synthesized in the laboratory as well as being found in nature b. metallic elements, such as iron, calcium, or magnesium c. metallic luster d. a fixed crystalline structure (spatial arrangement of atoms and ions)
d. a fixed crystalline structure (spatial arrangement of atoms and ions)
Earthquakes are most frequent near coastlines that are termed ____________. a. geodesic margins b. passive margins c. aseismic margins d. active margins
d. active margins
The image below shows ___________, where a hot liquid rises into a cooler material, and heat then conducts from the hot liquid into the cooler material. a. conduction b. convection c. radiation d. advection
d. advection
Which environment would most likely produce sedimentary deposits characterized by poorly to moderately sorted, angular to subangular grains that consist of feldspar, quartz, and lithics (rock fragments)? a. river b. glacier c. beach d. alluvial fan
d. alluvial fan
A clastic rock comprised of sand-sized grains derived from the physical weathering of granite and containing a sizable proportion of feldspar is termed ____________. a. metasandstone b. lithosandstone c. graywacke d. arkose
d. arkose
The thickness of clay and planktonic microskeletons is greatest ____________. a. along fracture zones b. along mid-ocean ridges c. in the center of abyssal plains d. at the edges of ocean basins
d. at the edges of ocean basins
Limestone reefs and salt deposits are important rocks in the reconstruction of Earth history because they ____________. a. automatically provide age information; all such deposits occurred between 200 and 400 million years ago b. are deposited in warm climates today, but there is good reason to think that they were deposited in cold climates millions of years ago c. imply that ancient human societies had access to good snorkeling and premium margaritas d. can be used to infer the ancient climate of the Earth; they are deposited in environments that are restricted to warm climate
d. can be used to infer the ancient climate of the Earth; they are deposited in environments that are restricted to warm climate
The theory of plate tectonics is a theory because it _____________. a. was discovered so long ago b. is widely accepted c. is not widely accepted d. cannot be directly proven
d. cannot be directly proven
Spreading rates along mid-ocean ridges have ____________. a. been remarkably constant through time b. changed through time, and today vary between 1 and 10 m/yr c. changed through time, but are the same everywhere on Earth today d. changed through time, and today vary between 1 and 10 cm/yr
d. changed through time, and today vary between 1 and 10 cm/yr
Metamorphism, in broadest terms, involves ____________. a. the settling of crystals in a melt as it cools b. the sorting of grains by size, as is accomplished by rivers and beach waves c. cementation of loose grains and precipitation of new minerals into pore spaces d. changes in mineralogy and texture in response to heat and stress
d. changes in mineralogy and texture in response to heat and stress
What type of sediment is found in lake bottoms? a. gravel b. sand c. silt d. clay
d. clay
Which of the following processes CANNOT occur in the formation of metamorphic rock? a. realignment of minerals so that they develop a preferred orientation b. segregation of minerals into layers of different compositions c. solid-state rearrangement of atoms or ions to create a new assemblage of minerals d. complete remelting of the rock, followed by solidification to form a new rock
d. complete remelting of the rock, followed by solidification to form a new rock
According to Wegener, puzzle pieces are to a jigsaw puzzle as ____________ is/are to Pangaea. a. plate tectonics b. sea-floor spreading c. continental drift d. continents
d. continents
The mineral assemblage within metamorphic rock is ____________. a. always identical to that found within the protolith b. dependent only on the mineral assemblage of the protolith c. dependent only on the temperature and pressure of formation d. dependent on both the mineral content of the protolith and the temperature and pressure of formation
d. dependent on both the mineral content of the protolith and the temperature and pressure of formation
A fold shaped like an upside-down bowl is a (an) ____________. a. syncline b. anticline c. basin d. dome
d. dome
A surface along which rock on opposed sides is offset by earthquake-induced slip is called a ____________. a. joint b. fold c. wall d. fault
d. fault
A primary force opposing motion on all faults is ____________. a. gravity b. Van der Waal's force c. magnetic attraction among iron-rich minerals d. friction
d. friction
Regions of the sea floor with positive magnetic anomalies were formed during times when Earth's magnetic field ____________. a. was exceptionally strong b. was exceptionally weak c. had reversed polarity d. had normal polarity
d. had normal polarity
At any point along the surface of an oblique (nonvertical) fault, the ____________. a. footwall lies to the left of the hanging wall b. hanging wall lies to the left of the footwall c. footwall lies vertically above the hanging wall d. hanging wall lies vertically above the footwall
d. hanging wall lies vertically above the footwall
The region of space that contains the material of our Solar System (shown below) is termed the ____________. a. cryosphere b. Oort cloud c. lithosphere d. heliosphere
d. heliosphere
The blueschist facies is a metamorphic realm of ____________. a. high temperature and pressure b. low temperature and pressure c. high temperature but relatively low pressure d. high pressure but relatively low temperature
d. high pressure but relatively low temperature
Hot spots are caused by ____________. a. factors that remain completely unknown at this time b. unusually dense concentrations of radioactive isotopes at various points in the crust c. friction due to the lithosphere sliding atop the asthenosphere d. hot plumes of mantle material that rises up through cooler, denser surrounding rock
d. hot plumes of mantle material that rises up through cooler, denser surrounding rock
The point within Earth where an earthquake takes place is termed the ____________. a. epicenter b. vertex c. eye of the fault d. hypocenter (focus)
d. hypocenter (focus)
As compared to the density of the asthenosphere, the oceanic lithosphere is ____________. a. always more dense b. always less dense c. initially more dense at the age of formation, but eventually becomes less dense d. initially less dense at the age of formation, but eventually becomes more dense
d. initially less dense at the age of formation, but eventually becomes more dense
Regional metamorphism ____________. a. takes place at cool temperatures and low pressure b. takes place at cool temperatures but high pressure c. is another name for thermal metamorphism d. is another name for dynamothermal metamorphism
d. is another name for dynamothermal metamorphism
The balance between the weight of a mountain range and the buoyancy provided by the underlying mantle is termed ____________. a. homeostatic equilibrium b. osmotic equilibrium c. punctuated equilibrium d. isostatic equilibrium
d. isostatic equilibrium
The thickness of oceanic lithosphere is ____________. a. greatest near the mid-ocean ridges and thins out away from the ridges b. uniformly 100 km c. greatest at the geographic poles and least near the equator d. least near the mid-ocean ridges and thickens away from the ridges
d. least near the mid-ocean ridges and thickens away from the ridges
In Wegener's evidence for continental drift, continents were proposed to fit together, such as the east coast of South America with the __________________ and the upper west coast of Africa with the _______________. a. west coast of Europe; east coast of South America b. lower west coast of Africa; east coast of South America c. west coast of Europe; east coast of North America d. lower west coast of Africa; east coast of North America
d. lower west coast of Africa; east coast of North America
Hot, liquid rock beneath the surface of the Earth is termed ____________. a. volatiles b. lava c. brimstone d. magma
d. magma
Where Earth's magnetic dipole intersects with the surface of the planet is called the ___________. a. geographic pole b. magnetic dipole c. magnetic inclination d. magnetic pole
d. magnetic pole
The protolith subjected to metamorphism ____________. a. is always metamorphic rock to begin with b. is always igneous rock c. is always sedimentary rock d. may belong to any of the three primary rock types
d. may belong to any of the three primary rock types
Chemical and biochemical rocks are classified primarily on the basis of ____________. a. grain size b. degree of sorting c. angularity d. mineral composition
d. mineral composition
In a ____________ fault, the fault plane is nonvertical and the hanging-wall block moves downward relative to the footwall block. a. detachment b. reverse c. thrust d. normal
d. normal
The pulling forces that produce the most rapid plate velocities are concentrated at ____________. a. stable continental interiors b. mid-ocean ridges c. continental collision zones d. ocean trenches
d. ocean trenches
According to the figure below, fracture zones lay roughly ___________ to mid-ocean ridges. a. adjacent b. at an obtuse angle c. parallel d. perpendicular
d. perpendicular
The apparent tendency of the north (or south) magnetic pole to vary in position over time is termed ____________. a. magnetic declination b. dipole c. magnetic inclination d. polar wander
d. polar wander
Consult the figure below. The difference between breccia and conglomerate is that conglomerate ____________. a. is finer grained than breccia b. is coarser grained than breccia c. possesses more angular grains than breccia d. possesses more rounded grains than breccia
d. possesses more rounded grains than breccia
Bombs, ash, and cinders are all examples of ____________. a. intrusive igneous rocks b. hot spots c. volatiles d. pyroclastic debris
d. pyroclastic debris
In a ____________ fault, the fault plane is greater than 35° from horizontal and the hanging-wall block moves upward relative to the footwall block. a. detachment b. normal c. thrust d. reverse
d. reverse
Coarse-grained granite is most similar in mineral composition to fine-grained ____________. a. andesite b. basalt c. komatiite d. rhyolite
d. rhyolite
Which two gems are special versions of the common mineral corundum (Al2O3)? a. emeralds and rubies b. emeralds and sapphires c. aquamarines and emeralds d. sapphires and rubies
d. sapphires and rubies
Most continental topography lies within a range of altitude between ____________. a. 3 to 6 km above sea level b. sea level and 1 km below sea level c. 2 to 5 km above sea level d. sea level and 1 km above sea level
d. sea level and 1 km above sea level
Geologists who specifically study earthquakes are called ____________. a. speleologists b. paleontologists c. vulcanologists d. seismologists
d. seismologists
A dike is a (an) ____________. a. sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of sedimentary rock b. cooled layer of lava c. intrusion formed within the magma chamber of a volcano d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
d. sheet-like intrusion that cuts across preexisting layers
In regard to the cooling of molten rock, a __________ volume and a __________ shape cools faster. a. larger; spherical b. larger; pancake c. smaller; spherical d. smaller; pancake
d. smaller; pancake
As compared to mafic igneous rocks, all felsic igneous rocks ____________. a. cool and solidify more quickly b. cool and solidify more slowly c. solidify at higher temperatures d. solidify at lower temperatures
d. solidify at lower temperatures
As seismic (earthquake-generated) waves travel downward and reach the Moho, they ____________. a. are all reflected directly back toward the surface b. continue at the same velocity c. slow down d. speed up
d. speed up
The color of a mineral in powdered form is termed ____________. a. color b. specific gravity c. luster d. streak
d. streak
Death Valley, part of the Basin and Range Province, has been sinking due to the weight of continuously accumulating sediment shed from the Black and Panamit Mountains that border the valley. What phenomenon is this an example of and what depositional environment is created by the sediment deposition? a. regression and deltas b. subsidence and deltas c. regression and alluvial fans d. subsidence and alluvial fans
d. subsidence and alluvial fans
If one were to see a comet passing by Earth, it is likely that this comet originated from _______________. a. interplanetary space b. the asteroid belt c. the heliosphere d. the Kuiper belt
d. the Kuiper belt
Oceanic lithosphere thickens away from the mid-ocean ridge primarily due to ____________. a. the addition of new crust due to sedimentation b. the addition of new crust due to hot-spot volcanism c. reasons that geologists cannot determine at present d. the addition of new lithospheric mantle as a result of cooling
d. the addition of new lithospheric mantle as a result of cooling
The New Age practice of surrounding one's self with crystals has a strong positive effect on ____________. a. mental health b. the immune system's response to illness c. the prospects for world peace d. the bank accounts of rock shop owners
d. the bank accounts of rock shop owners
According to Archimedes' principle of buoyancy, an iceberg sinks until _____________. a. the total mass of the water displaced equals 80% of the mass of the iceberg b. about 60% of the iceberg is underwater c. the total mass of the iceberg is underwater d. the total mass of the water displaced equals the total mass of the whole iceberg
d. the total mass of the water displaced equals the total mass of the whole iceberg
Physically precipitated (chemical) limestone that forms in caves is termed ____________. Select one: a. agate b. dolostone c. jasper d. travertine
d. travertine
The magnetic field of Earth in the geologic past is ____________. a. known to have experienced numerous polarity reversals, due to remnant magnetization of iron-rich minerals in rocks b. known to have been constant through geologic time, due to remnant magnetization of iron-rich minerals in rocks c. known to have been constant through time, on the basis of theoretical calculations d. unknown, but it is assumed to have been identical to today's
d. unknown, but it is assumed to have been identical to today's
Chemical weathering takes place most rapidly in environments that are ____________ and ____________. a. cool; dry b. cool; wet c. warm; dry d. warm; wet
d. warm; wet
At the surface, potassium feldspar reacts with water to form clay; this is an example of ____________. a. diagenesis b. erosion c. metamorphism d. weathering
d. weathering
The Wadati-Benioff zone is a belt of earthquakes found ____________. a. within an otherwise stable continental interior b. within an overriding plate at a subduction zone c. along mid-ocean ridges d. within a downgoing plate at a subduction zone
d. within a downgoing plate at a subduction zone
mafic color
dark 95%
Melting that occurs due to a decrease in pressure is called
decompression melting
Which of the following melting processes is important beneath mid-ocean ridges?
decompression melting
what causes a decrease in melting temp of rocks
decreasing pressure increasing water content more Felsic composition
Landslide
deep seated slope failure deeper than 3-6 ft
TRUE
deep water waves are faster than shallow water waves
the atmosphere
dense at sea level and thins up. Mostly Nitrogen then some Oxygen
core
dense center. outer core-liquid. inner core-solid.
2. Mantle (defined by composition-chemically)
denser elements
Deposition
depositing the sediment, place (movement, holding area)
According to the rock cycle, sediment that is being transported by a river could become a metamorphic rock after:
deposition and burial
Tephra
deposits of pyroclastic debris of any size
Factors that control magma cooling
depth shape ground water
Sorting and rounding apply to_______ sedimentary rocks
detrital
Differential Pressure
different magnitudes at different directions
Nonconformity
different types of rock above and below the gap
Different Silicates
different ways of combining silica tetrahedra. double-chain. sheet. 3D framework. isolated. single chain.
What component of magma is required to cause violent volcanic eruptions?
dissolved gases
Mid-ocean rides form where two ocean plates:
diverge
At a ____ plate boundary, lithosphere thickens away from the axis.
divergent
Which plate boundary has new rock forming along with it?
divergent
What type of plates boundaries are shown in this figure?
divergent and transform
3 types of plate boundaries:
divergent, convergent, and transform
Daughters
do the math for the half lives, add them together
solar power advantages
doesn't pollute water quick profit
Advantages of algae farming***
doesn't require freshwater doesn't require cropland material is biodegradable
Left Lateral
down towards the left
Right Lateral
down towards the right
Ablation
downward end getting smaller each year
Prevention of mass wasting
drainage control decrease slope grades building codes retaining walls rock bolts
Arroyo
dry shallow creek beds, when it rains water flows into these and then flows quickly -dangerous to walk in or around
4. Outer Core (defined by physical layer)
ductile, liquid
Which of the following is an example of quantitative data? a). North America is moving across Earth's surface several centimeters per year. b). The river is flowing at one meter per year. c). The volcano is releasing much steam. d). All of these. e). a and b only.
e). a and b only. North America is moving across Earth's surface several centimeters per year. & The river is flowing at one meter per year.
Waves cause beach sand to be ____________. a. well rounded b. poorly sorted c. well sorted d. A and B are both correct. e. A and C are both correct.
e. A and C are both correct.
lithosphere
earth's outer rigid part consisting of the upper mantle, oceanic crust and continental crust
ground failure
earth;s materials loss of strength (producing landslides and liquefaction)
What were the first signs of volcanic activity at Mt. Pinatubo?
earthquakes beneath the mountain and steam explosions
aftershocks
earthquakes that are weaker than the principal tremor
Index Fossil
easy to identify represents short time span -good for correlating and determining rock age
Passive continental margin
edge of the boundary, no where near the plate
Density Stratification
effect of Theia Impact, Center =high density, Outer =low density
shield volcano
effusive basaltic volcanism (Mauna Loa)
seismic wave
elastic waves produced by earthquakes or generated artificially
daughter product (daughter atom)
element produced by radioactive decay of a parent atom
Moment Magnitude Scale
energy released and rock strength- more accurate than richter scale
hadean is a geologic:
eon
Firn line
equilibrium line, no change
The process that mobilizes (transports) the particles produced by weathering:
erosion
contact effects
evidence of baking, passage of hot fluids, or some other manifestation of the thermal and chemical effects of a magma chamber or a hot volcanic unit, as expressed in changes to adjacent wall rocks.
extrusive v intrusive
extrusive-cool quickly at surface intrusive-cool slowly underground
The vast majority of mineral types _____________ . a. are quite common b. are rare c. form under special conditions d. occur in a variety of rock types e. A and D are both correct. f. B and C are both correct.
f. B and C are both correct.
Which of the following is NOT a way crystals can form? a. solidification of a melt b. precipitation from solution c. solid-state diffusion d. biomineralization e. precipitation from gas f. None of the above are correct.
f. None of the above are correct.
Hot-spot volcanism
far from plate boundaries in oceanic or continental lithosphere suggest plate moves over fixed spot
terminal moraine
farthest from the glacier, (basically the end point, last one) DEPOSITION
normal fault
fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall
reverse fault
fault in which the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall
trace fossils
features in rocks made by animals that moved across the surface or burrowed into soft sediment
A proxy used to test water samples for biological contaminants is...
fecal coliform count
During melting:
felsic components melt first
During crystallization
felsic components melt last
Maga compositions
felsic: silica rich, viscous, retains volatiles, low density intermediate: half way mafic: silica poor, low viscosity, release volatiles easy, high density ultramafic: really poor silica
loess
fine grain silts and clays, probably windblown, associated with farm areas DEPOSITION
Archaeopteryx
first undebated bird evolved during jurrasic teeth in both jaws long tail with vertebrae 3 clawed fingers feathered
Large igneous provinces like the Columbia River Plateau are formed from the successive eruptions of:
flood basalts
Seafloor Metamorphism
floor of the ocean, sea water circulates through newly formed igneous rock
Magmas in subduction zones are produced primarily by:
fluid-induced melting.
Heavy elements
form during supernovae--explosions of stars
recrystallization
formation, essentially in the solid state, of new crystalline grains in a rock
ingneous rocks
formed from cooling magma
sedimentary rocks
formed from low temperature accumulations pf particles, OR by precipitation from solution
metamorphic rocks
formed from pre-existing rocks through the application of heat and pressure
Principle of faunal sucession
fossil species succeed on another in a regular and recognizable pattern
Faunal Succession
fossils found in rock layers will be in certain sequence based on age oldest at the bottom (outer layer) etc
The process by which mafic minerals freeze first in a melt, leaving behind a more felsic magma, is called
fractional crystallization
fault
fracture along which the adjacent rock surfaces are displaced parallel to the fracture
inclusion
fragment of older rock or material that is contained within another rock or material, as in a fragment or preexisting rock in a magma.
Ash
fragments less than 2mm in diameter
Medium elements
from Stellar Nucleosynthesis
Pumice
frothy volcanic gas
Pele's tear
frozen droplets
saturated zone
full of water also known as... phreatic
asthenosphere
functions as a soft weak zone where the lithosphere is able to move. Mostly solid but is hotter than the rock above it
Which of the following igneous rocks is the most mafic?
gabbro
While basalt is erupting to the ocean floor at mid-ocean ridges, ___________ is crystallizing in underlying magma chambers.
gabbro
unconformity
gap in geologic time
mosasaurs
giant marine lizards up to 10m long carnivorous
plucking
glaciers pick up big chunks of material EROSION
common metamorphic rock
gneiss, phyllite, schist, hornfels, marble, quartzite,
Is "Neanderthals hunted wooly mammoths to extinction" a good or bad hypothesis and why?
good hypothesis: though it's difficult to test (can use other data to infer)
Pegmetic
grains at least 1 cm
plutonic rock
granite- has huge crystal patterns
Continetal crust is primarily __________.
granitic
Which pair of minerals listed below are polymorphs?
graphite and diamond
Grain size-largest to smallest
gravel sand silt clay
Plastic Flow
gravitational process by which glaciers slowly move at the level of individual ice crystals
ultra mafic color
green or yellow
Protoavis
had hollow bones but no indication of feathers, leading to debate about whether or not it is the first bird
Oceanic crust
has weakly consolidated sediment of overlying rocks most of which are not minerals. Beneath the soft sediments, it is composed of basalt "igneous rock"
Identify the TRUE statement: Mid-ocean ridges
have higher geothermal gradients compared to most other areas of oceanic crust
Wegener's idea of continental drift was rejected by American geologists because
he could not conceive of a valid mechanism that would cause continents to shift positions.
Convection
heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as water, when heated it's caused to move away from the heat source -occurs above a hot surface because hot air expands, becomes less dense, and rises ex)boiling water on a stove
Data from the recent eruption of Mt Ontake indicates an isotope of ________ may help predict eruptions.
helium
Hadean eon
hell on earth - fire everywhere, no record of life
Ore deposits
high concentration of something valuable, flushes out old stuff leaves new stuff
Viscosity
high->no flow low->flow controls gas content, pressure drops=less dissolved gas and vice versa
b. Oceanic Crust
higher density
These are NOT the most common type of geological feature
hills mountains faults folds
where perched water tables develop
hilly terrain where an aquitard lies above an aquifer above the main water table.
fossil fuel advantages
historically cheap and abundant technology well developed infrastructure built to run on them
Principle of original lateral continuity
horizontal beds extend in all directions
Strike Slip Fault
horizontal, parallel to fault plane
Geometry of antiform and synforms
horizontal= pressure left and right plunging=tilted, when looking from above see hinge
magma
hot, molten rock material
Effervescence
how it reacts to weak acid
Accommodation Space
how much the basin can hold
Rounding (detrital sediment)
how smooth and or sperical
Sorting (detrital sediment)
how uniformed is the grain size, history of the rock
accreted terranes
how we grow continents, these are all the pieces essentially added on to each layer.
ice sheets
huge slabs of ice and snow that cover large areas of land for thousands of years
Which of the following phrases is NOT part of the definition of a mineral?
human made
Three types of rocks are:
igneous metamorphic sedimentary
Intrusive Igneous rock
igneous rocks form when magma cools slowly below the Earth's surface. Most intrusive rocks have large, well-formed crystals. Examples include granite, gabbro, diorite and dunite.
Confined aquifer
impermeable, difficult to infiltrate, below the aquitard
half-life
in a radioactive decay refers to the time it takes for half of the parent atoms to decay into a daughter product
Cone of depression
in an aquifer when groundwater is pumped from the well (reduction in pressure) -literally looks like a cone
Andesitic magma
in areas that circle the pacific ocean b/w 800-900 degrees C not dry, not wet 60% SiO2
Infiltration
in the hydrologic cycle, what component describes the recharge of water to the soil and groundwater systems?
The angle of the Earth's magnetic field down into the ground toward the North magnetic pole is called the
inclination
Dip Slip fault
inclined fault plane, up and down (can also be reversed)
The age of the oceanic crust _____ with increasing distance from a mid-ocean ridge.
increases
clast
individual grain or fragment of rock, produced by the physical breakdown of a larger rock mass
Ways to change magma composition
initial source rock partial melting assimilation fractional crystallization
Terrestrial planets
inner 4 planets (mercury venus earth mars)
Basic earth structure from inside out
inner core, outer core, mantle, crust, atmosphere
point bar
inner side of loop, water moves slower and deposits sand
What does intrusive mean? Extrusive? Volcanic? Plutonic?
intrusive/plutonic: below the surface extrusive/volcanic: at or above the surface
Choose the TRUE statement: The age of the sea floor
is youngest at the mid-ocean ridges and oldest farthest from the ridges.
Which of the following features is associated with deep oceanic trench?
island arc
Which minerals do not polymerize?
island silicates (don't stick together)
7. How does the Si:O ratio change among the various silicate subgroups?
island silicates-1:4 single-chain silicates-1:3 double-chain silicates-2:5.5 sheet silicates-2:5 framework silicates-1:2
solar power disadvantages
isolation variations some pollution from making older PV cells where to put solar farms
What is the name for atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons?
isotopes
Saying carbon-12 is a specific isotope of carbon means
it is a carbon atom with a mass of 12.
What is meant by 'relative' age dating?
it is used to examine the relationship of rock and rock units to determine a relative age
what determines if somethings a mineral
it must be natural, inorganic, and crystalline solid Must have an ordered internal structure "atoms are arranged in a regular repeating way" o Chemical composition- most minerals have a specific chemical formula like Sodium (NA) and chlorine (CL) that make up the mineral Halite "Salt"
Imagine yourself in a universe that is exhibiting a blue shift. This must means
it's collapsing.
why was mars atmosphere lost into space over time?
its magnetic field was too weak
intensity
judged based on human or surface features
Gas/Ice giant planets
jupiter saturn uranus neptune
Flood Probability
just do 1 divided by the year flood. ex) if your property is affected by 20 year flood events, what is the probability that your house would be flooded at any given year? 1/20=.05 or 5%
What can destabilize a slope?
lack of water large thunderstorms earthquakes landscaping too steep cutting trees
What volcanic hazard exists well after the eruption ended in 1991?
lahars
Crevasse
large cracks closer to the surface
Blocks
large fragments
Lahar
large mudslides along the slope of volcanoes
vugs
large pores often formed by dissolution
Bombs
largest diameter class of pyroclasts more than 64 mm
Uplift
last step- rock can be uplifted back to the surface and start the process all over again.
The liquid magma that reaches Earth's surface is called:
lava
Materials erupted from volcanoes
lava flows pyroclastic debris volcanic gas
Foliated rocks
layered, experienced differential and directed pressure ex) slate, gneiss, schist
felsic color
light colored 75%
outer core
liguid iron and nickel 10 - 13 density
rectangular drainage pattern
like dendritic but in rectangular shape
striations
lines EROSION
What causes buildings to sink into the ground during a quake?
liquefaction
five spheres of the earth
lithosphere hydrosphere atmosphere cryosphere biosphere
mechanical layers of the Earth
lithosphere- crust and upper mantle. asthenosphere-upper mantle and below the lithosphere.
divergent plate boundary
lithospheric plates move apart
Evidence for Cold Blooded dinosaurs
living reptiles are cold blooded sails and plates on some dinosaurs interpreted as temperature regulators
seismic station
location of a scientific instrument (seismograph) that measures seismic vibrations
Trellis drainage pattern
long main channel (decently straight) with tiny, short streams flowing off, usually around folds
Barrier Island
long narrow island parallel to the coast
Pleisosaurs
long necks paddle like flippers up to 16m long carnivorous laid eggs on land
Chain Silicates
long, linear connection
radio
longest wavelengths
Vesicular
lots of openings-pores
Basaltic lavas form shield volcanoes and flood basalts rather than steep stratovolcanoes because:
low silica results in low-viscosity, fluid lava.
Consider three undeformed horizontal beds of sedimentary rocks. which layer is the oldest?
lower
a. Continental Crust
lower density
What order did the rock layers and features form in this photograph (listed from oldest to youngest)?
lower layer, middle layer, upper layer, fracture
3. Mesosphere (defined by physical layer)
lower mantle, more brittle
what is meant by mafic? sialic or felsic?
mafic: low silicon to oxygen ratio sialic: rich in silica felsic: high silicon to oxygen ratio
magma v lava
maga-underground lava-above ground
Which of the following is associated with a mid-ocean ridge?
magma produced as the mantle rise up
Ridge Push Model
magma pushes up driving plates apart (new hypothesis)
what is a magma? a lava?
magma-silicate liquid below the Earth's surface (intrusive) lava-silicate liquid exiting onto the surface (extrusive)
Coal is formed in what areas
mainly swampy areas
Anthropogenic
man made
Groin
man made structure designed to trap sand as its moved down the beach by longshore drift
Jetty
man made structure that projects into a body of water -could be a pier or just a narrow line of stone, many variations to protect the coastline from currents and tides
A new study suggests earthquakes may hit unusual locations due to movements of the..
mantle
Richter Scale
measures amount of ground shaking by seismometer logarithmic scale mag .3= 10x ground motion of a mag 2 mag .5 =1000x ground motion of mag 2
Mercalli Index
measures property damage in roman numerals II very minor.....XII very major (not used by scientists)
till
melt glacier, reveals all sediments poorly sorted -bunch of rocks DEPOSITION
kettle lakes
melt water trapped between kanes DEPOSITION
A continent has an oceanic trench offshore of its coast. Which of the following is probably NOT present along this side of continent?
melting along a mid-ocean ridge
Mineral Destruction
melting. dissolving. chemical reaction
Transverse Dunes
merged barchans (many of them, wavy looking)
dinosaurs lived during which ear of geologic time?
mesozoic
oxides
metal plus oxygen
3 types of rocks
metamorphic igneous sedimentary
regional metamorphism
metamorphism affecting an extensive region and related mostly to regional burial, heating, and deformation of rocks.
contact metamorphism
metamorphism that principally involves heating of the rocks next to a magma or hot igneous material
Which of the following is NOT one of the main families of rocks
meteorites
What can produce carbon monoxide and sour gas?
methane
Igneous rocks of Iceland
mid ocean ridge basalt
On this map of the south Atlantic, which is the feature that makes a zigzag pattern on the seafloor?
mid-ocean ridge
Which of the following is NOT associated with a convergent plate boundary?
mid-ocean ridge
A divergent plate boundary is most likely associated with a(n):
mid-oceanic ridge
medial moraine
middle DEPOSITION
Perched aquifer
middle of the hill (kind of inside) impermeable
Solid materials that do not possess an orderly arrangement of atoms are called:
mineraloids
native minerals
minerals that contain only a single element Ex. Copper, Silver, and gold
chemical sedimentary rock
minerals that precipitate directly from water solutions. Ex: Irone ore and Rock salt
biofuels advantages
mix with regular gas to reduce pollution and amount needed big new source of income for farmers
outercore minerals
molten and composed mostly of molten iron, with lesser amounts of nickel. It contains scattered crystals
Directed Pressure
more pressure from top and bottom
Moment scale
more useful to scientists measures area of slip on the fault line=energy released
silicates
most abundant minerals in the crust; they include most of the rock-forming minerals and are usually divided into ferromagnesian (usually dark-colored, such as olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica) and non-ferromagnesian (usually light-colored, such as quartz, clay feldspar, and muscovite mica) ex. asbestos (insulator)
Balsaltic magma
most common hottest type, reaching temps up to 1200 degrees C source-mantle dry magma, little water a lot at MOR 50% SiO2
Shield Volcano
most common wide base very large not tall balsaltic magma low viscosity (bc of dome shape, must be low to flow)
basalt
most common volcanic rock
Nebular Hypothesis
most support in scientific community, proposes earth formed from a cloud of dust
Hadley Cells
move heat from the equator to 30 degrees latitude
Plate tectonics
movement of plates and crust
rifting
movement of the plates outward
Debris Flow
moving mass with large material ex) bolder and tree trunks
Rockslide
moving of rocks, didn't break of, slid
Rampart
narrow wall like ridge built up by sea walls (rocks sticking out of the water near large sea walls)
desert pavement
natural concentration of pebbles and other rock fragments, mantling a desert surface or low relief
Artesian well
natural water pressure high enough to push water up, looks like a little spout!
mineral
naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solid having characteristics physical properties and a narrowly defined chemical composition
5 mineral rules
naturally occurring. formed geologically. solid. crystalline structure. definite chemical composition.
Active continental margin
near the plate boundary
anions
negatively charged ions
Which of the following does not develop at a convergent boundary?
new oceanic lithosphere
The two most common gases of Earth's atmosphere and their percentages are
nitrogen 78% and oxygen 21%
if dinosaurs became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic, could they ever have coexisted with humans?
no, human first evolved in the cenozoic, long after the extinction (disappearance) of dinosaurs.
fossil fuel disadvantages
non renewable deposits not uniformly distributed costs going up environmental damage
with DEPOSITION the glacier moves towards the
non-steep side
Which part of an alpine glacier moves the slowest?
none
Thorium-232 (232Th) is a radioactive isotope of Thorium (atomic number 90). How many neutrons are located in the nucleus of Thorium-232?
none of these
which energy sources have no draw backs??
none!! they all have some sort of draw back
dendritic drainage pattern
normal looking flow in multiple directions (looks like a tree without leaves)
end moraine
not actually the last one, marks the retreat, lots of them DEPOSITION
wind power disadvantages
not consistent in many areas (<class 3 wind not viable, goes 1-7) best sites often far from population centers people don't want them in their backyard or favorite places bc of how large they are
Non Foliated rocks
not layered, experienced confining pressure
biofuel disadvantages
not yet cost effective w/o govnt subsidies takes a lot of energy to product ethics-grow fuel instead of food?
nuclear power disadvantages
nuclear electric price tripled btwn 1970-1990 reactor safety nuclear proliferation (iran making electricity or weapons?) nuclear waste disposal
The center of an atom is called
nucleus
atomic number
number of protons
Both change rocks. Heat provides the energy needed to drive chemical reactions. Some of these reactions cause existing minerals to recrystallize. Other reactions cause new minerals to form. Pressure can cause changes in composition and texture.
Compare and contrast the effects of heat and pressure in the formation of metamorphic rocks.
Both clastic and chemical sedimentary rocks form at or near Earth's surface as a result of weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, and/or cementation. They differ in their textures and compositions. Clastic rocks include sandstone, conglomerate, breccia, siltstone, and shale. Chemical rocks include most limestones, rock salt, rock gypsum, chert, and flint.
Compare and contrast the two types of sedimentary rocks and give at least two examples of each type.
continental crust
Composition similar to granite. Thin light gray layer, has the mineral compound Si. Regions with a higher elevation generally have thick crust
Which of the following does NOT help define foliation in metamorphic rocks? a). A dominant orientation of crystals, such as mica. b). Light- and dark-colored bands. c). Flattened shapes of deformed objects, such as pebbles. d). Crystals that grow in a random orientation. e). All of these.
Crystals that grow in a random orientation.
An earthquake of magnitude 6 releases this much more energy than one of magnitude 5: A) 10 times B) 100 times C) 20 times D) 30 times
D
Earthquake intensity A) is the same everywhere. B) increases away from the epicenter. C) increases away from the focus. D) decreases away from the epicenter.
D
Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks are A) marble and quartzite B) shale and andesite C) limestone and marble D) slate and schist
D
If you were building a home in San Francisco, on what type of material would you build in order to minimize potential earthquake damage? A) sand and gravel B) bay mud C) stream deposits D) bedrock
D
Most earthquake damage is usually caused by A) construction on faults B) mass wasting C) ground cracking D) ground shaking
D
On the accompany figure, which letter is over the youngest oceanic crust?
D
The time elapsed between the arrivals of the P- and S-waves at a seismograph is in indication of the A) magnitude B) intensity C) amount of ground motion D) distance between the epicenter and the seismograph
D
This is a precursor of all earthquakes. A) unusual animal behavior. B) release of radon gas C) changes in water levels in wells. D) no universal precursor has yet been discovered.
D
Which feature on this figure is formed by melting of mantle above the slab?
D
Which is used to aid prediction of earthquakes? A) seismic gaps B) precursor phenomena C) earthquake cycle D) all of the above
D
Which mineral subgroup is the most abundant in Earth's crust? A) micas B) garnet C) ferromagnesian D) feldspars
D
Salt and related mineral (Halides and Sulfates)
Halides and sulfates form when water evaporates in a lake or from precipitation in a shallow sea • Ex. Halite and Gypsum
Covalent bond
"Strongest" two atoms share an electron
Volcano
(1) A vent from which melt from inside the Earth spews out onto the planet's surface; (2) a mountain formed by the accumulation of extrusive volcanic rock. (page 140)
Divergent Margins
(new rock forms along with it) two types: -in ocean->mid ocean ridge -continent splits->rift valleys
Metallic bond
- "Low" electrons are shared widely among many atoms "holds material together in a non-rigid way"
Lower Mantle minerals
- Fe-Mg silicates and oxides
non-silicate minerals
- Include, carbonates, Oxides, Sulfides, Salt and related minerals (Halides and Sulfates
Crater
- a bowl-shaped depression atop a volcano - up to 500m across and 200m deep -forms as erupted lava pules up around the vent
geologic time scale
- a chart with the designation for the earliest interval of geologic time at the bottom, followed by upward designations for progressively more recent time intervals
Clastic
- a rock consisting of pieces derived from other rocks is a clastic rock. Form in sand dunes, rivers, and beaches. Composed of pieces called clasts that range from small sand grains to larger pebbles.
theory
- an explanation for some natural phenomenon that has a large body of supporting evidence - must be testable ex. plate tectonic theory
crust
- earth's outermost layer; the upper part of lithosphere, which is separated from the mantle by the mono - divided into continental or coastal crust
Jovian planets
- large planets like Jupiter (Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) - small rocky cores and large gaseous outer region - composed of H, He, NH3 (ammonia) and CH4(methane) which condense at much lower temp than metallic elements of inner planets
Crystalline
- rocks composed of interlocking minerals that grow together. Form in high-temp. environments by crystallization of magma or from precipitation of hot water
geology
- science concerned with the study of earth - includes study of earth materials (minerals, rocks), surface and internal processes and Earth history
asthenosphere
- surrounds the lower mantle - same composition as lower mantle - behaves plastically and slowly flows - partial melting in a sphere generates magma, which rises to the surface b/c it is less dense
core
- the interior part of earth, beginning at a depth of @ 2900 km. - probably composed mostly of iron and nickel divided into an outer liquid core, and an inner solid core
ionic bond
-" Moderate" not as strong as a covalent bond, forms because of the attraction of two oppositely charged ions, such as when one atom loans one or more electrons to another atom
inter-molecular bond
-"Lowest" Several types of weak bonds can attract a molecule to another molecule but such bonds are relatively weak.
Threat of gas or aerosols
-Aerosols cause respiratory problems in people -Volcanic gas can be poisonous
What is a volcano
-An erupting vent through which molten rock surfaces -A mountain built from magmatic eruptions -Clear results to tectonic activity
Lava flow style depends on VISCOSITY which depends on:
-Composition (especially of silica content) -Temperature -Gas content -Crystal content
Eruptive style is related to volcano type
-Effusive eruptions form SHIELD volcanoes -Small pyroclastic eruptions form SCORIA cones -Alternating effusive and pyroclastic eruptions result in STRATOVOLCANOES -Large explosive eruptions create calderas (yellow stone)
Summit eruptions
-Located within the summit crater
Mid-ocean ridge
-MOR generated oceanic crust covers about 70% of Earth -Basalt erupted from fissures quenches as pillows -pillow mounds are pulled apart with plate motion
Volcanos have characteristic features
-Magma chambers -Fissures and vents -Craters -Calderas -Some magma rises via a conduit to the surface -Magma may erupt along a linear tear called a fissure
Fissure
-Magma may erupt along a linear tear called a fissure -Fissure eruptions may display a "curtain of fire" -Fissures evolve into discrete vents and craters
Andesitic or rhyolitic eruptions
-More viscous magmas; more volcanic gas -Make these volcanos more prone to explode -Explosive eruptions generate huge volumes of debris: pumice, ash, pumice lapilli, and accretion lapilli -Tephra -Tuff
What are the major tectonic plates?
-Nazca -Eurasian -North American -South American -Pacific
Eruptions can...
-Provide highly productive soils to feed civilizations -Extinguish a civilization in a manner of minutes -Affect climate and civilizations
Volcaniclastic deposits include...
-Pyroclastic debris: lava fragments that freeze in the air -Pre-existing rock: blasted away by eruption -landslide debris: blocks that have rolled downslope -Lahars: transported as water-rich slurries
Volcano distinctive profiles
-Shield volcanos -Scoria cones (cylinder cones) -Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)
Caldera
-a gigantic volcanic depression -much larger than a crater (one to tens of km across) -usually exhibits steep sidewalls and flat floors -Magma chamber empties and the volcano collapses in
Why are water levels along the Colorado River at historical lows?
-about 30 million people use water from it -it irrigates 1.5 million acres -the region has been in a drought for 10 years
what are the different igneous rock textures? what do they indicate about cooling conditions for the lava/magma?
-aphanitic: rapid cooling of lavas at or near the Earths surface -phanerific: slow cooling of a magma deep within the Earth's interior
Volcanic eruptions can be big enough to change the climate
-ash and aerosoles (tiny liquid droplets) injected into stratosphere and rapidly circle the globe -particles can remain in the stratosphere for months-years -causes atmospheric cooling due to solar reflection
Recurrence interval (PROTECTION FROM ERUPTIONS)
-average time between eruptions -active: recently erupted or likely to erupt -dormant: hasn't erupted in hundreds - thousands of years -extinct: not capable of eruptions
Explosive eruptions (BLOW)
-blow up -release pressure catastrophically; high gas pressure is from more viscous SIO2 rich magma; create pyroclastic flows and cover the land with tephra; can eject many cubic km of debris skyward -mostly andesitic and rhyolitic compositions
Shield volcanoes
-broad slightly dome shaped (like a shield) -constructed lateral flow of low-viscosity basalt lava -has a low slope and cover large geographic areas -Mauna Loa on Hawaii is a perfect example
Threat of falling ash and lapilli (ERUPTIVE HAZARDS)
-can completely bury landscape killing plants and crops -tephra is heavy and can collapse roofs and is rough and abrades car and airplane engines -flood water easily moves tephra as deadly lahars
Scoria cones (cylinder cones)
-conical piles of tephra, the smallest type of volcano -built of ejected lapilli and blocks piled up at a vent -often symmetrical, with a deep summit crater -typically from a single eruption event
Which processes enable tectonic plates to move?
-convection -ridge push -slab pull
What was the consequences of the Theia Impact?
-density stratification -formation of Earth's moon -most of Earth became molten for a time
What are the three main types of plate boundaries?
-divergent -convergent -transform
Volcaniclastic Deposits
-due to large quantities of fragments being erupted
Warning signs indicate that an eruption is imminent
-earthquake activity: magma flows increase seismicity -heat flow: magma causes volcanoes to heat up -changes in shape: magma causes expansion -emissions increase: changes in gas mix up volume
What causes a braided stream to form?
-easily erodible banks -variable discharge -large amount of sediment transport
Mount St Helens (ERUPTIONS TO REMEMBER)
-erupted may 18, 1980 at 8:32 -an earthquake triggered landslide released pressure -an initial vertical blast led to a much stronger lateral blast -lateral blast tore off the entire north side of the mountain about 440m was blasted away -killed 61 people
Hypothesis
-has to be testable/predictable -pass the "if then" test -past and future events (still test with data even if can't actually be there)
What criteria must be met to be considered a mineral?
-have a set chemical formula -be inorganic -be crystalline
What are disadvantages of coal usage?***
-infrastructure incompatibility -more pollution than other fossil fuels -mercury, arsenic produced during mining -Ash disposal -acid rain****
Advantages of nuclear power***
-large US reserve -reduce C emissions*** -decrease fossil fuel dependance -produces tremendous amounts of energy
Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) TYPES
-large cone shaped volcanoes with steeper slopes -made of alternating layers of lava, tephra, and debris -Ex: mount Fuji, Mount Rainer, Mount Vesuvius
Lava flows (ERUPTIVE HAZARDS)
-lava threats are mostly from basalts -usually destroy things but don't kill people because they are moving slowly
Tuff
-lithified ash that may or may not contain lapilli -air-fall tuff: accumulations of ash that fall like snow -ignimbrite: tuff deposited while hot that welds together
Flank eruptions
-located along the side of a volcano
waste classes
-lowest half life- Class A Class B Class C GTCC -highest half life-
Pyroclastic flow
-means flowing cloud of ash; avalanche of hot ash (200-450 C) that races downslope -moves up to 300 km/hr and incinerates everything in its path -very deadly and kills everything quickly EX: Mount Vesuvius, Mount Pelee, Mount Augustine
Volcanic types are linked to tectonic setting
-mid-ocean ridges: spreading axes -convergent boundaries: subduction zones -continental rifts: incipient ocean basins -hot spots: where mantle plumes cut the lithosphere; oceanic hotspots; continental hot spots and flood basalts
Convergent boundaries
-most subaerial volcanoes -arc volcanoes develop on the overriding plate -continental arcs and oceanic islands arcs are common
What data did Wegner use to support his Continental Drift hypothesis?
-mountain belts match up -plants and fossils match up (ex. Mesosaurs found in many different places far away from each other)
Lahars
-mudflows result when water moves ash -more dense than water and can carry away everything in its path
Continental rifts
-partial melting of the mantle (mafic magmas) -partial melting of the crust (felsic magmas) -effusive and explosive eruptions
Geologic setting of volcanoes
-plate motion is the dominate control on volcanism -volcanic types are linked to tectonic setting
Effusive eruptions (FLOW)
-produce a vast outpouring lava flows -lawa flows stream AWAY from vents; lava lakes can form near, or inside the vent; can produce huge lava fountains -common with mafic magma (basalt); very hot and low viscocity
Pyroclastic debris (basaltic eruptions)
-released gases eject clots and drops of molten magma -sometimes basaltic eruptions form dramatic fountains *lapilli, pele's tear, pele's hair, and blocks
Rhyolitic Lava Flows
-rhyolite has the highest SIO2 and the most viscous (thick and sticky) lava -rarely flows; plugs the vest as a lava dome -sometimes lava domes are blown to smithereens
Which two magma (inner) properties dictate lava's (outer) viscosity?
-silica content (when increased viscosity increases) -temperature (when increased viscosity decreases)
Which groups are defined by having a common anion?
-silicates -carbonates -sulfates -phosphates ALL OF THEM
Threat of pyroclastic flow (ERUPTIVE HAZARDS)
-super heated ash clouds -move fast (100-300 km/hr) on a carpet of air -extremely hot (500-1000 degrees C) -flatten buildings and forests
What two things require artificial cooking in order to be usable?
-tar sand -oil shale
Continental hot spots
-thin crust shallow magma -yellowstone
Ocean hot spots
-thousands of thin basalt flows build up through time -building above sea level basalt can flow long distance -lava builds upwards and outwards and the island grows -submarine slumps remove large masses of the volcano
How do geologists learn about the Earth's interior?
-using seismic waves -studying volcanic eruptions -studying meteorites
Volcanic hazards
-volcanic eruptions have profoundly influenced human history and have killed up to 250,000 people in the past 2,000 years -many populated areas have volcanoes and understanding them is the best way to stay safe
A body of rock affected by tensile stress will likely undergo ____________. a. shortening b. stretching c. shear strain
...
An earthquake occurs with an epicenter in the town of New Madrid, Missouri, in the interior of the North American Plate. Where might the hypocenter of this earthquake plausibly be found? a. 20 km beneath New Madrid b. 10 km south of New Madrid c. in New Madrid ("hypocenter" and "epicenter" mean precisely the same thing) d. 200 km beneath New Madrid
...
Normal faults assume a more shallow dip angle with depth; when the fault plane becomes nearly horizontal, these faults are termed ____________. a. detachments b. decollements c. thrusts d. folds
...
What is a transgression? A regression? What causes world‐wide sea levels to rise? To fall?
...
Which type of fault does NOT, by definition, have a fault trace? a. normal fault b. reverse fault c. blind fault d. None of the above are correct; all faults have recognizable traces
...
Foliation is defined as...
...any planar fabric seen in any type of rock.
The phrase trading location for time signifies that...
...different parts of a landscape can be used to infer how the landscape changes over time.
Mid-ocean ridges form where 2 ocean plates....
...diverge.
A seismic wave is refracted to a steeper angle when it...
...passes from a faster material angle into a slower one.
Mid-ocean ridges are higher than surrounding oceanic crust primarily because...
...the lithosphere is hotter.
Coarsely crystalline igneous textures indicate that...
...the rock cooled slowly.
The reason we see volcanism often associated with subduction is...
...the water present in the subducted crust lowers the melting temperature of the material.
How much grant money goes directly to scientists bank account?
0%
What is the youngest unit or feature in this figure?
1
Which figures shows plate boundaries south of Alaska. Which location is likely to contain volcanoes above a subduction zone?
1
Silica Tetrahedron
1 silicon 4 oxygen in pyramid shape
Principle of Uniformitarianism
1) the laws of nature have been constant through time 2) the same processes operating today have operated in the past, though at different rates
How many magnitude 2 quakes does Earth experience in a given year?
1,000,000
Mohs Hardness Scale
1-10; from weakest mineral (talc) to strongest mineral (diamond)
The products of volcanic eruptions can come in three forms
1. Lava flows: molten rock that moves OVER the ground 2. Pyroclastic debris: fragments blown out of a volcano 3. Volcanic gases: expelled vapor and aerosols
earthquake cycle (4 steps)
1. stress build-up 2. sudden fault rupture in major earthquake 3. aftershocks 4. stress build-up again
how are igneous rocks named?
1.) texture/where the liquid is: -aphanitic: lava, extrusive,volcanic -phanerific: magma, intrusive, plutonic 2.) composition of lava/magma -high Si:O ratio=sialic-->LOW TEMP -intermediate compositions=intermediate -low Si:O ratio=mafic-->HIGH TEMP
what is meant by igneous rock texture?
1.) texture/where the liquid is: -aphanitic: lava, extrusive,volcanic -phanerific: magma, intrusive, plutonic 2.) composition of lava/magma -high Si:O ratio=sialic-->LOW TEMP -intermediate compositions=intermediate -low Si:O ratio=mafic-->HIGH TEMP
how many people were displaced/affected as a result of the pinatubo eruption?
1/4 million - 250,000
Currently, commercially available PVC's are how efficient at converting sunlight into electricity?
10-15%
How many people were evacuated once the warning level was raised to a 4?
120,000
Age of the Universe
13.7 billion years old
Two stable Isotopes of carbon
13C and 12C
Suess Effect measures
14 C and 12 C
Amon the choices below, the best estimate of the age of the Universe is
14 billion years old
Bowens Reaction Series
1400 C ultra mafic olivine mafic pyroxene Plagioclase intermediate Amphibole Biotite felsic Orthoclase Muscovite 800 C Quartz
from what distance away were people evacuated?
15 miles
Nevadan Orogeny
180-140 MYA (Jurassic-Early Cretaceous) Western North America Massive compressional event Intrusion of Granites Formed Sierra Nevada, Idaho, Coast Range Batholiths High Angle subuduction
Coal formation
1: Peat- 50%, brown, pile of loose sediment 2: Lignite- 70%, brown, together but very layered and poorly rounded 3: Bituminous- 70-90%, black, better rounded, almost there but dull 4: Anthracite- 90%, fully formed, black, shiny
Why did Banquiao dam fail?
2,000 year flood event occurred
What percentage of Earth's deserts are covered in large amounts of sand?
20 %
If all Earth's glaciers melt, how much would sea level rise?
200 ft
When did greenhouse gases start rapidly accumulating in the atmosphere?
200 years ago
Potassium-40 (40K) is a radioactive isotope of Potassium (atomic number 19). How many neutrons are located in the nucleus of Potassium-40?
21
Which isotope is primarily used for nuclear power?
235 U
Sonoma Orogeny
250 MYA Western North America Mountain-building event Possibly caused by collision of sonomia island group and north america
the atomic number for iron (FE) is 26 , meaning that iron atoms have _____.
26 protons
About how many people would be affected by a large eruption at Mt. Pinatubo?
3/4 of a million people
An igneous rock was formed with 8000 radioactive (parent) atoms but contains only 1000 radioactive (parent) atoms today. if the half-life for the radio element is 10 mi years, the rock is ___ million years old.
30
Many deserts on Earth fall along what degrees latitude
30
How much of the Earth's land is covered in arid + semi-arid areas?
35%
What is the composition of the silicate tetrahedron?
4 oxygen atoms and 1 silicon atom
Every year, about how many volcanic eruptions happen worldwide?
50
What percentage of Earth's warming trend is attributed to natural processes?
50%
How old is the Earth?
6 Ga (6 billion years ago it was created)
In western Europe, when the study of earth's age began, most people believed earth was about ________ years old.
6,000
What is the eruption temperature of rhyolitic lava?
600-800C
The middle east contains how much of the global oil supply?
62%
The atomic number for oxygen is 8, which means all oxygen atoms have:
8 protons
Fossil fuels account for how much of global energy use?
82%
mantle
83% volume of earth consists of peridotite (igneous rock containing Fe and Mg) asthenospehre, lithosphere, plates
Greenhouse gases compose how much of the atmosphere?
<1%
Radiation Rems in relation to sickness
<5 rem no problem 5-20 long term problems but no immediate 20-100 mild radiation sickness 200 + hair loss, 1/3 chance of death 600+ guaranteed death within 14 days
On the accompanying figure, which letter is over the oldest oceanic crust?
A
P-waves are A) compressional waves B) transverse waves C) shear waves D) surface waves
A
Pure ice is a mineral while pure liquid water is not. Why? A) liquid water does not have an orderly internal arrangement of atoms B) liquid water does not occur naturally C) liquid water does not have a definite chemical composition D) all of the above
A
The two most fundamental characteristics that most distinguish minerals are: A) chemical composition and crystal structure. B) color and hardness. C) weight and transparency. D) bonding and atomic number. Positively charged cations form when atoms A) lose electrons. B) gain electrons. C) lose protons. D) gain protons.
A
Which mineral is not a silicate? A) calcite B) quartz C) olivine D) feldspar
A
Hot-spot track
A chain of now-dead volcanoes transported off the hot spot by the movement of a lithosphere plate. (page 162)
Pegmatite
A coarse-grained igneous rock containing crystals of up to tens of centimeters across and occurring in dike-shaped intrusions. (page 155)
diagenesis
A collective term for all the chemical, physical, and biological changes that take place after sediments are deposited and during and after lithification.
erosion
A combination of processes in which materials of the earth's surface are loosened, dissolved or worn away, and transported from one place to another by natural agents (such as water, wind, or gravity).
turbidity current
A down-slope movement of dense, sediment-laden water created when sand and mud on the continental shelf and slope are dislodged and thrown into suspension
Pyroclastic flows
A fast-moving avalanche that occurs when hot volcanic ash and debris mix with air and flow down the side of a volcano. (page 148)
as the result of quick cooling
A fine-grained igneous rock forms: a. deep within Earth b. from magma c. as the result of slow cooling d. as the result of quick cooling
Pumice
A glassy igneous rock that forms from felsic frothy lava and contains abundant (over 50%) pore space. (page 158)
Scoria
A glassy, mafic, igneous rock containing abundant air-filled holes. (page 160)
Superplumes
A huge mantle plume. (page 163)
continental rift
A low trough or series of troughs bounded by normal faults, especially where two parts of a continent begin to rift apart.
cementation
A major process in the formation of clastic sedimentary rocks is: a. contact with magma b. cementation c. hardening d. foliation
Volcaniclastic rock
A material composed of cemented-together grains of volcanic material; it includes both pyroclastic rocks and rocks formed from accumulations of water-transported volcanic debris. (page 160)
Sill
A nearly horizontal tabletop-shaped tabular intrusion that occurs between the layers of country rock. (page 149)
Stoping
A process by which magma intrudes; blocks of wall rock break off and then sink into the magma. (page 153)
Tuff
A pyroclastic igneous rock composed of volcanic ash and fragmented pumice, formed when accumulations of the debris cement together. (page 160)
Large igneous provinces (LIPs)
A region in which huge volumes of lava and/or ash erupted over a relatively short interval of geologic time. (page 162)
Xenolith
A relict of wall rock surrounded by intrusive rock when the intrusive rock freezes. (page 153)
A porphyritic texture indicates that the rock underwent at least two different episodes of cooling.
A rock has a porphyritic texture. What can you conclude about the rock?
Hyaloclastite
A rubbly extrusive rock consisting of glassy debris formed in a submarine or sub-ice eruption. (page 160)
arkose
A sandstone containing a mixture of quartz and at least 25% feldspar grains - buried and lithofied
graded bed
A sediment layer characterized by a decrease in sediment size from bottom to top
clastic sedimentary rock
A sedimentary rock made of broken fragments of preexisting rock Ex: Breccia, Conglomerate, and Sandstone *Klastos = Broken (Greek)
A dike is
A sheet-like intrusion that cuts across surrounding layers of rock
A sill is
A sheet-like intrusion that lies parallel to surrounding layers of rock
Dike
A tabular (wall-shaped) intrusion of rock that cuts across the layering of country rock. (page 149)
Ultramafic
A term used to describe igneous rocks or magmas that are rich in iron and magnesium and very poor in silica. (page 144)
Which of the following did NOT cause damage in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake? a). Ground shaking. b). A tsunami. c). Fires that broke out after the earthquake. d). Ground ruptures, cracks, and fissures.
A tsunami.
Batholiths
A vast composite, intrusive, igneous rock body up to several hundred km long and 100 km wide, formed by the intrusion of numerous plutons in the same region. (page 153)
cross bed
A vertical slice cut into a ripple or dune caused by a current of air or water moving in one direction.
Which area(a) on the map is likely to have earthquakes?
A,B, and C
Which area(s) on this world map are likely to be near a plate boundary?
A,B, and C
What is aa lava? What is pahoehoe lava? Why are they different?
Aa-jagged, blocky, low gas content Pahoehoe-smooty, ropey, high gas content
Effusive eruptions are characterized by ____, while explosive eruptions have _____.
All fo the possible answers are correct. lava flows; pyroclastic debris low viscosity lava; high viscosity lava low gas content; high gas content hotter magma; cooler magma
The Big Bang Theory
All mass and energy in a single point that exploded and is still expanding.
Which of the following statements regarding the Big Bang theory are true?
All matter in the Universe was once confined to a single point. The Universe is considerably older than Earth.
Hot-spot volcanoes
All of the above
In silicate minerals, silicon tetrahedra might be coordinated to form
All of the above
Whether an eruption will primarily produce lava flows or pyroclastic debris is influenced by
All of the above
Which of the following can be preserved in metamorphic rocks? a). Fossils b). Ripples c). Cross beds. d). Pebbles, though often deformed. e). All of the above.
All of the above.
Viscosity of lava is dependent on
All of the possible answers are correct/ silica content temperature gas content chemical composition
Which of the following does NOT match a sedimentary rock with a possible metamorphic equivalent? a). Sandstone - quartzite. b). Limestone - marble. c). Shale - schist. d). Shale - gneiss. e). All of these are correct matches.
All of these matches are correct.
Which of the following can be understood by studying sedimentary rocks? a). How enviroments shifted in location through time b). past changes in climate c). past events (such as landslides and earthquakes) d). migration of deserts and advances of the sea E). All of these.
All of these.
Factors that influence the chemical composition of magmas may include
All the possible answers are correct the chemical composition of the source rock. partial melting of the source rock. melting and assimilation of some of the rock of the magma chamber walls. mixing of magmas brought together from different locations.
Silicates
All the possible answers are correct.
Lava of low viscosity
All the possible answers are correct. could logically build a shield cone. indicates an area that has little potential for explosive eruptions. is logically basalt. has low silica content.
Rhyolite lava
All the possible answers are correct. has more silica than basalt lava does. indicated the tendency for explosive activity. may freeze in the vent and emerge as a spine. may form a lava dome above the vent.
Which of the following types of faults does not generate earthquakes? a). Normal fault. b). Reverse fault. c). Thrust fault. d). Strike-slip fault. e). All types of faults can generate earthquakes.
All types of faults can generate earthquakes.
Within the sea floor, the rate of heat flow is greatest
Along mid-ocean ridges
what is the silica tetrahedron?
An Anion containing 4 oxygen atoms and 1 silicon atom; can directly bond to others by sharing oxygen atoms.
Volcanic agglomerate
An accumulation consisting dominantly of volcanic bombs and other relatively large chunks of igneous material. (page 160)
Felsic
An adjective used in reference to igneous rocks that are rich in elements forming feldspar and quartz. (page 145)
Obsidian
An igneous rock consisting of a solid mass of volcanic glass. (page 158)
Plutons
An irregular or blob-shaped intrusion; can range in size from tens of m across to tens of km across. (page 149)
Hot-spot volcanoes
An isolated volcano not caused by movement at a plate boundary, but rather by the melting of a mantle plume. (page 162)
therians
Ancestral to marsupials
Which of the following mountain chains is made up primarily of volcanoes formed at an ocean-continent subduction zone??
Andes
breccia
Angular fragments of rock with shar edges cemented together.
Cause of Sea Breeze
Daytime: sand warms more than water, so air above sand is warmer than air above water. That warm air rises, and cool air over the water fills into the space it left.
Identify the factors which cause melting and thus the formation of magma. Select all that apply.
Decompression Heat Transfer Volatiles
Evidence for Warm blooded dinosaurs
Degree of bone vascularization similar to mammals Paleographic distribution (dinosaurs everywhere) Predator/prey ratio closer to mammals than reptiles Warm-blooded birds evolved from dinosaurs analysis of bone indicates constant body temperature
oceanic crust
Denser and darker, has Fe, Mg Oceanic crust is thinner than continental crust and consists of denser rock. Regions underlain only by oceanic crust are well below sea level.
coarse grained
Describe the texture of the rock.
Types of Sediments
Detrital Chemical (dissolution and evaporation) Biogenic (chalk, limestone, coal)
A giant tsunami affected which ocean basin 73,000 years ago?
Atlantic
A fault: A) is a seismic gap B) is a fracture along which offset has occurred. C) is a fracture along which offset has not occurred. D) is a special type of fold.
B
A secondary effect that often causes more damage than ground shaking in urban areas is A) sand boils. B) fire. C) seismic gaps. D) ground cracks.
B
Earthquake cycles refer to A) timing between p waves. B) broad time intervals between earthquakes. C) the duration of ground motion. D) the number of years since the previous earthquake.
B
Earthquakes originate from the A) epicenter B) focus C) fault scarp D) all of the above
B
In the Midwest, which area is most likely to experience a strong earthquake? A) northern Wisconsin B) the Bootheel region of Missouri. C) South Dakota D) Minnesota
B
Where is subduction occurring on this map of South America?
B
the accompanying figure, which letter is likely over oceanic crust that is similar in age to that beneath letter E ?
B
Plutonic Rocks
Dike-vertical Sill-horizontal Laccolith-bubble shape, close to surface, dome Batholith-Huge! No specific shape
The shape of the earth's magnetic field is approximately that of a
Dipole
Regional metamorphism subjects rocks to extreme changes in temperatures and pressures. As a result, the rock undergoes structural and compositional changes. During contact metamorphism, intruding magma causes a rise in temperature of the parent rock. Changes are often slight.
Distinguish between regional and contact metamorphism
Mid-ocean ridges are
Divergent plate boundaries
Rhyolitic (felsic) lavas
Do not flow as far from the vent as basaltic (mafic) lavas do
Icthyosaur
Dolphin-like body flipper-like forelimbs carnivorous live young
SC E-line is
E-40 because of tourism
Which E-line is used as the national recommendation as the limit for new construction?
E-60
Breakup of Pangea Stage 4
Early Cenozoic Rifting between Antarctica and Australia India and Australia move farther north Continued widening of North Atlantic Ocean
Navajo Sandstone
Early Jurassic Rounded domes and bluffs Arizona through Northwest Colorado
Posidonia Shale
Early jurassic Unaltered hard parts Marine reptiles and pterosaurs Oxygen depleted, deep water
seismicity
Earth movements, either on the surface or at depth, caused by earthquakes.
radiation
Earth receives energy from the Sun in this way.
Plate Tectonics
Earth's outer shell is broken into rigid moving plates
Milankovitch Cycle
Eccentricity Obliquity Precession
Non-violent eruptions characterized by extensive flows of basaltic (mafic) lava are termed
Effusive
Prototherians
Egg-laying mammals
What weather event is predicted to affect the US this winter?
El Nino
K-T boundary
End of dinosaurs 1-2 Punch by asteroid impact and opening of deccan traps, possibly triggered by asteroid impact Bolide impact discovered by
Which of the following are the largest divisions of geologic time?
Eons
Basaltic lava is more viscous than rhyolitic lava and therefore can flow easily over long distances.
False
Lithosphere and crust are synonymous.
False
Cleavage is something only seen in minerals.
False.
Convection is thought to be the main force behind plate tectonics.
False.
When metamorphic rocks from, they almost always melt due to the heat and pressure put on them. (T or F?)
False.
Which elements are most common in the crust of Earth?
Feldspar group: alkai feldspar polymorphs - orthoclase, sanidine, microcline, potassium, and plagioclase series minerals.
Only chemical reaction we need to know:
Feldspar+H2O+H2CO3-->kaolinite+dissolved ions
Pyroclastic debris
Fragmented material that sprayed out of a volcano and landed on the ground or sea floor in solid form. (page 142)
Solnhofen Limestone
German laggerstate (South germany) includes archaeopteryx as well as other dinosaurs causes of enhanced preservation include high O2 and high salinity
valley glaciers, alpine
Glaciers found in valleys moving a few centimeters per day
Pillow basalt
Glass-encrusted basalt blobs that form when magma extrudes on the sea floor and cools very quickly. (page 165)
First birds
Gliders, appeared in Permian not true flyers
Ammonites
Good index/guide fossils
Which of the following is a correct statement about resources in sedimentary rocks? a). Groundwater mostly resides in the pore spaces between grains and in fractures. b). Oil and natural gas migrate down until they are trapped at depth. c). Coal forms from the burial of deep-water organic shale. d). The most important component of cement come from siltstone. e). Uranium does not commonly occur in sandstone.
Groundwater mostly resides in the pore spaces between grains and in fractures.
Regions of the sea floor with preset day positive magnetic anomalies were formed during times when the Earth's magnetic field
Had normal polarity
Major Eons
Hadean 4.5-4 Ga Archean 4-2.5 Ga Proterozoic 2.5 Ga-550 Ma Phanerozoic 550 Ma- Now
scleractinian corals
Hard corals thatt generate a hard skeleton First appearance in middle jurassic
What is the largest volcano on Earth?
Hawaii
Compare and contrast Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, Pelean, and Plinian types of eruptions.
Hawaiian (fissure eruption)-quiet, not very viscous Strombolian-somewhat more explosive eruption type due to a slightly higher viscosity Vulcanian-intermediate in composition and temp./higher viscosity Vesuvian-characterized by pyroclastic flows Plinian-highly viscous magmas, characterized by ejection of large volumes of ash, accompanied by caldera collapse
Why others didn't believe Wegener
o He could not explain how or why the continents moved. Scientists of his day could demonstrate that this mechanism was not feasible. Continental crust is not strong enough to survive the forces needed to move a large mass across such a great distance while pushing aside ocean crust. Scientist could demonstrate this with experiments and calculations.
With increasing altitude, the concentration of gases in our atmosphere
Becomes less dense
Chert
Bioclastic, Texture: bioclast, Composition: micro-crystalline quartz, Comments: harder than glass, concoidial fracture, Depositional env. and energy: Low, deep marine
Coal
Bioclastic, Texture: bioclast, Composition: organic material, Comments: Black, shiny, softer than glass Depositional env. and energy: Low, swamp
Micrite
Bioclastic/chemical-Bioclast/crystalline-Micro-crystalline calcite-Grey color, fizzes w/acid-Low-energy, lagoon, deep marine
Petrified Wood
Bioclastic/chemical-quartz (composition)-tree-rings & bark texture-Depositional env. and energy: low, swamp or flood plain
Which of the following is NOT a mineral?
Both A and B are NOT minerals; however C is a mineral
What are the different types of sedimentary rocks and where do they occur?
Breccia: gravel sized, angular fragments Conglomerate: gravel sized, rounded fragments Sandstone: sand sized particles (made of siltstone) Shale: clay/silt-sized particles Limestone: formed from dissolved ions in soluation
Rocks were weathered to form sediments. The sediments were eroded, deposited, compacted, and cemented to form the rock.
Briefly describe how this rock formed.
Earthquake belts are found along A) coastlines. B) river valleys. C) plate boundaries. D) epicenters.
C
Earthquakes occur most often here: A) at Hot Spots such as Hawaii B) in the interior of plates C) at the boundaries between plates D) along the Midatlantic Ridge
C
Faults that lock or stick will A) never produce earthquakes B) creep slowly and produce only small earthquakes C) accumulate strain until a large earthquake occurs D) deform in a plastic fashion
C
Ground shaking in areas with very wet ground can cause A) p waves. B) tsunami. C) liquefaction. D) aftershocks.
C
Large earthquakes A) always cause tsunamis B) result from tectonic creep C) result from plastic deformation D) result from movement of previously locked faults
C
disconformity
occurs between essentially parallel laywers of rock
Identify the FALSE statement: The Doppler effect
occurs when the pitch of a sound hightens as the source recedes.
Thermohaline
ocean circulation
Which layer in the earth is similar in composition to basalt, a dark lava rock?
oceanic crust
Which of the following Earth layers is the thinnest?
oceanic crust
What type of plates boundary is depicted in this figure?
oceanic divergent boundary
Basalt flows
often thin and fluid flow rapidly (up to 30km/hr) flow for long distances (up to several hundred km) most flows are 10 km and long distance flows are usually facilitated by lava tubes
What economic resource is found on the continental shelf?
oil
What only forms at ca 2-5 km depth and temps <150 degrees?
oil
During the production of new ocean crust at a mid-ocean ridge, which of the following processes happen?
old crust moves away from the ridge axis, so that the sea floor gets wider.
Slab Pull Model
old, dense, heavy plate sinks pulling other plates behind it
Archean eon
oldest fossil, bacteria, and alage
Superposition
oldest layer on the bottom, youngest on the top layer
Anticline
oldest layer tucked in
Which of the following is probably least at risk geologic hazards?
on gentle slopes away from mountains
S-waves are A) compressional waves B) longitudinal waves C) shear waves D) surface waves
C
The effects of an earthquake on humans and their structures at a particular geographic location are described by A) rate of tectonic creep B) magnetic inclination C) intensity D) Richter magnitude
C
The most damaging by-product of a submarine earthquake is A) ground subsidence B) ground cracking C) a tsunami D) mass movements
C
Where is it most likely that an earthquake will occur? A) subduction zone B) spreading center C) seismic gap D) transform fault
C
On this map of South America, which features are NOT on a plate boundary?
C and D
Sheet Silicates
one continuous flat sheet that can be stacked
isotopes
one or 2 or more species of the same chemical element but differing from one another by having a different number of neutrons
dendrites
one or more minerals that has crystallized in a branching manner
lateral moraine
one the sides DEPOSITION
Rhyolitic magma
only within continental crust shallow wet magma 70% SiO2
The metamorphic rocks often have a different composition; they can be foliated, unlike the parent rocks; the minerals might be larger than in the parent rock; and the metamorphic rocks are often more dense than the rocks from which they formed.
In what ways do metamorphic rocks differ from the sedimentary and igneous rocks from which they form?
sorting
Indicates the degree to which the clasts in a rock are all the same size or include a variety of sizes.
Coccolith
Individual plates of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores Important because they make up massive amounts of limestone such as oolitic limestones
cut bank
outer side of loop where water flows fast and erodes the bank
crust
outermost. continental-granitic. oceanic-basaltic (mafic)
Creep
overtime, slowly the slope moves ex) fences angling and becoming crooked
What are the two most abundant elements in Earth's crust?
oxygen and silicon
Which of the following sequences is written correctly from oldest to the youngest?
palezonic, mesozoic, cenozoic
sill
parallels rock layers
What is required for radiometric dating to work?
parent and daughter isotopes must me present in the specimen
P waves
pass through earths core compressional in nature (spring) no vertical or lateral movement
Sedimentary rocks are a primary source of information about:
past climates, evolution of life on earth, energy resources
Lapilli
pea sized fragments
When maga crystallizes, ______ are formed.
Intrusive igneous rocks
By mass, the four most abundant elements in the Earth are oxygen, silicon, magnesium, and
Iron
No, if two rocks have the same composition, then they are the intrusive and extrusive equivalents of one another. Thus, they cannot have the same textures.
Is it possible for two different types of igneous rocks to have the same composition and the same texture? Explain
Unlike the lithosphere, the asthenosphere
Is relatively weak, and flows readily
3. How do silicate tetrahedral combine to form the various silicate minerals?
Isolated tetrahedral combine with magnesium and iron to make olivine. Sharing two of its oxygen atoms with others form a chain silicate mineral, pyroxene. Two chains combine to form double chain silicates, amphiboles. Sharing 3 oxygen atoms as sheet silicates from micas.
Why is glass not a mineral?
It does not have a fixed crystalline structure.
Mt. St. Helens erupted in 1980, sending out gas and pyroclastics. Geologists have found evidence of many eruptions of St. Helens, dating back 37,000 years. The mountain is huge and is composed of layers of lava and pyroclastics. Which of the following is most likely true?
It's a stratovolcano (or composite cone).
Who devised the Principle of Uniformitarianism?
James Hutton
Metamorphic rocks: A. may be formed only from preexisting sedimentary rocks B. must be heated sufficiently to melt C. are rocks changed through the effects of heat and pressure in the earth, without melting D. all of the above
C; because if rocks get molten they will crystallize as igneous and any rock can undergo metamorphism
Lava flows
Can be thin and runny OR thick and sticky
What area is fighting to prevent offshore wind farming 5 miles from their coast?
Cape Cod
Which of the following volcanic features is NOT related to plate-boundary magmatism?
Kilauea, Hawaii
ice shelves
Large, relatively flat masses of floating ice that extend seaward from the coast but remain attached to the land
What does grain size generally indicate about the cooling of a melt?
Larger crystals indicate the melt cooled gradually.
Selma Group
Late Cretaceous Chalk Formation, lots of dinosaurs Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee
Laramide Orogeny
Late Cretaceous through Cenozoic Gentle folding and formation of anticlines, domes, basins New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming
Chinle Formation lagerstatte
Late Jurassic Silicification and low O2, unaltered hard parts Lots of petrified trees, amniotes, fish Low O2, unaltered hard parts
Morrison Formation
Late Jurassic Unaltered hard parts Big dinosaurs, likely herbivores, some small animals
Great Valley Group
Late Jurassic through Cretaceous Indicative of an ancient seaway that formed in the great valley Western California
Franciscan Group
Late Jurassic to Cretaceous Primarily Metamorphic, serpentine schists San Francisco Peninsula
Breakup of Pangea Stage 3
Late Jurassic-Cretaceous Rifting between South America and Africa to form South Atlantic Ocean India moves farther north Greenland begins to rift from North America and Europe
Shinarump Conglomerate
Late Triassic Conglomerate formation, part of chinle formation. Fluvial and lacustrine with eolian dune deposits. Contains several fossil-lagerstatte such as Green River Basin. Throughout colorado plateau
Breakup of Pangea Stage 1
Late Triassic Rifting between Gondwana and Laurasia Forms Gulf of Mexico and North Atlantic
Breakup of Pangea Stage 2
Late Triassic-Jurassic Break-up of Gondwana South America and Africa Break up Antactica/Australia break from Africa and Indian plate
Newark Supergroup
Late Triassic-Jurassic Continental alluvial fans, fluvial, lacustrine Nova Scotia to North Carolina
Which of the following statements about the viscosity of lavas is true?
Lava viscosity increases as the lava increases as it becomes more sialic.
The Doppler Effect
Light moving toward us compresses: blue. Light moving away from us expands: red. Universe is expanding because distant stars are red shifting
Imagine you hear the main character in a low budget science-fiction movie say he will "return ten light years from now." What, if anything, is wrong with his usage of the term?
Light years are used to measure distance.
Saurischian
Lizard-Hipped Teeth limited to front or entire jaw margin Adapted for cutting and tearing
TRUE
Lowering of the water table around a pumping well results in a cone of depression.
The difference between lava and magma is that
Magma is found beneath the Earth's surface, whereas lava has reached the surface
Difference between Mammals and Reptiles
Mammals have 3 bones in middle ear, reptiles have 1 Reptiles have multiple lower jaw bones, mammals have 1 Reptiles have poorly differentiated teeth, mammals have fully differentiated teeth
Which of the following volcanoes is NOT a composite volcano (stratovolcano)?
Mauna Loa, Hawaii
What are the different types of weathering?
Mechanical/physical: without any change in chemistry, breaking the rocks smaller & smaller (thermal stress/frost wedging/exfoliation/root action/hydraulic action) Chemical: changing in composition in rocks through chemical reactions; ex: water and acids (hydrolysis, oxidation, dissolution)
Heat-transfer melting
Melting that results from the transfer of heat from a hotter magma to a cooler rock. (page 144)
Pangea
Mesozoic Supercontinent, formed 270 million years ago, broke up 200 million years ago
Panthalassa
Mesozoic global ocean surrounding pangea
foliated
Metamorphic rocks that have a banded appearance due to the alignment of minerals are called: a. foliated b. nonfoliated c. clastic d. glassy
Louann Salt
Mid-Jurassic Widespread evaporite formation. Formed due to GoM being shallow and rapidly evaporating Gulf of Mexico
Marine magnetic anomaly belts (on oceanic basaltic crust) run parallel to
Mid-ocean ridges
Minerla groups and an example of each
Mineral Groups (on the basis of their anions) clays (expansive), micas Silicates Quartz most common feldspar (most abundant): orthoclase, plagioclase. minerals Ferromagnesian: biotite, olivine, hornblende Halides: halite, fluorite Carbonates: dolomite, calcite Non Sulfates: gypsum Silicates Sulfides: pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena Oxides: hematite, magnetite Native elements: Ag Cu, Au (C= diamond), S
in which state did a 100 yard long sinkhole recently open?
Mississippi
The boundary separating the crust from the mantle is called the
Moho
Magma
Molten rock beneath the Earth's surface. (page 140)
Which of the following statements is true?
Molten rock is less dense than solid rock.
Lava
Molten rock that has flowed out onto the Earth's surface. (page 140)
When rock is partially melted, the chemistry of the melt is
More felsic than the original chemistry of the rock that was partially melted
If a body of magma is subjected to fractional crystallization, the rock that forms initially out of the magma (that is, the rock that forms out of the crystals that first crystallize out of the magma) is expected to be
More mafic than the magma
TRUE
Most caves originate by solution of limestone.
Ceratopsians
Mostly Quadrupedal Bony neck frills horns on skull
Theropods
Mostly carnivorous bipedal 60 cm to 14m long 2kg-7tons T-Rex
Sauropods
Mostly herbivorous Quadripedal 30 m Long up to 80 tons
At a convergent plate boundary, two opposite plates
Move towards one another
the dominant rock of earth's mantle is
peridotite
Which of the following pairs of intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks do not both have the same chemical composition?
peridotite and basalt
The Jurassic is a geologic
period
Eccentricity
periodicity of 100,000 years
This stratovolcano recently erupted in the US. Although it warned of its impending eruption, it still killed people, partly because it fist blew sideways and produced a monstrous landslide. The explosion sent tons of ash skyward and blasted more than 1,000 feet off the mountaintop. The volcano is:
Mt. St. Helens
How was C14 dating determined to be accurate when it was first devised?
Mummies 14C dates matched historical data
Will glaciers expand, sea levels drop and hurricanes be fewer and weaker with global warming continuing?
NO myths
The weathering process is subdivided into:
physical and chemical.
The process that breaks rocks into smaller pieces that are not changed in composition:
physical weathering
Frost Wedging
physically breaks down rocks via repeated freeze-thaw action
outwash
picked up by melt water, no big rocks, moved a little further away makes up Eskers DEPOSITION
hypocenter (focus)
place where an earthquake is generated
What mineral is the most abundant in igneous rocks of intermediate composition?
plagioclase feldspar
foliation
planar arrangement of textural or structural features in metamorphic rocks and certain igneous rocks
Divergent boundaries
plates move apart. mid-ocean ridge. sea-floor spreading causes plates to move apart
Convergent boundaries
plates move together. plate consumption called subduction. continent-ocean: volcanic belt, subduction zone, trench, earthquake. ocean-ocean: subduction, deep trench, island arc, earthquakes continent-continent: major young mountain belt, earthquakes
Transform boundaries
plates slide sideways. earthquakes and no volcanoes.
epicenter
point on the Earth's surface directly above where an earthquake occurs
Epicenter
point on the surface directly above the focus
Stratacones (composite volcanoes, strata volcanoes)
powerful eruptions large steep andesitic and ryholitic magma
During El Nino...
precipitation decreases near Australia, and water temperature increases near South America
What is the defining property of a desert used by most scientists?
precipitation or lack of (<10 in a year)
Which variables affect the melting point of rocks?
pressure temperature presence of water
Regional Metamorphism
pressure driven, big areas, not restricted to body of magma
pore water (pressure)
pressure of groundwater held within a soil or rock in gaps between particles (pores)
3 ways to trigger rock melting
pressure release: mid-ocean ridges continental rifts volatile addition (subduction zones) heat transfer (rising magma moved by melting)
The concept that sedimentary beds in an outcrop contain fossils in a definite sequence is the:
principle of faunal succession
the concept that sediments are deposited under the influence of gravity as approx horizontal layers of particles is the :
principle of original horizontality
original horizontality
principle that most sediments and many volcanic units are deposited in layers that originally are more or less horizontal
subduction
process along a convergent plate-tectonic boundary in which an oceanic lithospheric plate descends beneath the overriding plate
isotopic dating
process of dating rock using radioactive decay
numeric dating
process of determining ages of rocks by using analytical measurements
numeric dating (absolute dating)
process of determining ages of rocks by using analytical measurements
Lithification
process of loose sediments changing into solid rock compaction
lithification
process of sediments turning into rock
oil disadvantages
produce more GGs than other fossil fuels not profitable at low oil prices cooking=use energy to make energy extensive mining operations uses lots of water
thrust fault
product of compressive stress (normally at convergent boundaries)
Planetary Accretion
proposes that Earth was formed via collisions among relatively small particles in space
Each element has a unique number of:
protons
each element has a unique number of
protons
The number on the periodic table indicates the number of..
protons! ex) Li is #3 therefore it has 3 protons
Isotopes contain equal numbers of_____ but different numbers_______
protons....neutrons
common igneous rock
pumice, ryholite, granite, basalt
Lapilli
pyroclast 2-64 mm
Ash
pyroclast <2 mm, powder
The Mount Pelée eruption of 1902, a mixture of hot air and ash, was a:
pyroclastic flow.
Which possible volcanic hazards could they expect of Pinatubo erupted?
pyroclastic flows and lahars
What volcanic hazards existed during the main eruption?
pyroclastic flows?
the most plentiful minerals in peridotite are
pyroxene and olivine
shallow-focus
quakes that occur in divergent boundaries because seafloor spreading occurs close to surface *there are shallow and deep quakes in subduction zones (bc lithospheric plates go deep into asthenospere) *intraplate quakes are very severe (large stress required to move them)
Radiometric age dating?
radiometric methods employ radioactive isotopes to accurately determine the age of a rock in years Igneous rock: isotopes determine the age of crystallization Metaphoric rock: isotopes determine the age of change Sedimentary rocks: cannot be determined by radiometric - used instead relative age dating
What scientific ave of investigation gave scientists the best estimate of the absolute age of the earth?
radiometric or isotopic dating
Fracture
random shaped cracks
caldera
really big, requires collapse of the entire volcano into an emptied magma chamber
Strong evidence that the Universe is expanding comes from the fact that the light emitted from distant galaxies appears to be
red shifted
what atmospheric effects did the eruption of mt. pinatubo have?
reduce the global temperature by a full degree for about 5 years
isostasy
refers to the concept of different thickness of crust riding on the mantle. Areas with denser crust are generally lower in elevation than areas less dense
What alters an isotopes half life?
NOTHING
compaction and cementation
Name two processes that can occur at point C
Which of the following volcanic eruptions resulted in the deaths of over 20,000 people?
Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985
what is the name of the scientist whose work laid the foundation for the modern science of stratigraphy?
Nicalaus steno
Cause of Land Breeze
Nighttime: sand cooler faster than water, so air above water is warmer than air above sand. That warm air rises, and cool air over the land fills into the space it left.
Is the silicate tetrahedron electrically neutral?
No, it has a charge of -4
Radioactive waste containing isotopes with half lives >20 years...
None
Every single slope has an angle of repose of...
None the same
Paleo-tethys
Ocean formed between gondwana and hunnic terrains
Negative Feedback
Oceanic Heat Transport (glaciers diluting in salt water) belt slows, less heat is transferred
Vesicles
Open holes in igneous rock formed by the preservation of bubbles in magma as the magma cools into solid rock. (page 157)
3. Outer Core (defined by composition-chemically)
Outer part of the core (not utmost center), almost pure iron
terrace
relatively level or gently inclined surface, or bench, bounded on one edge by a steeper descending slope.
Lithospheric mantle
relatively strong and solidly attached to overlying crust. The crust and uppermost part of the mantle form the lithosphere
nuclear cooling tower
removes heat energy, looks like a cement volcano
Deflation
removes only fine grained sediments from a desert via wind erosion
Erosion
requires energy: water, wind, gravity, ice to move sediment
hydroelectric disadvantages
reservoir creation floods areas dams alter downstream environments site selection-efficiency-safety
hyrdocarbon advantages
resources growing in recent years burns much cleaner, 30% less CO2 emitted
Equilibrium Crystallization
results in NO CHEMICAL CHANGE between the magma and the igneous rock that forms from it
How does metamorphic rock become igneous rock?
reverse transformation process: melting to magma and cooling to igneous
Moraines
ridges of till deposits at edge of glacier DEPOSITION
braided stream
rivers with multiple channels
abrasion
rock broken off and transported (dump truck effect) EROSION
Silicates
rock forming minerals. compose most of earth's crustal volume and mass.
brittle
rock or material that deforms by fracturing and frictional processes.
ductile
rock or material that is able to flow as a solid or otherwise deform without fracturing and faulting
strain
rock responds to stress by deforming internally - size or shape changes without layers breaking or rotating.
The process of magmatic differentiation explains how:
rocks of varying composition can arise from the same parent magma
2. Asthenosphere (defined by physical layer)
rocks start to lose strength, ductile
Angular unconformity
rocks tilt
Pillow basalt
round blobs of basalt cooled in water very common in mid-ocean ridges
As sediment is transported downstream, the particles tend to become:
rounder and smaller
What is the major form of erosion on Earth today?
running water - (when water runs down the side of the mt into a river).
mafic lava v felsic lava
runny v not moving far from the crater
methane disadvantages
safety issues-sour gas contributes to atmosphere CO2
Why does seawater sink in the northern atlantic?
salt content increases
Salinity contamination
salt water contamination, associated with coastal regions
polymorphs
same composition, different structure
the water table boundary is between
saturated zone and unsaturated zone remember interchangeable names can be used!
The silica tetrahedron that forms the backbone of all silicate minerals is composed of silicon and what other element?
Oxygen
ultraviolet
Ozone filters out most of the ________ radiation in sunlight.
stratosphere
Ozone is concentrated in the ________.
Seismic waves fastest to slowest
P->S->L
What is the era of geologic time that refers to "ancient life"?
Paleozoic
Phanerozoic's 3 eras
Paleozoic (cambrian explosion) Mesozoic (dinosaurs) Cenozoic (now)
strata
Parallel layers of sedimentary rock.
tributary
secondary stream that joins or flows into a larger stream, river, or lake.
In which type of rocks are fossil most commonly found?
sedimentary
Principle of statigraphic correlation
sedimentary layers in distant regions deposited at the same period will be characterized by the same fossil content.
Most common type of rock at earths surface:
sedimentary rock
biochemical sedimentary rock
sedimentary rock formed from material (such as shells) produced by living organisms
What is the proper term for the huge volcanoes with very gentle slopes?
shield volcanoes
Volcanic domes are associated with ________ magma.
sialic
Lava viscosity increases as:
silica content increases and lava temperature decreases
Felsic, intermediate, and mafic igneous rock all are dominantly made up of
silicate
What is the most common group of mineral's at Earth's surface?
silicates
How are minerals classified
silicates, oxides, carbonates, halides, sulfates, sulfides
Mesozoic era
Periods Cretaceous: flowering plants;dinosaur, and ammoniod extinctions Jurassic: first bird and mammals, abundant dinosaurs Triassic: Abundant coniferous trees
Paleozoic era
Periods: Permian: Extinction of trilobites & other marine animals Pennsylvanian: fern forests, abundant insects, first reptiles Mississippian: sharks, large primitive trees Devonian: amphibians and ammoniods Silurian: early plants and animals on land Ordovician: first fish Cambrian: abundant marine invertebrates, trilobites dominant
Conozoic era
Periods: Quaternary: modern humans Tertiary: abundant mammals
which geologic Eon are we living in?
Phanerozoic
what is an aphanitic texture? a phaneritic testure? how does each develop?
Phanertic: all crystals are visible without microscope - result of slow cooling of magma deep within the earth's interior. Aphanitic - crystals only seen with micoscrope - result from rather rapid cooling of lavas at or near the Earth's surface.
What is the primary mineral group found in your bones?
Phosphates
A blob-like igneous rock body found beneath the surface of the Earth is called a
Pluton
cementation
Process where compacted sediment is bound together by minerals which dissolve and then recrystalize to make sedimentary rock.
During which eon did multi-cellular algae and animals first appear in the fossil record?
Proterozoic
First Flyers
Pterosaurs Appeared in triassic Extinct by late cretaceous
How is a lahar different from a pyroclastic flow?
Pyroclastic flows are mixtures of debris and air, whereas a lahar is a fast, liquid flow.
Ankylosaurs
Quadrapedal Heavily Armored backs Clubbed tails
Stegosaurs
Quadrupedal Spikes on tail and bone plates on back
Lower mantle
similar but contains mineral formed at very high pressures. Nearly the entire mantle is solid
Jurassic and Cretaceous Climate
Rifting leads to decrease in aridity Seasons are more present because more of the land mass is away from equator More latitudinal variation in climate Relatively warm because of greenhouse gases Late-cretaceous cooling
in water
Ripple marks indicate that the rock formed: a. underground b. under a glacier c. in water d. from lava
organic sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock formed from the remains of plants or animals that are deposited in thick layers.
coal
Sedimentary rock formed from the remains of plants.
limestone
Sedimentary rock formed from the shells of sea creatures.
chemical sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock formed when minerals that are dissolved in solution crystallize.
clastic sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rock formed when rock fragments are cemented together.
Which of the following is not a chemical process that can occur during metamorphism? a). Recrystallization. b). Remobilization. c). Pressure solution. d). Shearing.
Shearing.
Lava flow
Sheets or mounds of lava that flow onto the ground surface or sea floor in molten form and then solidify. (page 140)
what are different silicate subgroups? what are some examples?
Silica group - all have the composition SiO2 Feldspar group - abundant in earth's crust (orthoclase, sanidine, microcline) -Island silicates-olivine garnet (peridot) -Single-chain silicates-pyroxene -Double-chain silicates-amphibole -Sheet (layer) silicates-mica(biotite/muscovite) -Framework silicates-quarts and feldspar
The most abundant minerals belong to a chemical group named
Silicates
siltstone
Silt when lithofied
sediment
Small, solid pieces of material that come from rocks or living things.
The stream of charged particles given off by the Sun, which prevented the accumulation of hydrogen and helium during the formation of the terrestrial planets, is called
Solar wind
Of the three primary forms of subaerial volcanoes, _______ consist of alternating layers of tephra (unlithified volcanic debris) and solidified lava
Stratovolcanoes
Submergent
sinking of land where water has flowed into valleys and crevices -will have wide beaches and coastal plains
Which states were involved in a water dispute that led to one state wanting to annex territory from the other?
TN and GA
Ornithischia
Teeth lacking at front of jaws, replaced by beak, adapted for crushing and grinding
The geotherm is the rate of change of
Temperature with depth in the Earth's interior
The boundary between the crust and the mantle is marked by a seismic-velocity discontinuity called
The Moho
elastic behavior
The ability fo a material to strain a small amount and then return to it s original shape when the stress is decreased.
Specific Heat
The amount of energy it takes to warm a substance
Lithosphere
sized broken into large, sometimes continent slabs called "plates" the crust and uppermost mantle make up this
Transform Margins
slide past each other ex) California lots of earthquakes!!
cinder cone
slightly volatile rich basaltic volcanism, lava fountains
L waves
slowest near surface vertical and horizontal movement
Phanaretic
small but large enough to be seen without magnification
kanes
small hills of sediment DEPOSITION
Fault Metamorphism
small, close to fault line, pressure has a role but temperature does not
During crystallization of a magma, plagioclase feldspar becomes richer in:
sodium
Components of magma
solid (crystals) liquid gas
inner core
solid iron and nickel 10 - 13 density
Pyroclasts
solid material thrown in air via volcanic eruption
Ways minerals form
solidify from a melt. precipitation from a solution. solid-state diffusion. biomineralization. precipitating from gas
Actualism
some catastrophic events alter earth, although some exceptions
Porphyritic
some large, some small grains, only large can be seen with magnification
Intergranular pores
spaces between grains of sediment, small but add up
radioactive decay
spontaneous disintegration and emission of particles from an unstable atom
Focus
spot along the fault line where the movement occurs (under surface)
Which of the following is NOT a typical environment in which a metamorphic rocks forms?
squeezing by tectonic forces
Confining Pressure
squeezing evenly from all sides
do NOT provide quantitative temp data
stable carbon isotopes Fe/Ca in shells Heavy metal content in shells
Permeability
state of material enabling liquids or gases to pass through it.
What is a stratovolcano/composite volcano? How does it form?
steep conical volcanoes built by the eruption of viscous lava flows, tephra, and pyroclastic flows
with EROSION the glacier moves towards the
steep side
Stack
steep, huge rocks in the ocean, gaps in between (water of course)
Tephra (cinder) Cone
steeper short lots of pyroclasts, less lava found around larger volcanos balsaltic magma
Weathering-
step 1: creates sediment which ranges from fine clay to boulders
Erosion and transportation-
step 2: rock pieces that loosened from weathering, flowing water, and wind can be transported from hill slopes to water runoff
Deposition
step 3:when transportation energy decreases sufficiently, water, wind, and ice deposit their sediment.
Burial and Lithification
step 4:Once deposited sediment can be buried and compacted by the weight of overlying material. The process of sediment turning into rock is called lithification
Deformation and metamorphism
step 5: After a rock forms, strong forces can squeeze the rock and fold its layers "deformation". If buried deep enough it can get really hot and convert into metamorphic rock.
Melting
step 6: occurs in the lower crust, when exposed to extreme temps. Turns into magma
solidification
step 7: as magma cools it then hardens.
Terrace
step like landform, where beach was located before
Aquifers
strata that produced usable amounts of ground water, underground large area of water
Large volcanoes consisting of interbedded layers of ash and lava are called
stratovolcanoes
When you scrape a mineral along a ceramic plate to observe the color of its powder, you are checking the physical property known as
streak.
Radial drainage pattern
streams flow down different sides of a hill (looks like its flowing into a circle)
displacement
stress moves a rock from one location to another
rotation
stress tilts, folds, or spins a rock.
physical geology
study of earth materials, such as minerals and rocks and the processes operating in and on the earth
geophysics
study of the earth and its processes
paleomagnetism
study of the fossil magnetic field. ancient rocks reveal different locations then today. evidence of continental drift.
historical geology
study of the origin and evolution of the earth
areas not at risk for desertification
sub saharan africa southwestern US Middle east (already deserts?)
In what tectonic setting would you expect to find intermediate igneous rocks?
subduction zones
What makes recharging an aquifer extremely difficult if not impossible?
subsidence (sinking of land)
earthquake
sudden movement of the earth caused by the abrupt release of energy
What is the primary (mineral) component in dry wall construction?
sulfates
Depending on the bonds, which mineral groups are used for nice metals, specifically for royalty?
sulfide oxide
What volcanic gases do scientists look for when magma is rising beneath a volcano?
sulfur dioxide (SO2)
atomic weight
sum of of the weight of the subatomic particles in an average atom of an element, given in atomic mass units.
In 1816, known as "the year without a summer," summer frosts and snowstorms occurred in the Northern Hemisphere as a result of:
sunlight blocked by debris in atmosphere from eruption of Tambora
analytical dating methods
systematic methods, commonly using isotopes, to determine the ages and histories of rocks and minerals in hundreds, thousands, millions, and billions of years.
Biological pump
takes carbon from the atmosphere and stores it long term in the lithosphere
renewable energy disadvantages
technology still being developed expensive infrastructure acceptance by society
What are the possible causes of the initial volcanic activity at Mt. Pinatubo?
tectonic, magma rising, volcano letting off steam
Causes of desertification
tectonics climate change human activity
Prograde
temp or pressure still increasing
Grade
temp/pressure conditions
How a rock responds to tectonic forces depends on:
temperature pressure rock type
geothermal gradient
temperature increases with depth within Earth
Factors that affect magma viscosity
temperature, silica content, volatile content
The change in the viscosity of a melt is directly proportional to the change in _____. Select all that apply.
temperature. silica content.
Normal faults formed by
tensional forces
Which of the following is involved in classifying igneous rocks?
texture group of minerals making up rock chemical composition of the rock
To identify an igneous rock you need to determine its:
texture and composition
terrestrial planets
the 4 innermost planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars - they are all small have high mean densities indicating that they are composed of rock and metallic elements which condense at high temperatures
Right (left in Southern)
the Coriolis effect in the northern hemisphere makes winds deflect to the..
What is meant by viscosity? How does it relate to magma composition and temperature?
the ability of a liquid to flow -if magma is viscous it will be resist flow, low temp, high Si lava -if magma is low viscosity it will flow easily, high temp, low Si lava
Cross-Cutting
the actual fault itself if the youngest
stress
the amount of force divided by the area on which the force is applied.
Air bubble in ice provide:
the amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere
Which of the following is caused by the interaction of the solar wind with magnetic lines of force and gases in polar regions?
the aurorae
The atomic mass number of an element is:
the combined mass of its protons and neutrons
uniformitarianism
the concept that the present is the key to the past; that is, geologic processes occurring today also occurred in the geologic past and can be used to explain ancient events and the geologic features they produced.
Alfred Wegeners theory
the continental drift theory. He argued that continents were once joined together and later drifted apart. • The fitting of the continents and supporting evidence from fossil records show that South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and most of India were once connected. Fossil records of land animals exist on several continents ex. Mesosaurus
Which of the following is NOT a possible reason why a region is higher in elevation than adjacent regions?
the crust is more dense
What is the most likely reason why a region is higher than adjacent regions?
the crust is thicker
Normal fault
the diagonal, common fault
Bowen's Reactions Series summarizes
the different temperatures at which different silicate minerals form.
Light-year
the distance light travels in one year (6 trillion miles)
carbon-14 is not useful for dating most rocks primarily because:
the effective dating range is much to short to be useful for most rocks
Why might scientists hesitate to evacuate an area around a volcano when there is a possibility of a large eruption?
the eruption maybe weeks, months, or years away, the eruption may never happen, economic losses.
What is Bowen's reaction series?
the formation of minerals as magma cools see pg 89
recrystallization
the formation, essentially in the solid state, of new crystalline grains in a rock.
principle of unclusions
the fragments or particles in a clastic sedimentary rock are older than the rock itself.
earthquake cycle
the gradual accumulation of stress on a fault followed by an abrupt decrease in stress during an earthquake
the more felsic the magma...
the higher the silica content
On this southern continent, which side has a plate boundary?
the left (west) side
Mid-ocean ridge are higher than surrounding oceanic crust primarily because:
the lithosphere is thinner and hotter
Subsidence
the lowering of ground level due to excessive sediment accumulation
How does viscosity relate to eruption style?
the more viscous a magma/lave the more destructive the eruption style
The atomic number of an element is equal to __________.
the number of protons
the path from single-celled organisms to humans is a remarkable story:
the only record we have of the first organism, which we have been able to interpret and read back in time. the first step was the creation of organic compounds making the stuff of life. amino acids are the building blocks of DNA and they form naturally int he conditions that existed in the earth's oceans.
Intrusive contact
The boundary between country rock and an intrusive igneous rock. (page 148)
Geotherm
The change in temperature with depth in the Earth. (page 143)
wavelength/2
The circular motion of water molecules extends to a depth that is equal to what?
Coriolis effect
The deflection of air masses as they move from one latitude to another is called the
wavelength
The distance between successive crests of a wave
An oceanic transform fault is the actively sliding part of a fracture zone on the sea floor. It links segments of a mid-ocean ridge. Which of the following statements is correct?
The length of the fracture zone increases as sea-floor spreading takes place, whereas the length of a transform fault stays the same.
crosscutting relationships
the principle that a geologic unit or feature is older than a rock or feature that it crosscuts
What is lithification?
the process in which rocks are deposited sediments, transformed into a new rock (compaction, cementation, evaporation/precipitation/biologic action)
Transmutation
the process of finding productive uses for radioactive waste
Which of the following statements about rubidium-87 dating is true?
the rate at which rubidium-87 to strontium-87 is constant.
what is one drawback to beach nourishment projects?
they can adversely affect wildlife
Silicate minerals
they comprise most of Earth's crust and mantle most important mineral group on earth, include the mineral quartz
mantle
thick layer between Earth's crust and core
Which of the following combinations would result in the highest regional elevation?
thick, less dense crust
crust
thin and rigid two types 1. continental (20 - 30 km thick) 2. oceanic (5 - 10 km thick)
Pele's hair
thin glass strands
Striations
thin parallel lines
rock varnish (desert varnish)
thin, dark film or coating of iron and manganese oxides, silica, and other materials; formed by prolonged exposure at the surface.
Antiforms
this shape... n over turned would just be at an angle
competence
this stream characteristic is measured by the size of the largest particle that a stream can move?
regional metamorphism
through mountain building or tectonic plate movement
Obliquity
tilt of earth axis
At a _____ plate boundary, no new plate forms and no old plate is consumed.
transform
How does igneous rock become metamorphic rock?
transformation process: weathering and erosion turn it to sediment and compaction and cementation turn it to sedimentary rock and heat and pressure turn it to metamorphic rock
What is meant by erosion?
transport down slope
lower part of wave
trough
Convergent Margins
two types: -subduction zone->sub ocean collides with continent, volcanoes and earthquakes!! -collision zone->buckle and push upward, mountains!!
compression
type of differential stress that occurs when forces push in on a rock
shear
type of differential stress that occurs when stresses on the edge of a mass are applied in opposite directions
hanging valleys
u shaped but above the floor (look for waterfalls and rapids) EROSION
Parabolic Dunes
u shaped, associated with vegetation in the coastal area
Emergent
uplifting, steep clifts very visable
Accumulation
upper end getting larger each year
1. Crust (defined by composition-chemically)
uppermost chemical layer, low density, light elements (Si, Al)
solar farm
used mirrors to reflect sunlight onto receiver
Alternating white-dark strata found in some lake beds are called..
varves
transpiration
The release of water vapor to the atmosphere by PLANTS is called ________.
Viscosity
The resistance of material to flow. (page 146) Like syrup
stick-slip behavior
The sequence of a rock straining before an earthquake, rupturing during an earthquake, and then mostly returning to its original shape after the earthquake.
fractures
vertical cracks that extend back into the rocks
dip slip fault
vertical displacement
water
The single most important erosional agent is ________.
S waves
vertical displacement slower than P, faster than L can't move through fluid (can't pass through outer core)
4. Inner Core (defined by composition-chemically)
very center (literally), almost pure iron
igneous textures
very fine grained (aphanitic) very coarse grained (phaneritic) prophyritic fragmental glassy
Mafic lava
very hot low in silica low viscosity
Why does magma rise from depth to the surface of the Earth? Select all answers that apply.
The surrounding rock creates pressure that pushes it upward. It is less dense than the rocks that surround it.
Flux melting
The transformation of hot solid to liquid that occurs when a volatile material injects into the solid. (page 143)
lithification
The transformation of loose sediment into solid rock.
ozone
The triatomic form of oxygen (O3) is known as
troposphere and stratosphere
The tropopause is the boundary between ________.
water vapor and carbon dioxide
The two most important heat absorbing gases in the lower atmosphere are
How do plates move relative to one another at a divergent boundary?
The two plates move apart from each other.
How do plates move relative to one another at a convergent boundary?
The two plates move toward each other.
How do plates move relative to one another at a transform boundary?
The two plates slide by each other horizontally.
longer than the sun
The wavelengths of radiation emitted by Earth are ________.
TRUE
Thermohaline circulation is driven by global density gradients
1960's Theory of Plate Tectonics
These data showed that the ocean floor had long submarine mountain belts, such as the Mid-Atlantic ridge in the middle of the Atlantic ocean. Hess and Dietz examined new data on the ocean depths and new data on the magnetism of the seafloor. They proposed that oceanic crust was spreading apart at underwater mountain belts, carrying the continents apart. This process of seafloor spreading brought interest back into Wegener's idea of continental drifting.
glacier
Thick ice mass that forms over hundreds or thousands of years
Why do some regions have higher elevations
Thickness of crust- regions with higher elevation generally have thicker crust
The length of time that the sediments that compose the rocks are eroded causes the sediments in a conglomerate to become rounded.
Think about the sediments that compose both conglomerate and breccia. What one sedimentary process makes these two rocks different? Explain
What type of fault is commonly associated with the subduction zone?
Thrust
Volcanic ash
Tiny glass shards formed when a fine spray of exploded lava freezes instantly upon contact with the atmosphere. (page 141)
sedimentary
To which of the three major groups of rocks does the rock belong?
A hot spot track is formed by the periodic eruption of material from a mantle hot spot through a plate that is migrating over the Earth's surface.
True
Continental margins that coincide with plate boundaries are termed active margins.
True
Diamond and graphite are both polymorphs of pure carbon
True
Earthquakes are the best geologic marker for the three types of plate boundaries.
True
Glass is not a mineral because it doesn't have crystal lattice structure.
True
Hot spot volcanism can occur on both oceanic and continental lithosphere.
True
Ice crystals form by solidification of a melt.
True
Magnetic declination is the angle between true north and the direction along the Earth's surface in which a compass needle points.
True
Mica peels apart in parallel sheets because the chemical bonds between sheets are week and the chemical bonds within the sheets are strong.
True
Minerals generally can be destroyed by heating, dissolution or other chemical reaction
True
Oceanic lithosphere is thicker the farther one is away from a mid-ocean ridge.
True
The Van Allen radiation belts serve as a trap for cosmic rays and thus shield life on Earth from excessive radiation.
True
The composition of the Jovian planets is mainly gas and "ice".
True
The deeper an igneous intrusion, the slower it cools.
True
The global distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes can be used to help identify plate boundaries.
True
Decompression melting
The kind of melting that occurs when hot mantle rock rises to shallower depths in the Earth so that pressure decreases while the temperature remains unchanged. (page 143)
What is the sorting process? The rounding process? How do they occur?
The largest and heaviest particles will be deposited first, followed by smaller particles, more rounded as particles move down steam.
Fractional crystallization
The process by which a magma becomes progressively more silicic as it cools, because early-formed crystals settle out. (page 148)
cementation
The process by which dissolved minerals crystallize and glue particles of sediment together into one mass.
deposition
The process by which sediment settles out of the transporting material
Assimilation
The process of magma contamination in which blocks of wall rock fall into a magma chamber and dissolve. (page 145)
deposition
The process where sediment settles out of the water or wind after erosion.
erosion
The process where water or wind loosen and carry away fragments or rock.
Fissility
The property of splitting easily into thin layers along closely spaced, parallel surfaces, such as bedding planes in shale
Gases that are abundantly emitted by volcanoes include
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide
Based on this topographic profile across the central United States, which region probably has the thickest crust?
Colorado Rockies
erosion, deposition, compaction, and cementation
Correct order of processes that form sedimentary rock.
Sevier Orogeny
Cretaceous and thrusting Eastern California, Nevada, Utah, Canada, Eastward shift due to decreasing angle of subducting plate
How can damage and injury be minimized in areas prone to seismic activity? a. earthquake zoning b. engineering controls c. warning systems d. All of the above are correct
d. All of the above are correct
Mylonites, formed from dynamic metamorphism, typically display ___________. a. foliation roughly parallel to a fault b. very fine grains c. shear zones d. All of the above are correct
d. All of the above are correct
organic sedimentary rock
Carbon-rich relics of plants Ex: Limestone, Calcium Carbonate, and coal
deposited
Cementation often occurs after Earth materials are: a. eroded b. weathered c. intruded d. deposited
Halite
Chemical, texture: crystalline, Composition: Halite crystals, Comments: salty, cubic, Depositional env. and energy: Low, playa lake
Which nuclear disaster resulted in about 335,000 people being forced to permanently leave their homes?
Chernobyl 1986 Japan 30 times worse than bomb we dropped on japan human error
Which country experience a magnitude 8.3 earthquake in September?
Chile
What designation does an area need in order to potentially produce wind power?
Class 3
coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock
Classify the rock as specifically as possible.
conglomerate
Clastic rock with fragments of rock with rounded edges cemented together.
breccia
Clastic rock with fragments of rock with sharp edges cemented together.
What are the three main types of stress?
Compression, tension, and shear.
Western Interior Seaway
Connected Arctic with gulf Split North America Indicated by deposition of marine sandstones
oxides
Consist of oxygen bonded with iron, Titanium, aluminum or other metal. Iron oxide minerals are the most common types • Some ex. Include Hematite- which is an iron-oxide that consistently has red. Magnetite- typically black and strongly magnetic
Basaltic (mafic) lavas
Contain more iron and magnesium than Rhyolitic (felsic) lavas
sulfides
Contain sulfide ions bonded with iron, lead, zinc, or copper. These are the principle metal ores in many large mines Two most common are Pyrite and Galena
geosphere
Contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust (surface), the semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land near the center of the planet
atmosphere
Contains all the air in Earth's system.
biosphere
Contains all the planet's living things
hydrosphere
Contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the plane
As compared to coarse-grained igneous rocks, all fine-grained igneous rocks
Cool and solidify more quickly
High Pressure Air Mass
Cooler, denser air mass
What controls the distribution of natural resources?
Copper and Iron mines control the distribution of natural resources throughout the U.S. Magma formed copper deposits in the west Iron mines are common in the Canadian Shield. The iron rich rocks formed at a time when oxygen became more abundant in the atmosphere causing iron dissolved in the seas to precipitate into vast iron-rich layers. Resources are often located where humans would prefer them to be for logistical, political, or environmental reasons.
The sandstone could become buried and thus be subjected to changes in temperature and/or pressure. If conditions are right, these changes could cause recrystallization of minerals in the sandstone and change the rock to quartzite.
Explain all of the processes that might change a sandstone into a quartzite.
This rock could become an igneous rock if it were subjected to increases in temperatures and pressures high enough to cause melting.
Explain how this rock might become an igneous rock.
Chemical weathering changes the composition of a rock. Physical weathering breaks the rock into smaller pieces.
Explain the three types of weathering.
Belemnites
Extinct order of Cephalopods, late mesozoic. Superficially squid-like, 10 arms with inward curving hooks Hard Internal Skeleton
What are the different forms of volcanic structures as they relate to eruptive style?
Hawaiian Style Eruption: quietest - highly fluid nature of lava, lava is ejected into surface, board-low profiles, 100k, basalt is common. Strombolian style eruption: explosive eruptions eject tephra (all ejecta blown into the air by explosive volcanic eruptions), name from small volcano-island of Stromboli. Vulcanian Style Eruption: ejects new lava fragments that do not take on a rounded shape during their flight through the air, lava is already solidified/too viscous, moderate sixed explosive eruptions. Vesuivan style eruption: great quantities of ash-laden gas are violently discharged to form cauliflower-shaped cloud high above volcano Plean Style Eruptions: large quantity of gas, dust, ash, and incandescent (glowing) lava fragments that are blown out of a central crater, fall back and form a tongue-like glowing avalanches that move 100mph Pilinian Style eruptions: highly viscous magmas, large explosions that form dark columns of tephra and gas high into the stratosphere, large volumes of ash - caldera collapse. (Ultra Pilinian Style - higher 10km^3 to 1000km^3.
A'a'
Hawaiian word describing basalt that solidifies with a jagged, sharp, angular texture Forms when hot flowing basalt cools and thickens With the flow lava crumbles into shards & fragments Is what you say walking on this material barefoot
Pahoehoe
Hawaiian word describing basalt with a glassy ropy texture Forms when extremely hot basalt forms a skin With flow the skin is rolled into ropy ridges and furrows
convection
Heat transfer by motion of a fluid such as air or water when the heated fluid moves; occurs above a hot surface occurs because hot air expands, becomes less dense, and rises.
conduction
Heat transfer in which energy is transmitted through materials that are in contact with each other (touching).
radiation
Heat transfer through waves; the Sun's Energy travels to Earth in this way.
who first discovered radioactivity?
Henri Becquerel
bedding
Horizontal lines on the outer layer of rock faces
Both are igneous rocks that have the same composition. Granite forms deep beneath the surface and therefore is coarse-grained. Rhyolite forms at much shallower depths and thus is fine-grained.
How are granite and rhyolite the same, and how do they differ?
The gneiss is foliated—bands of white minerals alternate with bands of black minerals. The color distribution of the granite is more random.
How could you easily distinguish a black and white gneiss from a similar-colored granite?
Light elements
Hydrogen atoms fused during big bang to form them (He Be Li B)
Which of the following is a mineral? a). Ice, Crystal grown in a laboratory b). Volcanic glass c). material with crystals of different chemical compounds
Ice.
Which of the following volcanic areas is NOT part of the Ring of Fire?
Iceland
Which of the following is a valid statement about how rocks respond to stress? a). If the stress is very high, the rock will be unchanged. b). Stress can cause a rock to be displaced, but not rotated. c). If a rock has strained, then it has changed its size or shape. d). A rock can be displaced or strained but not both at the same time.
If a rock has strained, then it has changed size or shape.
sandstone
Quartz and sand grains cemented together
Strong evidence that the Universe is expanding comes from the fact that the light emitted from distant galaxies appears to be
Red-shifted
Rudists
Reef Builders, part of pelecypod mollusks
ripple marks
Relatively small, elongated ridges that form on a bed surface at right angles to the direction of current flow.
Pyroclastic rock
Rock made from fragments that were blown out of a volcano during an explosion and were then packed or welded together. (page 160)
Extrusive igneous rock
Rock that forms by the freezing of lava above ground, after it flows or explodes out (extrudes) onto the surface and comes into contact with the atmosphere or ocean. (page 141)
Igneous rock
Rock that forms when hot molten rock (magma or lava) cools and freezes solid. (page 141 & 142)
limestone
Rocks formed from calcium carbonate or aragate *biochemical version - made from sea creatures that make shells
conglomerate
Round clasts that have been buried and lithofied.
evaporite
Salt deposits caused by evaporation of water.
internal heat
The formation of igneous rocks is powered by: a. internal heat b. the rock cycle c. deposition d. the sun
Why are lava domes associated with felsic lavas?
The high SiO2 lavas bulge upward but won't flow.
zero energy level
The horizontal surface halfway between crest and trough of a wave.
TRUE
The lower Mississippi River has the largest discharge of any river in North America.
Partial melting
The melting in a rock of the minerals with the lowest melting temperatures, while other minerals remain solid. (page 145)
Convection
The missing propelling mechanism, movement of mass due to changes in its density caused by gain or loss of heat
How do we determine the location of a recent the location of a recent earthquake?
Use seismic records from three or more situations.
Igneous rocks form from magma, which can be produced when any type of rock melts. Sedimentary rocks form as the result of changes in igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks. Likewise, metamorphic rocks form when any type of rock is changed by heat, pressure, or hot water.
Use what you have learned about the rock cycle to explain the following statement: One rock is the raw material for another rock.
Flood basalts
Vast sheets of basalt that spread from a volcanic vent over an extensive surface of land; they may form where a rift develops above a continental hot spot, and where lava is particularly hot and has low viscosity. (page 163)
Triassic Climate
Very arid because of large land mass Evident in large numbers of red beds, desert dunes in lower to middle latitudes of North and South America, Asia, Europe
Which of the following igneous rocks would be formed by the fasted cooling? a). Very coarse granite pegmatite b). coarse granite, medium-grained granite c). fine-grained granite d). volcanic glass
Volcanic glass.
Low Pressure Air Mass
Warmer, less dense air mass
Specific Heat of Water vs. Sand
Water has a higher specific heat; Sand has a much lower specific heat.
What is the effect of water on rock melting?
Water lowers the melting temperature of a rock.
The rate of motion of a lithospheric plate with respect to a stationary hot spot is termed ____________. a. absolute plate velocity b. relative plate velocity
a. absolute plate velocity
Faults that have moved recently or are likely to move in the future are referred to as ____________. a. active b. reverse c. normal d. passive
a. active
Sea-floor spreading is driven by volcanic activity ____________. a. along mid-ocean ridges b. in the middle of abyssal plains c. at the edges of continental shelves d. along fracture zones
a. along mid-ocean ridges
A tsunami is ____________. a. an earthquake-generated sea wave that can sometimes destroy coastal cities thousands of kilometers from its source b. a sloshing of water back and forth within a lake or bay c. the tendency of wet, clay-rich soils to behave like a liquid during an earthquake d. the amount of change in elevation of local sea level caused by a surging wave
a. an earthquake-generated sea wave that can sometimes destroy coastal cities thousands of kilometers from its source
During a journey to the center of the Earth, one would experience temperature ____________. a. and pressure both increasing b. and pressure both decreasing c. increasing, but pressure staying nearly the same d. remaining remarkably constant, but pressure increasing
a. and pressure both increasing
A fold shaped like an right-side-up bowl is a (an) ____________. a. basin b. dome c. syncline d. anticline
a. basin
Because the velocity of sediment settling (deposition) is positively related to grain size for waterborne sediments, fluvial deposits are more likely than glacial deposits to ____________. a. be well sorted b. include coarse grains, such as cobbles c. include fine grains, such as clay d. have angular grains
a. be well sorted
Geologists call individual layers of sedimentary rocks _____________ , whereas several of them together are called ____________. Select one: a. beds; strata b. strata; beds
a. beds; strata
Cemented shells of marine organisms form which kind of sedimentary rock? a. biochemical b. clastic c. organic
a. biochemical
Earthquake waves that pass through the interior of Earth are termed ____________. a. body waves b. interior waves c. R-waves d. surface waves
a. body waves
Generally, which type of earthquake waves travel fastest? a. body waves b. interior waves c. R-waves d. surface waves
a. body waves
Body waves include ____________. a. both S- and P-waves b. P-waves only c. both L- and R-waves d. both surface and interior waves
a. both S- and P-waves
A body of rock to which a sudden, rapid stress has been applied is more likely to exhibit ____________ than is a body of rock subjected to a gradually applied stress. a. brittle behavior b. ductile behavior
a. brittle behavior
The distinction between the crust and the mantle is primarily on the basis of a difference in ____________; the distinction between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere is primarily on the basis of a difference in ____________. a. chemistry (mineral content); degree of physical rigidity b. degree of physical rigidity; chemistry (mineral content) c. color; chemistry (mineral content) d. chemistry (mineral content); chemistry as well
a. chemistry (mineral content); degree of physical rigidity
Which of the following is the best description of what the lithosphere contains?
both types of crust and the uppermost mantle
unconformity
boundary between underlying and overlying rock strata, representing a significant break or gap in the geologic record; represents an interval of nondeposition or erosion, commonly accompanied by uplift.
distributary
branch of water that flows away from the main stream
5. Inner Core (defined by physical layer)
brittle, solid
Weathering
broken down by element exposure chemical more common in many environments
What damage resulted from the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo?
building collapse from ash, farmlands buried, death of farm animals
Seawall
built as a barrier, at the edge of the water, BIG looks like a miniature dam
Which of the following does NOT affect magma or lava viscosity?
buoyancy
What adds pure C12 to the atmosphere?
burning fossil fuels
What is the primary source of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions?
burning fossil fuels
The oldest basalts on the ocean floor are about ____________ years old. a. 4 billion b. 2.5 million c. 50 thousand d. 200 million
d. 200 million
The thickness of the Earth's crust varies from ____________. a. 5 to 500 km b. 1 to 10 km c. 100 to 500 m d. 7 to 70 km
d. 7 to 70 km
The greatest earthquake ever recorded by seismographs occurred in 1960 in Chile and measured ____________ on the seismic-moment magnitude scale. a. 9.0 b. 10.0 c. 10.5 d. 9.5
d. 9.5
Aftershocks following a major earthquake ____________. a. may continue for days after the initial earthquake b. are mostly much smaller than the original earthquake c. may occur on the same fault as the original earthquake, or a different fault d. All of the above are correct
d. All of the above are correct
What causes an unconformity?
sediments not being deposited or sediments eroding
What are the different igneous rocks and how does each relate to both texture and composition?
see pg 89
Moho
separates crust from the upper mantle
Facies
set of index materials
common sedimentary rock
shale, sandstone, limestone, chert, coal
Earth's magnetic field
shaped like a dipole. flow lines are circular and extend into space. makes magnetosphere: protects us from solar winds
Star Dune
shaped like a star fish
Synforms
shaped like... u over turned would be at an angle
horns
sharp peak at the top EROSION
arete
sharp side wall EROSION
horizontal faults formed by
shearing force
rock cleavage
the tendency of a rock, especially a metamorphic rock, to split along mostly parallel lines
recurrence interval
the time between repeating earthquakes
the concept of half-life with respect to geologic time refers to:
the time it takes for half of a parent isotope to change to the daughter isotope.
The main reason why the hypothesis of continental drift was not widely accepted was:
there was no mechanism to move continents through the oceanic crust.
Retrograde
when temp or pressure begin decreasing, closer to the surface
mantle plumes (hotspots)
when there is a higher temp. in the mantle, islands can form
WARP turbine
wind amplified rotor platform, tall stack of blades that are covered
Esker
winding, wavy, made of outwash deposits DEPOSITION
contact metamorphism
with magma
Syncline
youngest layer tucked in
What controls a crystals shape
• Halite- sodium and chlorine atoms have a geometric arrangement that is cube like • Atoms can have a cubic shape, tetrahedron (one atom is surrounded by four others), Octahedron
Divergence splits a continent apart
• Mantle-derived magma ascends into and pushes up the crust. The magma heats and can melt parts of the continental crust. Heating of the crust causes it to expand • Stretching of the crust causes basins to form that can trap water creating lakes. If rifting continues, ocean basins are likely to form.
ocean-to-ocean
• One plate slides beneath another which is called subduction • An oceanic trench forms as subducting plates move down • Sediments collect in the trench and form a wedge called an accretionary prism • Water gets released and caused melting in the asthenosphere where magma rises • Island arcs are then formed
Ocean-to-continent
• Subduction trenches "slab pull" next to continents • Destructive boundaries- rock is destroyed via subduction • Ex. Andes mtns and Cascade Range
continent-to-continent
• This usually produces huge mountain ranges • Two continental masses converge. A large plate is partly oceanic and partly continental. The oceanic part gets slightly subducted under another continent at a convergent boundary. • As the oceanic part continues to subduct, the two continents become closer to each other. • When the continent arrives at the subduction zone, it may partially slide under the other continent or clog the subduction zone as the two continents collide. Along the boundary faults slice up the continental crust, stacking one slice on top of one another. • These collisions form enormous mountain belts and high plateaus.
Atoms are linked by covalent bonds when they share A) protons. B) nuclei. C) electrons. D) isotopes.
C
Rocks are A) found inside minerals. B) chemically different from minerals. C) made of minerals. D) only made of one mineral.
C
Seismic waves which travel only at the earth's surface A) P-waves B) S-waves C) surface waves D) all of the above
C
The process of lithification produces: A) igneous rocks B) soil C) sedimentary rocks D) metamorphic rocks
C
The three rock groups, igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary, are distinguished from each other on the basis of A) mineral content B) principle of superposition C) mode of origin D) all of the above
C
When magma cools underground it forms igneous rocks with A) ash particles. B) microscopic crystals. C) visible crystals. D) no crystals.
C
normal fault
result of tension- produces steeply inclined plans that bound rift valleys
ground motion
shaking of ground caused by surface waves and displacement along faults
native elements
single chemical elements
SURFACE WAVES
slowest; most destructive, rolling motion on the ground
crystalline
solids in which atoms or ions have repeating patterns
earthquake
sudden release of built-up stress in the lithosphere
sulfates
sulfur plus oxygen ex. gypsum
sulfides
sulfur w/o xygen ex. iron sulfide or "pyrite"
atomic mass number
sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
transform fault
particular kind of strike slip fault where the blocks at each side of the fault correspond to different tectonic plates
Atomic number is the A) number of protons in an atom B) sum of the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom C) number of neutrons in an isotope D) sum of the number of protons plus the number of electrons in an atom
A
Ionic bonding: A) one element gives electron(s) to another element B) elements share electrons C) one element gives neutrons to another element D) elements share protons
A
The amount of energy released by an earthquake is described by its A) magnitude B) intensity C) duration D) the type of damage that occurs
A
The first seismic wave arrival recorded on a seismogram is that of the A) P-wave B) S-wave C) surface waves D) tsunami
A
The shape of mineral crystals depends most on A) chemical composition. B) internal atomic arrangement. C) bonding and hardness. D) chemical purity.
A
Basic mineral categories:
A. silicates (olivine, micas, clays) B. nonsilicates 1. carbonates 2. sulfates 3. sulfides (iron sulfide "pyrite") 4. oxides (metal + oxygen) 5. Native elements (single chemical elements)
Rocks that crystallize from silicate melts are: A. igneous B. metamorphic C. sedimentary D. clastic
A; Igneous rocks form from magma (molten silicate material). Metamorphic rocks result from a transformation in the solid plastic state by pressure and heat, and sedimentary rocks (which include clastic rocks) form from superficial processes
gneiss
Alternating bands of dark and light minerals
ionic bond
Atoms who gain or lose electrons are transformed into ions and form this kind of bond
isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called "blanks" of that element. Their atomic number is the same, but they differ in their atomic mass number.
Contact metamorphic rocks: A) occur throughout hundreds of square miles B) are formed next to igneous intrusions C) are usually foliated D) are formed along fault
B
Mineral cleavage is most directly related to A) chemical composition. B) atomic arrangement. C) mineral hardness. D) density. E-mail Your Results
B
Rock salt and limestone are examples of A) metamorphic rocks B) chemical sedimentary rocks C) fragmental sedimentary rocks D) igneous rock
B
Which is not part of the definition of a mineral? A) naturally occurring B) aggregate of elements C) definite chemical composition D) orderly internal arrangement
B
The most common minerals in the crust are: A. Carbonates B. Silicates C. Sulfates D. Sulfides
B; given that silicon and oxygen are the most abundant elements in the crust, it is not surprising that the silicates make up the most abundant minerals in the crust overall.
The concept of the rock cycle is that: A. rocks are moved around the world by geological processes B. rocks are continually undergoing change, being transformed into new rocks C. the world changes, but rocks are permanent D. rocks must be melted deep into the crust to be made into new, different rocks
B; it is the finite nature of the world, where every few materials come out or in that determines that these same materials will be cycled. Rocks are continually going through a process that will transform them into other rocks.
Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons are __________ of that element. A. ions B. isotopes C. electrons D. atomic numbers
B; the number of protons characterizes an element (thats its atomic number); however, there may be differences among atoms of the same element. Ions actually form when electrons are gained or lost
The 2 classes of sedimentary rocks are chemical and: A. metamorphic B. clastic C. volcanic D. precipitated (from solution)
B; the two main types of sedimentary rocks are derived from the kind of sediment that forms them: so either they are fragments or they result from the bonding of ions dissolved in water. The first kind originated clastic rocks and the second produces chemical sedimentary rocks.
Ions are atoms that have: A) a nucleus. B) protons. C) radioactive decay. D) an electrical charge.
D
Slate: A) Can become schist upon further metamorphosis. B) is the sedimentary rock from which shale forms. C) is a low grade metamorphic rock that forms from shale. D) both a and c are correct.
D
The rock cycle: A) shows that all rocks on earth begin as igneous rocks, are then transformed by weathering into sedimentary rock, and are finally transformed into metamorphic rock before remelting. B) shows that it is impossible for an igneous rock to become metamorphosed before becoming a sedimentary rock. C) shows that all sedimentary rock eventually is metamorphosed. D) shows that it is possible for an igneous rock to remain igneous up to the point of remelting.
D
The silicate tetrahedron is composed of: A) 4 oxygen and 2 silicon atoms B) 4 silicon and 1 oxygen atoms C) 4 silicon and 2 oxygen atoms D) 4 oxygen and 1 silicon atoms
D
The vast majority of rock-forming minerals are A) oxides B) carbonates C) sulfides D) silicates
D
Which rock has a clastic texture? A) gneiss B) basalt C) granite D) conglomerate
D
Native Elements are those that: A. do not have more than one isotope B. are all found naturally in the earth C. are common in rocks of the US D. occur as minerals consisting of a single element
D; Minerals are classified by chemical composition, and the native elements are those where the element that makes them has not combined with any other elements
Because all crystalline materials show well-developed crystal faces, few naturally occurring mineral samples are crystalline. True or False
False; Although we may not see any crystals, the definition of "mineral" requires that the substance be crystalline, Those apparently massive minerals have a regular structure at the atomic level.
A clastic rock formed excusively by clay is called conglomerate. True or false
False; Clay sediment will lithify into claystone or shale. Conglomerates are made of fragments that correspond to gravel size or alrger.
cations
Positively charged ions
faults
planar fractures along which a visible displacement is observed on one side relative to the other
Asbestos mitigation laws as they apply to the general public may be an example of a case in which perceived risk far exceeds actual risk. True or false
True; Although they law that requires asbestos removal from public buildings does not distinguish between differentkinds of asbestos minerals, only a small percentage of the asbestos used in the US is carcinogenic. The majority is not, ans we may be throwing away a large sum of taxpayer money in its abatement.
elastic rebound theory
after the stress has been released, the lithospere bounces back elastically to its un-deformed state, but remains displaced
Crocidolite
an amphibole silicate with a double chain structure that takes on needle-like form. (a kind of asbestos)
earthquake precursors
changes in materials physical properties before earthquake
luster
describes surface appearance
amplitude
distance between highest point of wave crest and the baseline (i.e. height)
strike slip fault
horizontal displacement
convergent plate boundary
lithospheric plates move together
clevage
mineral's tendency to break along flat surfaces that correspond to atomic planes where the atomic bonds are weak. Because the internal crystalline structure of a given mineral species is constant for the species, all the specimens of that mineral will split in the same way, no matter the specimen's place of origin.
mineral
naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound, with a definite composition and an ordered internal crystalline structure.
creep
occurs when stress is released in small amounts through very small movements over a long period of time (LOTS of property damage)
epicenter
the point at the surface right above the focus, or hypocenter of the earthquake.
epicenter location
there have to be three stations detecting waves, where the three circles connect is the location of the earthquake center
BODY WAVES 2 kinds: P waves and S waves
travel through earths interior; P waves are compressive and the fastest, and can go through solids and liquids. S waves move perpendicular to direction of travel, through solids only
clevage
way minerals break up when struck
