COUC 515
b.
= X/ N
c.
pronounced "mu" represents the symbol for the poluation mean; represents the symbol for the "sum of" X represents the individual scores; and N represents the number of scores in the distribution.
ii.
"The basic premise of experimentation is that the researcher controls as much as possible to determine where a cause-and-effect relationship exists..." p. 19
Sampling procedures: a sample is defined as
"a group that is selected to represent the population" - p. 25
1.
"if you want something done right, do it yourself" p. 86 bottom.
2.
** graph on features of types of measures p. 62 self report, tests, behavioral, physical. P. 62.
ii.
+ or - .30 - .69 moderate
i.
+ or - .70 - 1.00 strong
iii.
+ or - 00 - .29 none (.00) to weak.
Critical Theory
- the influence of social order of the construction of widely accepted ideas rather than universal truths. a contemporary form of conflict theory that criticizes many different systems and ideologies of domination and oppression
Nonprobability procedures include
. 1. Voluntary- self-explanatory in that the sample is based on volunteering. Convenience- often seen in counseling bc the sampling is made up of whomever is convenience to sample.
What are Bloom's Taxonomy of Higher Order skills?
1 remembering, 2 understanding, 3 applying, 4 analyzing, 5 evaluatin, 5 creating (bottom to top of pyramid)
Not all research can be categorized as qualitative or quantitative -- Comer and Hultgren (1989) suggest that there are three different modes of categorizing research
1. Empirical/analytical 2. Interpretive 3. Critical approach
Ethical standards in research history
1. Nuremberg code- consists of 10 principles that were developed after the Nazi war trials where millions were killed and abused in the name of research. 2. APA- American Psychological Association created its own code of ethics, not American Counseling Association (ACA). P. 33 3. The six rules of counseling ethics are: consult, consult, consult, and document, document, document. P. 34
What would a good research paper have in the introduction?
1. What is the significance of the problem and what is being done about it 2. What literature do we currently have? 3. What does all of this mean 4. Why should it be important to the reader? 5. Peer review 6. research questions 7. hypothesis
What are the seven steps of literature research processes?
1. identify a topic 2. Background check 3. Tools 4. Learn database procedure 5. Effective search techniques 6. Read critically, synthesize, and evaluate 7. Write
Probability sampling procedures include
1. simple random- randomly selects participants form the population of interest so that all participants have an equal chance of being selected. a. Example: N = 10 taken form a population of 100 means that everyone in the pop has a 1% probability of being selected. i. replacement 2. systematic random a. making a list of everyone in the pop of interest. The first participant is randomly selected and the rest are selected based on a predetermined interval of every eight person, for example. P. 27 3. stratified a. is used to ensure different strata, or categories, of the pop are equally represented in the sample. i. Ex: researchers taking a sample of N=40 from a high school may use stratified random sampling to provide equal representation of freshman, sophonomres, juniors and seniors. 4. Cluster a. Used to reduce the costs of taking a sample and may result in a less representative sample than simple random sampling. i. Ex: researcher wants to sty high school students in a large city has has 25 high schools. The researcher may choose 5 high schools to represent the city and then tak e a simple random sample. Each high school student that is chosen is considered a cluster. 5. multistage. a. Is a form of cluster sample that uses a variety of methods. All members of the selected clusters become the sample of participants for the study.
a.
10x less likely to smoke and suffer lower rates of coronary artery disease, lung cancer.
1.
2/3 of the teachers obeyed the experimenters. Called into questions because it placed people under extreme psychological distress. P. 40. Bottom.
d.
3x more likely to survive open heart surgery.
ii.
4 strategies have been identified
Things to remember by Jacqueline Gatewood- "the six most important things to remember in counseling ethics are:
: consult, consult, consult, document, document, document
b.
A action item- is used to record whether specific behaviors were present or absent during the observational time period. P. 81.
i.
A bar graph is a pictorial representation of the data set. They use nominal or categorical data. The value in the data set need to be expressed as letter grades to use a bar graph.
i.
A hypothesis- prediction regarding the outcoming of the study. P. 9
1.
A number that indicates how many standard deviation units a raw score is from the mean of distribution.
i.
A random sample- p. 17.
i.
A scientist uses three types of descriptive methods-
1.
A score that indicates the percentage of people who scored at or below a given raw score.
i.
A skeptic is a person who questions the validity, authenticity, or truth of something purporting to be factual.
a.
A static item- a means of collecting data on characteristics that will not change while the observations are being made. (gender, race, etc.,)
a.
A statistician uses the term central tendency, and more specifically, the terms mean, median, and mode, to describe the "middleness" of a distribution.
i.
A table where the scores are grouped into intervals and listed along with the frequency of scores in each interval.
3.
ACA code articulates nine specific criteria regarding informed consent p. 35
iii.
ACA code of ethics
i.
APA has very specific ethical guidelines for the treatment of humans used in research—they are set forth in the APA's ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct (2002).
2.
APA- American Psychological Association created its own code of ethics, not American Counseling Association (ACA). P. 33
2.
Ability- not self-report... falls into two different categories: aptitude tests, and achievement tests.
ii.
Absolute zero- means that a score of zero reflects an absence of that variable.
a.
Abstract- between 150-250 words. The abstract describes the problem and the purpose of the study.
c.
Action
3.
Action research is typically not published in academic journals but instead might be presented in a newspaper article, on tv, or magazine. P. 87 top/mid.
iii.
Action research- research conducted by a group of people to identify a problem, attempt to resolve it, and then assess how successful their efforts were. P. 86 bottom.
ii.
Administering the survey p. 92 mid/lower.
3.
Affective self-report p. 60.
2.
Affords more control is laboratory or systematic observation.
3.
Alternate forms- presents participants with alternate forms or versions of the assessment instrument at a time. p. 43 bottom
b.
Alternate-forms reliability - p. 65
c.
Alternative explanation- is the idea that it is possible that some other, uncontrolled, extraneous variable may be responsible for that some other, uncontrolled, extraneous variable may be responsible for the observed relationship. P. 19.
iii.
Although the syllogism is logically sound, the content of both premises is not necessarily true.
ii.
American Psychological Association- APA
a.
An example is cognitive therapy - p. 56.
VI.
An introduction to research methods in science-
b.
Analyzing data for Ethnomethodology -p. 65
c.
Analyzing data for a qualitative grounded theory study
4.
Analyzing ordinary facts by studying products
X.
Analyzing qualitative data
a.
Another means of classifying variables is in terms of whether they are discrete or continuous in nature.
ii.
Applied research- the study of psychological issues that have practical significance and potential solutions. P. 15.
d.
Archival Method - p. 84
i.
Archival method- a descriptive research method that involved describing data that existed before the time of the study.
IV.
Archival method- involves describing data that existed before the research study began.
II.
Areas of psychological research
10.
Arranging the question- p. 92
i.
Assesses the extent to which a measuring instrument accurately measures a theoretical construct or trait. P. 68 bottom.
II.
Assessment instruments
I.
Assessments- chapter explores reliability and validity -p. 41.
b.
Authority- when we accept what a respected or famous person tells us- we are gaining knowledge via authority. P. 7.
ii.
Axial coding - p. 66
ii.
Bad example: attractive people are good, Nellie is attractive, therefore Nellie good.
1.
Bar graph - qualitative variable.
ii.
Bar graphs and histograms p. 109
c.
Bar graphs. P. 93
e.
Basic and Applied research- p. 14.
i.
Basic- the study of psychological issues to seek knowledge for its own sake
2.
Becoming the phenomenon
i.
Before the 17th century, not people relied more on intuition, religious doctrine provided by authorities, and reason that they did on empiricism. P. 11.
iii.
Behavioral measures-
1.
Behavioral self-report
a.
Blind technique in which participant do not know whether they are receiving treatment or not. P. 37
1.
Boolean operators are: and, or, not. P. 35.
3.
Both critical theory and constructivism approach personal "truths" as constructs that are developed from a social context and are consistent with a qualitative approach to research. P. 57.
i.
Both qualitative and quantitative data analysis involve the researcher making some type of inference based on the data. P. 87-88.
scientist-practitioner model is aka
Boulder Model
a.
Calculate by adding up scores together and diving by the sum total number of scores
b.
Calculating what the width of the interval should be- p. 108.
i.
Case studies have a sample size of N=1.
b.
Case study
2.
Case study method - p. 17
c.
Case study method - p. 83 - one of the oldest qualitative research methods is the case study method, an in-depth study of one or more individuals, groups, social settings, or events in the hope of revealing things that are true of all of us. P. 83.
III.
Case study methods - p. 72
a.
Cases studies are appropriate for cases that are rare or unique and require further study. They involve the use of an independent variable. P. 72
4.
Central to the critical theory approach is dialectism (a process by which a critical theorist researcher dialogues with a participant to facilitate the understanding that beliefs are a function of social order and may need to be altered. - p. 57 bottom.
2.
Checklists- a tally sheet on which the researchers records attributes of the subjects... p. 81 top.
3.
Closed-ended questions
iii.
Cluster sampling
c.
Cognition- how humans process, store and retrieve info.
2.
Cognitive self-report
i.
Combines biology and psychology.
a.
Common descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency (including the mean, median and mode), distributions, standard deviation and the z score. P. 77.
1.
Concurrent validity
1.
Concurrent validity- looks at two assessments and measures the outcome - p. 42
ii.
Condense the data into a frequency distribution
4.
Confirmability
c.
Construct validity- considered by many to be the most important type of validity.
3.
Construct validity- divided into convergent validity and discriminant validity. - a strong positive correlation between the scores on the two instruments is an indicator of convergent validity. P. 42
VI.
Constructivism approach- ideas are constructed in a person's mind, rather than being a function of truth or reality. People construct their beliefs based on their experiences. P. 55.
c.
Constructivist- personal truth is constructed via one's experiences
b.
Constructivists use two approaches to understanding hermeneutics and dialectics
a.
Content validity- to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the domain of behaviors to be measured assesses. Satisfactorily assessing all dimensions of the construct. P. 68.
i.
Content- p. 41
b.
Continuous variables- examples: age, height, weight. P. 59.
iii.
Control group—the baseline and doesn't change.
Which sampling procedure is typically used?
Convenience samples are typically used in social science research, not because it is the best sampling procedure, but because it is more feasible.
1.
Convenience sampling p. 98
2.
Convert the exam scores to a form we can use to make comparisons
d.
Correlation coefficient chart- p. 64 bottom.
1.
Correlation does not imply causation **
i.
Correlational method- assess the degree of relationship between two measured variables.
ii.
Criterion - p. 42
b.
Criterion validity- the extent to which a measuring instrument accurately predicts behavior or ability in a given area.
3.
Critical approach
d.
Critical research -p. 62 bottom
VII.
Critical theory-
d.
Critical theory- the influence of social order of the construction of widely accepted ideas rather than universal truths. P. 49.
1.
Data collection
iv.
Data collection-
iii.
Dates back to Aristotle. Plato in contrast theorized about the world without collecting data.
VIII.
Debriefing - providing info about the true purpose of the study as soon after the completion of data collection as possible.
VII.
Deception- in research involves lying to subjects about the true nature of a study, bc knowing the truth could change the outcome.
XI.
Deciding between qualitative and quantitative research p. 66-67.
I.
Defining variables p. 54
a.
Demographic question- questions that ask for basic info, such as age, gender, ethnicity, or income. P. 92.
3.
Dependability
What is Descriptive methods?
Describe the population that is under investigation
b.
Description- begins with careful observation. Without it, predictions cannot be made.
II.
Descriptive
I.
Descriptive Methods
I.
Descriptive Methods- attempt to understand what is being studied without introducing new factors or variables that may cause changes.
I.
Descriptive Statistics Overview. P. 77
c.
Descriptive Statistics p. 112
a.
Descriptive methods
i.
Descriptive statistics- are numerical measures that describe a distribution by providing information on the central tendency of the distribution—the width of the distribution, and the distribution shape. P. 112.
i.
Determine the deviation scores (x - )
2.
Develop theory
2.
Developing open-ended questions p. 64 bottom
I.
Devotional moment:
ii.
Dialectics- describes the relationship between the researcher and participant. P. 56 middle.
1.
Difference between hypothesis and theory - p. 10.
IV.
Differences
a.
Differences:
i.
Different types of qualitative research
b.
Dillman (1978)- provides some tips for arranging survey questions—first, present related questions in subsets, second, place questions that deal with sensitive topics, p. 92. Last, to prevent participants from losing interest in the survey, place demographic question—basic info like gender, age, ethnicity, at the end. P. 92.
IV.
Discrete and continuous variables -p. 59.
i.
Discrete variables usually consist of whole number units or categories.
e.
Discussion - p. 39
4.
Disguised observation- concealing the fact that they were observing and recording participants. P. 78 mid.
III.
Distributions and the normal curve
iv.
Divide by the number of scores in the distribution
ii.
Does not have an absolute zero- which indicates the complete absence of what is being measured.
d.
Doing science- we cannot rely on one study alone . p. 21-22.
8.
Double-barreled question- question that asks more than one thing. P. 91.
b.
Double-blind technique- both researcher and participant are unaware of who is receiving treatment.
1.
Downsides to case studies - p. 83 bottom.
a.
Dr. Amen - "hardware of the soul"
III.
Dr. Amen- worshipers who participated in regular church sponsored activities are less stressed than those who don't.
Examples of scientist Practitioners
Dr. Gottman and Dr. Everett Worthington
1.
Ecological validity- refers to the extent to which research can be generalized to real-life situations. P. 77.
a.
Eliminate the problem of interviewer bias - p. 93.
1.
Empirical/analytical
d.
Empirically solvable problem - p. 12
ii.
Empiricism is not enough, it must be systematic empiricism.
e.
Empiricism- knowledge via empiricism- gaining knowledge through objective observation and the experience of you sense.
xvi.
Equation for z score formula - p. 135
a.
Error in measurement- some problems, known as method error, stem from the experimenter and the testing situation. P. 62 bottom.
1.
Establishing credibility
ii.
Ethical standards in research
X.
Ethical standards in research with animals - p. 49.
IX.
Ethical standards in research with children - p. 49
III.
Ethical standards in research with human subjects- pg. 39
a.
Ethnomethodology
vi.
Ex = the sum of the individual values
i.
Ex: all humans are mortal; I am a human; therefore I am mortal.
1.
Ex: examine whether alcohol consumption by studnes in a frat or sor. Differs from that of students not in such organizations.
i.
Example "I believe nothing until I see it" - they are an empiricist.
1.
Example: 80-84 has a frequency of 6. Dividing 6 by 30 give 0.20% or 20%. The cumulative percent is calculating by adding the percentages of the ranges.
i.
Example: letter grade and rankings.
i.
Examples include: weight, height, time.
a.
Examples: databases for the census bureau, gov. agencies, schools and universities, and private agencies.
a.
Examples: time, length, weight, height.
iv.
Experimental group—changes.
d.
Explanation- allows us to identify the causes that determine when and why a behavior occurs.
c.
Explanatory method
i.
Face validity- the extent to which a measuring instrument appears valid on its surface simply addresses whether or not a test looks valid on the surface. It's not content validity. P. 68 top.
a.
Feminist theorists may have an approach consistent with critical theory.
1.
Field research (the process of inquiry) - p. 58 bottom
f.
Field studies- a method that involves observing everyday activities as they happen in a natural setting. P. 86.
i.
First look at past research
i.
First step: rearrange them from highest to lowest or vice versa. P. 107
1.
First you find the average deviation- the avg distance of all the scores from the mean of the distribution. P. 117 bottom.
iii.
Focus group interview- involves interviewing six to ten individuals at the same time. P. 85 bottom.
i.
Focused on phenomena that occur in natural settings and the data are analyzed without the use of stats.
iii.
Formula for the mean is M = x/N
I.
Frequencies
a.
Frequencies- can be organized in different ways. A few ways are: frequency tables, bar graphs, histograms, and frequency polygons.
e.
Frequency Polygon - p. 94
a.
Frequency distributions
b.
Frequency polygons are appropriate when the variable is quantitative—similar to histograms. P. 110.
a.
Frequency polygons- you can depict the data in a histogram as a frequency polygon. P. 109 bottom - 110 top.
b.
Frequency tables. P. 92
i.
Freud's theory of personality developed was based on small number of case studies. P. 83.
ii.
Gaining knowledge v. intuition- we gain knowledge of something without being consciously aware of where the knowledge came from - gut feeling. P. 7.
i.
Gaining knowledge v. superstition. - superstition means aquiring knowledge that is based on subjective feelings, interpreting random events and nonrandom.
ii.
Gains knowledge by: seeing, tasting, touching, etc.
b.
Galileo's study of the falling balls a the leaning tower of Pisa - recounted by his student vicenzo Viviani.
i.
Generally divided into: subjects, materials, and procedure subsections.
I.
Getting started: Ideas, resources, and ethics
a.
Given before they participate to inform them of broad statements and the nature and purpose of the study—not the predictive outcomes.
V.
Goals of science- p. 15
b.
Gold standard instrument- adult attachment interview- requires 80% or above interrater reliability
ii.
Gottman and his team are able to predict in three measurement domains: the couple's interactive behavior, their perception of their interaction, and their physiology during the interaction. P. 77-78.
i.
Gottman can predict with over 90% accuracy whether a couple will divorce or stay married -p. 77.
iv.
Graph for features of scales of measurement
b.
Graphs- p. 109
iv.
Greek letter sigma represents standard deviation.
e.
Grounded theory- p. 63. - involves the function of theory. P. 63 . grounded theory is about the research method and more about the research process.
a.
Harvard Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould (1985).
i.
Hermeneutics- process of interpretation
2.
Histogram - variable is quantitative
i.
Histogram- is used with continuous data (interval and ratio) and the bars touch.
d.
Histogram- p. 94
VII.
How to measure reliability: correlation coefficients - p. 63
d.
Human development- research on the physical, social, and cognitive development of humans
1.
Hypothese is the prediction of the potential relationship between two variables - p. 10.
2.
Hypothesis can emerge in the middle of the study, rather than having it at the beginning.
1.
IRB policies p. 34
v.
IRB- institutional review board. P. 39.
xi.
If a student's score is the same as the mean, their z score will be 0, which indicates a score right at the mean or average. P. 128 bottom.
1.
If the distribution scores for which you are calculating z-scores is normal (symmetrical and unimodal), then it is rerred to as the standard normal distribution—a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
b.
If the mean = 80, and the student's exam score is 87 which represents x, and the standard deviation is 7, the mean is subtracted from the score (87-80=7) and then divided by the standard deviation, which is 7 (7/7 = 1). Z score= 1.
iv.
If we only relied on empiricism, we would have nothing more than a long list of observations or facts. For these facts to be useful, we need to organize them. P. 9. We need to use rationalism and empiricism together to draw meaning.
4.
If we summed the scores, they would add to zero, therefore, we first take the absolute value of the deviation scores (the distance from the mean, irrespecrtive of the direction)
1.
Illusory correlation- the perception of a relationship that does not exist. Example: a baby being born after a couple adopts.
c.
In 1953, the members of the APA decided to develop their own ethical guidelines for research with human subjects. P. 39
iii.
In critical research- researchers work with participants to solve a social injustice. P. 59 mid.
h.
In review: features of types of qualitative studies: case study, archival study, interview, focus group interview, field studies, action research - p. 88 chart.
ii.
In science, the goal of testing hypotheses is to arrive at or test a theory—an organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain certain phenomena and how they are related.
V.
Informed consent - p. 41
e.
Insecure ambivalent- very clingy or dependent towards their care giver but reject their caregiver emotionally.
d.
Insecure avoidant- very independent physically and emotionally. They are not comforted by their parent.
6.
Instead of using the absolute value, like the average deviation, the standard deviation squares the numbers after subtracting the mean from the number.
IV.
Institutional review boards- IRB
a.
Interested in how one student did in comparison to the rest.
i.
Interested in the unique experiences of social life, rather than an individual's experience. P. 65.
2.
Interpretive
a.
Interrater doesn't speak to the reliability of the instrument, but the level of agreement across trained raters.
i.
Interrater reliability = number of agreements/ number of possible agreements and multiplied that equation by 100. P. 66 bottom.
d.
Interrater reliability- p. 66. This is the measure of consistency that assesses the agreement of observations made by two or more raters or judges.
1.
Interrater reliability- two or more raters' scores agree.
iii.
Interval and ratio data are so similar, that many psychologists do not distinguish between the two types of data.
d.
Interval data- typically generated by assessment instruments and standardized test - p. 88.
d.
Interval scale- the units of measurements between the numbers on the scale are all equal in size. P. 57.
i.
Interview- typically involves asking questions in a face-to-face manner.
e.
Interviews and Focus Group Interviews - p. 84
b.
Introduction- three components: intro to the problem, a review of relevant previous research, and the purpose/rationale for the study. P. 38.
What does Experimental designs include?
Involves an IV as well as a DV. The researcher manipulates the IV and evaluates its impact on the DV. May involve the use of a particular treatment such as CBT
1.
It may be considered iconoclastic to challenge these social constructions p. 57 top.
II.
John Templeton Foundation at Harvard Medical School and David Elkins
ii.
Journals- peer reviewed. P. 32.
iii.
Kurtosis- how flat or peaked a normal distribution is
b.
Lab: Mary Ainsworth- strange theory. - researchers observe 7 different episodes. Observing separation anxiety, the child's willingness to explore, and observing stranger anxiety.
ii.
Laboratory observation p. 71
iii.
Laboratory observation- p. 79
ii.
Lafountain and Bartos (2002) - Belgian scientist discovered the normal curve as he was measuring the chests of Scottish soldiers.
iv.
Lastly, ideas for research projects are often generated from practical problems encountered in daily life.
7.
Leading question - p. 91- question that sways the respondent to answer in a desired manner.
i.
Leptokurtic curve is tall and wide
v.
Leptokurtic- normal curves that are tall and thin, with only a few scores in the middle of the distribution having a high frequency.
c.
Less depression
i.
Library research
a.
Likert rating scale- a type of numerical rating scale developed by Renis Likert in 1932. P. 90 (ex: strongly disagree to strongly agree).
1.
Linda Gordon (1988) p. 84
6.
Loaded question- a question that includes nonneutral or emotionally laden terms. - p. 91.
a.
Looking
a.
Made up of several faculty members, usually from diverse backgrounds. P. 41.
1.
Mail surveys- traditionally have less sampling bias
ii.
Main difference between the two are—stats and mathematical formulas are not used with qualitative analyses. P. 88.
b.
Mean- most commonly used to measure the average.
1.
Mean: arithmetic average of a group of scores. P. 112.
VIII.
Measurement techniques
ii.
Measures of Central tendency- p. 112 - is a representative number that characterizes the "middleness" of an entire set of data. The three measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode.p. 112
II.
Measures of central tendency- provide several ways to describe the "middleness" of an entire distribution. -p. 78.
IV.
Measures of variability- the range and standard deviation are the most common measures of variance.
2.
Measures of variation - summary p. 123.
iii.
Measures of variation- a number that indicates the degree to which scores are either clustered or spread out in a distribution. P. 116
a.
Measures the degree of relationship between two sets of scores and can vary between -1.00 and +1.00
2.
Median - p. 114
c.
Median- list numbers lowest to highest and take the middle number. If even amount of numbers, add the two numbers in the middle together and then divide by 2.
i.
Men may be coded as 1 and women may be coded at 2 to allow the data to be easily organized into frequency tables. The numbers represent categories and don't have numerical value.
Scientist Practitioners
Mental health professionals who are expected to apply scientific methods to their work. They must keep current in the latest research on diagnosis and treatment, they must evaluate their own methods for effectiveness, and they may generate their own research to discover new knowledge of disorders and their treatment.
i.
Mental measurements Yearbook - p. 45
iv.
Mesokurtic- normal curves that have peaks of medium height and distributions that are moderate in breadth
c.
Method- describes how the study was conducted, in detail.
ii.
Methods of collecting qualitative data- observation, structured or semi-structured interviews, or case studies. P. 63 mid.
a.
Middle score in distribution after the scores have been arranged from highest to lowest or lowest to highest. P. 115.
iv.
Milgram experiment- p. 38
XII.
Mixed methods research - p. 67 bottom.
d.
Mode- repeated number.
b.
Mode- the score in a distribution that occurs with the greatest frequency - p. 115.
b.
Mortality rate of men who attend church is 25% lower; women 35% lower
ii.
Most nominal and ordinal data are discrete.
2.
Most of the methodologies used by qualitative researchers are also used by quantitative researchers, the difference is the intent of the study. P. 83 top.
vii.
N= number of values in the data set or sample
i.
Narrative records cannot be analyzed quantitatively.
1.
Narrative records- full narrative descriptions of a subject's behavior. P. 80 bottom.
a.
Natural-
i.
Naturalistic - p. 71
i.
Naturalistic observation- p. 77 - sometimes referred to as field observation. Watching animals and people in their natural habitats.
1.
Needs to be a representative sample- a sample that is like the population p. 96 bottom. There are two ways the sample can be like the pop: probability sampling and nonprobability sampling.
c.
Negative correlation- between two variables indicates an inverse or negative relationship: high scores on one variable go with low scores on the other variable and vise versa. P. 64.
viii.
Negatively skewed distribution - p. 125
b.
Nominal data- involves the use of numbers to represent categories.
b.
Nominal scale- ethnicity, gender, political affiliation.
a.
Nominal, ordinal, internal and ratio
2.
Nonparticipant observation - researcher does not take part in the situation.
b.
Nonprobability sampling - p. 98
i.
Normal curve- a symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency polygon representing a normal distribution
ii.
Normal distributions- a theoretical frequency distribution that has certain special characteristics p. 123.
ii.
Not all research can be categorized as qualitative or quantitative -- Comer and Hultgren (1989) suggest that there are three different modes of categorizing research
I.
Notes: What makes something a science is not "what" is studied, but "how" it is studied.
1.
Nuremberg code- consists of 10 principles that were developed after the Nazi war trials where millions were killed and abused in the name of research.
II.
Observational Methods p. 71
a.
Observational Methods- making observations of human or animal behavior. Not used as widely in psychology as in other disciplines p. 76 bottom.
1.
Observational measures. P. 60
a.
Observational methods- naturalistic and laboratory observation.
I.
Observational research
1.
Observe it
c.
Observed score = true score + measurement error - p. 63.
a.
One advantage of this method is that it allows the researcher to study a larger group of individuals more easily. The disadvantage- is whether or not the people who participate in the study are representative of the population that you are wanting to study.
a.
One alternative is "other" with a blank space for the answer. P. 89-90
a.
One of the best examples of the use of narrative records is the work of Jean Piaget. P. 80. - he studied cognitive development in children.
iv.
One of the differences between qual and quan research involves the gathering of data. P. 61 top.
b.
One of the downsides to naturalistic studies is reactivity, another downside is expectancy effects- which are the effect of the researcher's expectations on the outcome of the study - p. 79 top.
a.
One of the downsides—
ii.
One problem- making sure that the tests are truly parallel. P. 65 bottom.
b.
One way to overcome this is through: random sampling.
i.
Open coding . p. 65 bottom.
2.
Open-ended question
a.
Operational definition- a definition of the variable in terms of the operations the researcher uses to measure or manipulate it. P. 54
ii.
Options when using observation- p. 78.
c.
Ordinal data- ordered by their rank and include identity and magnitude.
c.
Ordinal scale- objects or individuals are categorized, and the categories form a rank order along a continuum p. 57.
I.
Organizing data - two ways to organize data are frequency distribution and graphs p. 106
3.
Other correlations indicate a negative relationship—as one variable increases, the other variable systematically decreases. P. 18
v.
Other resources- the set of references provided at the end of a journal article. -p. 36.
2.
P. 10 sources of knowledge diagram.
vii.
P. 122 for the N-1 at bottom because of the small sample size bc it may not be representative of the entire population.
d.
P. 128
iii.
P. 4-5 list of division of APA.
b.
P. 42-43 general principles of the APA code of ethics.
4.
Partially open-ended question -p. 89 bottom.
3.
Participant observation—researcher actively participates in the situation in which the research subjects are involved.
1.
Pearson's product moment correlation.
xiv.
Percentile rank- p. 134
3.
Personal interview- p. 95
1.
Personality test- typically fall into the category of self-report
5.
Pg. 119 formulas for standard deviation.
c.
Phenomenology- Stanford enclyclopedia of counseling - this is the study of structures of consciousness as experiences from the first-person point of view. P. 62
1.
Phenomenology—highlights several different types of qualitative research
vi.
Phrenology- pseudoscience- bumps on a peron's head said something about the person's thinking. P. 22.
1.
Physical measures are much more objective than the previously described behavioral measures.
iv.
Physical measures- using taken with a piece of equipment—blood pressure, temperature, etc. p. 61.
ii.
Piaget is a great example of someone who performed a case study using his own children. This helped him to develop his theory of cognitive research. P. 62.
ii.
Platykurtic curve is wide and has a shallow curve. P. 83.
vi.
Platykurtic- normal curves that are short and more dispersed (broad). P. 124
What are Correlational studies?
Popular among social scientists. They use statistical calculations to measure the degree and direction of relationship that variables have with one another. The includes both positive and negative relationships.
b.
Positive correlation- indicates a direct relationship between ariables: in other words, when we see high scores on one variable, we tend to see high scores on the other variable. When we see low or moderate scores on one variable, we see similar scores on the second variable.
b.
Positively skewed distribution has a tail on the right side of the graph. P. 81.
vii.
Positively skewed distributions - p. 125
a.
Positivism
IV.
Positivism approach p. 51
III.
Positivistic and postpositivistic are congruent with a quantitative approach, while constructivism and critical theory are more aligned with the qualitative approach. P. 48 bottom.
a.
Positivistic- universal truth to be discovered by researchers.
V.
Postpositivism and Evidence Based Practices (EBPs)- p. 54- sweet spot p. 55
b.
Postpositivistic- the approximation of truth can be pursued and evaluated through inferential stats.
c.
Prediction- identify the factors that indicate when an event or events will occur. P. 15.
b.
Predictive (Relational) Methods - p. 17 Two methods allow researchers not only to describe behaviors but also to predict
2.
Predictive validity
2.
Predictive validity- looks at the instrument's consistency
a.
Probability sampling- p. 96
xiii.
Probability- is defined as the expected relative frequency of a particular outcome. P. 130.
e.
Proof and disproof - p. 22.
II.
Properties of measurement
iv.
PsycINFO- electronic database that provides abstracts and citations.
b.
Psychobiology- one of the most popular research areas in psychology today is this.
iii.
Psychological abstracts. P. 34. - Psych abstracts—abstracts on psych articles.
i.
Psychology is not just about mental health. Psychology is a very diverse discipline that encompasses many areas of study. P. 4
f.
Psychotherapy- designed to assess whether a therapy is effecting in helping individuals.
c.
Publicly verifiable knowledge
I.
Qualitative Methods and Mixed Methods
vi.
Qualitative analysis employs many tasks including the following processes
g.
Qualitative data analysis - p. 87 bottom.
b.
Qualitative methods p. 82
iii.
Qualitative research have 4 requirements to establish trustworthiness (Guba 1981). Guba's 4 constructs p. 60 bottom
ii.
Qualitative research is more concerned with trustworthiness, while quantitative research deals with reliability and validity.
b.
Qualitative research- is defined as a systematic approach to analyzing experience seeking to identify themes or meaning that is not free from subjectivity. P. 58
a.
Qualitative research- narrative
IX.
Qualitative v. Quantitative p. 59 bottom/mid
a.
Qualitative- interview method Mary Main and her colleagues at us Berkeley- adult attachment interview asks would you give me 5 adjectives to describe your
1.
Qualitative- words, personal narrative.
a.
Quantitative research- easier to measure—like heart rate, height weight. P. 58 mid.
2.
Quantitative- numbers.
ii.
Quasiexperimental method--- besides the correlational method, this method allows us to compare naturally occurring groups of individuals.
2.
Quota sampling - p. 98 bottom. - little better than convenience sampling.
v.
Random assignment- to gain as much control as possible to eliminate as many alternative explanations as possible, we should use a random assignment --- assigning subjects to conditions in such a way that every participant has an equal probability of being placed in any condition. -p. 19-20.
i.
Random sampling- p. 97
a.
Range- pg. 117
a.
Range- represents the distance between the highest and lowest score. The range is calculated by subtracting the lowest value in the data set from the highest value. P. 83.
5.
Rating scale - p. 90
II.
Ratio scale- has four characteristics of identity, magnitude, equal intervals between values, and an absolute zero.
e.
Ration scale- in a ratio scale, in addition to order and equal units of measurement, an absolute zero indicates an absence of the variable being measured. Ratio data have all four properties- identity, magnitude, equal unit size, and absolute zero.
d.
Rationalism- involves logical reason. With this approach, ideas are preceisely stated and logical rules are applied to arrive at a logical sound conclusion. Rational ideas are often presented in the form of a syllogism.
II.
Reading a Journal Article: what to expect: they have a specific format: abstract, intro, method, results, discussion.
i.
Referring to the population mean then the Greek symbol is used (mu). If we are referring to the mean of a sample, then x with a line over it is used to represent the mean of the sample.
X.
Relationship between reliability and validity
1.
Relative frequency- is the proportion of the total observations included in each score. When a relative frequency is multiplied by 100, it is read as a percentage.
d.
Reliability = true score/ true score + error score.
ii.
Reliability include: interrater, test-retest, alternate forms, and split-half
a.
Reliability is the measure of consistency, not truthfulness. P. 69 mid.
VI.
Reliability- refers to the consistency or stability of a measuring instrument.
c.
Reliability- used to determine the consistency or repeatability of the assessment instrument. P. 43
c.
Reliable coders - p. 43.
b.
Religious faith has been an important resource for those coping with illness.
iii.
Researchers also have the option of passively observing and often do not manipulate the IV. P. 64.
1.
Researchers are more interested in interpreting and making sense of what they have observed.
ii.
Researchers need to explicitly identify their biases, values, and personal interests.
3.
Researchers use two basic types of items on checklists
Critical thinking
Researches use critical thinking skills to determine the research topic—these skills are most commonly known as "Bloom's Taxonomy of Higher Order Thinking Skills
9.
Response bias- the tendency to consistently give the same answer to almost all of the items on the survey. P. 91 bottom.
d.
Results- summarizes the data collected and the type of statistics used to analyze the data. P. 38 bottom.
4.
Return to the laws of nature for recourses
c.
Reviewing the literature -p. 31.
VI.
Risk- subjects are classified as being either "at risk" or "at minimal risk" p. 46.
v.
Rosenberg self-esteem scale - p. 64.
a.
Rosenhan (1973) - had 8 sane individuals study on the validity of psychiatric diagnoses.
d.
Sample mean formula - p. 112.
i.
Sample size. Qualitative: you may find a sample of six or seven to get to the point of data saturation (process where a qualitative researcher interview participants and while asking them questions, looks for common themes in the narrative), while in quantitative, a rule of thumb is that the minimum sample size should be 30.
c.
Sampling bias- a tendency for one group to be overrepresented in a sample. P. 92 bottom.
iii.
Sampling techniques-
III.
Scales (Levels) of measurement
I.
Scales of measurement
i.
Science always investigates empirically solvable problems—questions that are potentially answerable by means of currently available research techniques.
f.
Science- involves merger of rationalism and empiricism. Scientists collect data, test their hypotheses with data.
xv.
Score, z-score, percentile rank - p. 134 bottom.
ii.
Second, past theories on the topic.
2.
Section G.1.2. of the ACA code of ethics is titled, "precautions to avoid injury" p. 35.
c.
Secure attachment- look to caregiver to explore
b.
Selecting a problem-
b.
Selecting reliable and valid instruments
iii.
Selective coding - p. 66
i.
Self report measures- typically questionnaires.
2.
Semistandardized interview- some structure to it, but the wording of the questions is flexible.
1.
Sense making
b.
Shere Hite's (1987) p. 93 bottom. Women and love.
ii.
Sigma (backwards E) indicates summation. X represents each value in the distribution and N represents the number of cases.
ii.
Similar to participant observation, but the main difference is that when field studies are used, data is always collected in a narrative form because the research is qualitative. P. 86.
e.
Social Psychology- interested in how we view and affect on another.
i.
Socially desirable response- is a response that is given because participants believe it is deemed appropriate by society rather than because it truly reflects their own views or behaviors - p. 95.
a.
Solitary, parallel, and cooperative - p. 61.
i.
Some critics dispute the veracity of these claims and believe this approach to research may be more in keeping with the postpositivisitc approach-- Galileo and Prior Philosophy p. 52. They state in order to pursue truth - p. 52.
1.
Some examples- bottom 68.
4.
Some researchers like Dillman, smyth and Christian (2009) find the multimodal approach to be recommended when interviewing. This includes: email, web-based, and telephone- p. 96.
i.
Sometimes known as "action" research.
III.
Sources of knowledge p. 7
c.
Split-half reliability- gives a measure of the equivalence of the content of the test but not of its stability over time as test/retest and alternate-forms reliability do. P. 66.
4.
Split-half reliability- requires dividing the assessment instrument into two comparable halves.
ii.
Square the deviation scores
v.
Standard deviation can be used to determine a student's percentile rank on an exam. -p. 85.
vi.
Standard deviation raw-score formula - p. 121.
b.
Standard deviation- a curve with a large standard deviation is wide and one with a small standard deviation is narrow. A mesokurtic curve has a shape of the typical bell or normal curve.
i.
Standard deviation- is the average distance of all the scores in the distribution from the eman or central point of the distribution—or, the square root of the avg. squared deviation from the mean. P. 117.
c.
Standard deviation- most commonly used. It is the average movement away from the middle of the distribution, or the mean.
1.
Standardized interviews p. 85. - formal interview with structure
d.
Stanley Milgram's study in 1953 was called into question on the basis of ethical grounds. P. 40
d.
Steps for standard deviation
a.
Strange situation- ainsworth and bell (1970), mothers brought their children to a laboratory playroom. Reunion with mother after being in a room with a stranger... p. 79 bottom.
b.
Strategies of qualitative inquiry
ii.
Stratified random sampling p. 98
i.
Studies where the subjects are at risk for physical or emotional harm fit the definition of subjects being at risk.
i.
Study the effects of punishment on learning. They had to deliver an electric shock, each time the student made a mistake. P. 40.
a.
Subject or participant variable—a chacracteristc inherent in the subjects that cannot be changed. P. 18
ii.
Subjects are at risk if their privacy is compromised.
iii.
Sum the squared deviation scores
XIII.
Summary of chapter 7. P. 69.
c.
Summary of data organization - p. 111.
VI.
Summary- because several of these methods do not involve the manipulation of variables, they are referred to as descriptive research methods. -p. 74.
a.
Superstition and intuition -
i.
Survey Methods - p. 88 bottom
i.
Survey construction- p. 89
3.
Survey method p . 17.
b.
Survey method-
V.
Survey method- is used when researchers want to learn what people think about feel about specific issues. -p. 73.
2.
Survey methods review - p. 99.
b.
Systematic empiricism- p. 11
i.
Tashikori and teddie (2010) sage handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research.
2.
Telephone surveys - p. 94
c.
Tenacity- involves hearing a piece of info so often that you begin to believe it is true, and then, despite evidence to the contrary, you cling stubbornly to the belief. P. 8.
1.
Tends to be less structured.
3.
Test the theory
2.
Test-retest reliability- established by having the same group of participants complete the same assessment instrument at two different times. P. 43 bottom.
a.
Test/retest reliability- p. 65
ii.
Tests- psychologists use two types of tests: personality tests and ability tests.
II.
The 4 worldviews of research p. 48 and chart of these are on pg. 49 at top
IV.
The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology p. 11
a.
The actual process of conducting research involves several steps, the first- identifying a problem. P. 24. The other steps include: reviewing lit, generating hypotheses, designing and conducting the study, analyzing the data and interpreting the results, and communicating the results. P. 24.
b.
The average deviation
1.
The average deviation and standard deviation are appropriate for only interval and ratio data, while the range can be used with ordinal, interval or ratio data. P. 116 bottom.
2.
The correlation between height and wight is a positive relationship—meaning that as one variable increases, the other variable systematically decreases.
i.
The difference between the lowest and highest scores in a distribution. Subtract the lowest score from the highest score.
1.
The entire table goes out to only a z-score of 4.00 because it is very unusual for a normally distributed population of scores to include scores larger than this - p. 132 top.
i.
The experimental method allows researchers not only to describe and predict but also to determine whether a cause-and-effect relationship exists between variables of interest. P. 19.
e.
The formulas for average deviation, standard deviation, and variance all use the mean. Thus, it is appropriate to use these measures with interval or ratio data but not with ordinal or nominal data. P. 123 top.
a.
The four levels of measurement are each based on the characteristics or properties of the data.—identify, magnitude, equal unit size, and absolute zero. P. 55
1.
The goal of field studies- holistic understanding of culture, subculture and group. - p. 86 mid.
a.
The guidelines we use today have their basis in the Nuremberg code- 10 principles, developed in 1948, for the nazi war crimes trials following WWII. P. 39.
2.
The latest revision of the APA guidelines was in 2002, with some ammendments in 2010.
a.
The mean, median, and mode coincide when the data set is symmetrical.
What is Qualitative research?
The narrative behind the numbers. A systematic, subjective approach to research that is used to describe life experiences and situations and give them meaning.
i.
The observer is directly involved with those they are observing.
1.
The peak is to the left of the center point, and the tail extends toward the right, or in the positive direction. Figure 5.6 p. 125.
1.
The peak is to the right and the tail extends to the left.
i.
The percent for frequency in each range is determined by diving the frequency by the number of values in the data set.
ii.
The postpositivist is more inclined to listen to a researcher who states "my findings support" rather than "this prove that.." because of not believe in absolute truth, but rather approximation of truth - p. 52 top.
i.
The research is presented to the public in such a way that it can be observed, replicated, criticized, and tested for veracity by others. P. 12.
VII.
The research process - p. 24
c.
The researcher should confirm two things p. 37
i.
The results are evaluated and interpreted in the discussion section. The predictions of the study is restated, and tells whether or not the predictions were supported.
2.
The role of the investigator is to develop a connection with the participant.
a.
The scientific method involves invoking an attitude of skepticism.
3.
The six rules of counseling ethics are: consult, consult, consult, and document, document, document. P. 34
i.
The tests taken at times 1 and 2 are different but equivalent or parallel.
1.
The theory must predict not only what will happen, but also what will not happen. P. 13. A theory is not scientific, it is irrefutable.
iii.
The total area under the normal curve is defined as 1.00 or 100%.
i.
The z score indicates a location on the normal curve for a value in the data set, whereas the standard deviation is a measure of variability.
a.
The z score is the same as the number of standard deviations from the mean.
1.
The z-score tells whether an individual raw score is above the mean or below the mean.
ii.
Their methodological movement -p. 68.
v.
Then take the square root. The answer will be like this 13.64.
3.
Then we sum the deviation scores
a.
There are 4 different theories of epistemology
a.
There are four types of data: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. The different types of data are distinguished in part by the principles of identity, magnitude, equal intervals between values, and absolute zero. P. 87.
ii.
There are many sources for archival data—the best known is the US Census Bureau.
2.
There are three basic phases in action research p. 87 top.
i.
There is a distinction between interval and ratio data even though they are grouped together as a scale level data in SPSS. P. 87
i.
They are a line graph. -p. 111
iv.
They are not interested in the quantity of the survey, but the processes and understanding an individual's experience. P. 64.
b.
Thinking
iii.
Third- observation p. 31
a.
This research combines the use of both quantitative and qualitative methods in a synergistically eclectic manner that involves selecting the best methodologies. P. 67.
a.
Three basic goals: to describe, predict and explain behavior. P. 15
ii.
Three types of interviews: standardized interview, the semistandardized interview, and the unstandardized interview.
c.
To calculate the z score for the english test, we first calculate the difference between the score and the mean and then divide by the standard deviation. P. 127
f.
To establish that a measure is reliable, we need a positive correlation coefficient of around .80 or higher. P. 65 top.
3.
Traditional ethnographic fieldwork
2.
Traditional researchers, namely positivists, feel less comfortable with qualitative research. P. 60
b.
Trait error - p. 63 top
2.
Transferability
1.
Trustworthiness def. -p. 59 bottom. (results are both enlightening and believable).
i.
Truth is revealed in a context that is shaped by socio-political, cultural, etc. p. 56 bottom.
a.
Tuskegee and milgram- definitely classified as at risk.
b.
Tuskegee syphilis study—began in 1932 and continued until 1972, examined the course of the disease in untreated individuals. The subjects were approximately 400 black men living in and around Tuskegee, Alabama. They were never treated for the illness nor told the purpose of the study. P. 39.
i.
Two types:
V.
Types of Measures
VIII.
Types of Reliability- four specific types of reliability
d.
Types of distribution - p. 123
a.
Types of measures used can be classified into four categories: self-report measures, tests, behavioral measures, and physical measures. P. 59
i.
Typically have an x and y axis.
i.
Typically used bc it's less expensive.
1.
Undisguised observation- Goodall and Fossey used this.
3.
Unstandardized interview- p. 85 is completely unstructured.
i.
Uses a line to depict the frequencies in the data set or distribution.
b.
Using a unobtrusive means of collecting data reduces - reactivity (subjects reacting in an unnatural way to being observed.). p. 61.
1.
Usually less costly and time-consuming.
i.
Validity and reliability are psychometric properties... p. 44 middle.
b.
Validity-
IX.
Validity- refers to whether a measure is truthful or genuine. P. 67. There are 4 types
i.
Validity- whether a measure is truthful or genuine
e.
We expect that coefficients will be positive. Why? A positive coefficient indicates that those who scored high on the measuring instrument at one time also scored high at another time - p. 64-65.
i.
We measure results, we don't systematically manipulate them—when using predictive methods.
b.
What is missing when we use predictive methods such as the correlational and quasi-experimental methods is control***. P. 18.
ii.
When empirically solvable problems are studied, they are always open to the principle of falsifiability—the idea that a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is possible to refute or disconfirm it. P. 12.
i.
When there is an even number of observations, the median is calculated by averaging the two middle scores. P. 115.
iv.
Where M = mean
i.
Whereas psychobiology researchers study the brain, cognitive scientists study the mind. P. 6
i.
Wish to better understand one's experience. P. 61 bottom.
What is the best way to learn about research methods?
Writing a research proposal
1.
Writing the questions- ex: how many years have you lived in harborside?
2.
X - number minus the mean.
v.
X= individual values in the data set
a.
You can make it easier to read by grouping the scores and certain a class interval frequency distribution.
2.
You should prefer a negatively skewed distribution—meaning that most people have high scores and only a few have low scores. P. 126
b.
Z = X - all over
a.
Z = X-X (x with line over it) all over S
ix.
Z score - p. 126
V.
Z score formula: Z = (x-M)/ S ---- p. 85
vi.
Z score measures the location of a value within a data set or distribution. The z score also determines percentile ranks using the same procedure as for the standard deviation.
x.
Z scores: when the z score is above the mean, it is positive. When the score is below the mean, it is a negative score.
xii.
Z-scores, the standard normal distribution, probability, and percentile ranks p. 129
i.
a distribution may be represented by a normal curve.
Sample bias-
a sample that is different than the pop is reffered to as a biased sample. this misrepresents the population and over or under emphasizes aspects of the population.
two different techniques that invovles the participants not knowing something or researcher not knowing something
a. Blind technique in which participant do not know whether they are receiving treatment or not. P. 37 b. Double-blind technique- both researcher and participant are unaware of who is receiving treatment.
What are some changes to bloom's skills?
changing the terms from nouns to verbs. Changing the term synthesizing, which reflected the concept of taking new information and combining it with existing info, was replaced by the term creating, which reflects making meaning out of findings
Empirically supported treatments are based on
clinical research that produces evidence of their efficacy
What is Validity?
content and criterion. the degree to which a test measures what it says it measures. the peabody test said it measured intelligence. however, it only tests receptive vocabulary, so that's not valid.
The purpose behind creating a research proposal is to address an issue by:
describing, predicting, or explaining.
What is Research?
empirical investigation of the relationship between two or more variable
Scientist practitioners are aware of EST
empirically supported treatments (EST's) - gold standard
What are two sampling procedures?
i. Probability sample- each participant has a change of being selected for the sample ii. Nonprobability sample- the probability of a participant being selected for the study is unknown and it may be zero for some participants.
The Difference between qualitative and quantitative approach?
i. Sample size. Qualitative: you may find a sample of six or seven to get to the point of data saturation (process where a qualitative researcher interview participants and while asking them questions, looks for common themes in the narrative), while in quantitative, a rule of thumb is that the minimum sample size should be 30. ii. Qualitative research is more concerned with trustworthiness, while quantitative research deals with reliability and validity. 1. Trustworthiness def. -p. 59 bottom. (results are both enlightening and believable). 2. Traditional researchers, namely positivists, feel less comfortable with qualitative research. P. 60 iii. Qualitative research have 4 requirements to establish trustworthiness (Guba 1981). Guba's 4 constructs p. 60 bottom 1. Establishing credibility 2. Transferability 3. Dependability 4. Confirmability iv. One of the differences between qual and quan research involves the gathering of data. P. 61 top. 1. Qualitative- words, personal narrative. 2. Quantitative- numbers.
1.
observational method- naturalistic observation and laboratory observation p. 16
constructivist approach
personal truth is constructed via one's experiences.
What was the Milgram experiment?
random people assigned student and teacher; teacher applies an electric shock to student if they get the answer wrong
Importance of sampling?
sampling allows researchers to learn about a population of interest without having to involve the entire population in the research study
What is postpositivism?
the approximation of truth can be pursued and evaluated through inferential stats.
What is reliability?
the consistency with which the same event is repeatedly measured. scores are consistent across repeated testing.
i.
the qualitative inquiry process is considered interpretive. P. 63 bottom.
positivism approach
universal truth to be discovered by researchers a. Galileo's study of the falling balls a the leaning tower of Pisa - recounted by his student vicenzo Viviani.
systematic empiricism
using observation to draw conclusions in a systematic, orderly manner