Cultural Psych EXAM 2

Know the self-enhancement strategies discussed in the book and in class.

Downward social comparison- comparing your performance with the performance of someone who is doing worse than you; upward social comparison- comparing performance with someone who is doing better than we are; compensatory self-enhancement- in which you acknowledge the poor grade you got in class but instead start to think about something unrelated that you're good at; basking in the reflected glory- sharing success with others and feel better for ourselves with the success of a group; external or internal attribution- blaming the cause to be external or internal

What are the six basic emotions?

Happiness, disgust, surprise, sadness, anger, and fear

e. The TED talk viewed in class (see External Links on Blackboard).

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Know the characteristics of and distinctions between analytic and holistic thinking. What are some possible origins of these thinking styles? Cultural differences?

Analytic thinking is characterized by a focus on objects and their attributes (more common in western cultures). Holistic thinking is characterized by an orientation to the context as a whole (more common in east Asia). Analytic thinking is evident in the platonic perspective that the world is a collection of discreteunchanging objects. Holistic thinking was evident among the ancient Chinese in their intellectual traditions of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism emphasizing harmony interconnectedness and change.

What are appraisals? What kinds of appraisals are universal vs. culturally influenced? Would you be able to identify examples of appraisals that are likely to be universal vs. culturally influenced?

Appraisal is the evaluation of what the situation/event means. Some situations mean the same to everyone(ex. Basic needs) The universal appraisals are Facial expressions. emotional expressions would be culturally influenced.

a. The Iyengar & Lepper (1999) study on cultural influence on children's choice.

Asian-American students attempted the most games when their classmates chose their spaceship for them,they were more motivated. However, like the European-Americans, they were not very motivated when an undesirable other made their choice for them. In contrast with the European Americans, they seemed especially motivated when a trusted other made a choice for them.

What is cognitive dissonance? How does it relate to self-consistency? What is the free-choice paradigm and how does it assess reactions to cognitive dissonance? How does culture influence how people react to cognitive dissonance? (HINT: Reviewing the procedures and results of the Hoshino-Browne et al., 2005 study discussed in class would be helpful.)

Cognitive dissonance is the destressing feeling that accompanies the awareness that one is acting inconsistently. In a study for consistency in regards to this, it found that East Asians will rationalize decisions that they make for others, which suggests a motivation to have their behaviors be consistent with others' expectations. Japanese were found to rationalize their decisions and consider the consistent with others' decisions. North Americans appear to aspire for consistency for themselves whereas East Asians are concerned with being consistent with others.

What are cultural display rules? The five types of display rules (discussed in class)? Would you be able to identify the display rule if given an example?

Display rules are the culturally specific rules that govern which facial expressions are appropriate in given situation and how intensely they should be exhibited add more from book?

Know the characteristics of and distinctions between dispositional and situational attributions.

Dispositional attributions are the tendency to explain peoples behaviors in terms of their underlying disposition. Situational attributions explain, people's behaviors in terms of contextual variables.

What is the evidence for the universality of facial expressions? What is the evidence for cultural variability in facial expressions? (NOTE: These are integrative questions, and draw on a lot of different research findings from class and the textbook!)

Ekman and Friesen took pictures of people expressing the 6 basic emotions and showed around the world,the participants commonly got 80-90% correct.In contrast, people were 9% more accurate in judging the facial expressions of someone from their own culture. add more?

What are emotions according to the James-Lange theory? What are emotions according to the two-factor theory? What is the take-home message of the Schachter & Singer (1962) study?

Emotions are physiological responses were products of the autonomic nervous system, such as change in heart rate, breathing, pupil dilation, year secretion, blood flow to the skin, and stomach contractions. Emotions to the Two-factor theory are focused away from the physical body and to the mind

What level of universality characterizes self-enhancement/self-improvement? (NOTE: the answer is the same for both motivations; consider reviewing pgs. 18-22.)

Existential universality

What is the concept of "face"? How does it relate to prevention and promotion orientations toward losses and gains? How can a person maintain face? How does all of this relate to self-improvement motivation?

Face is the amount of social value others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position. The higher your position, the greater the amount of face available to you. Face is more easily lost than gained. Prevention orientation is the defensive and cautious approach to not losing something. Promotion orientation is a concern over advancing oneself and aspiring for gains.

Know the characteristics of and distinctions between field independence and field dependence. Could you identify examples of these concepts within a "story problem"? How do these relate to analytic and holistic thinking?

Field independence is that they can separate objects from their background fields (analytic thinkers). Fielddependence is that they tend to view objects as bound to their background (holistic thinkers) add more review who thinks what

What is the fundamental attribution error? How does culture influence this bias? Specifically, what were the findings from the Miller (1984) study on attribution across cultures and across age groups? (NOTE: See pgs. 361-362, and notes from Class #21).

Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to ignore situational information while focusing on dispositional information. When we see people acting, we assume they are doing so because of their underlying dispositions and we tend to ignore the situational constraints that might be driving their behaviors

Know the characteristics of and distinctions between low and high context cultures. How does this cultural dimension influence directness/indirectness of communication?

High-context cultures are people are deeply involved with each other and this involvement leads to them to have much shared information that guides their behavior. In low-context culture there is relatively less involvement among individuals, and there is less shared information to guide behavior.

Why do people from different cultures differ in their need to be consistent? (HINT: Pay attention to thesis sentences when reading this section of the textbook!)

In a study, authors hypothesized that Poland is considerably more collectivistic than the United States, therefore this cultural difference should lead Poland to be more affected by trying to be consistent with how others behaved, and Americans to be more affected by trying to be consistent with how they themselves have behaved in the past

What is the evidence for cultural variation in physiological reactions (Hint: know the results of the rude researcher study)?

In regards to universality of physiological reactions, Minangkabau study: took us and Minangkabaumen and women told to make certain face and measure physiological responses. found no statisticaldifference. In regards to cultural variation in physiological reactions, The rude study, measured blood pressure before and after and for 10 minutes after. Chinese were less mad and they calmed down faster around 2-4 min was difference where chinese less mad and euro more mad and then slowly became same rate again with both not angry

How do entity and incremental theories of self differ? How do these lay theories affect how people respond to difficulties? How do these lay theories differ across cultures?

Incremental theory of self represents the belief that a person's abilities and traits are malleable and can be improved. The entity theory of self-views their abilities and traits as largely fixed, innate features of the self

HOLISTIC/ANALYTICAL Know the findings from the "fish study" by Masuda & Nisbett (2001, see pg. 354; also Class #20), and the Masuda, Ellsworth et al (2007) study (see pg. 355-356), both of which examine attentional differences across cultures.

Japanese participants made about 60% more references to background objects than the Americans, who tended to talk more about the fish at the center of the screen. The Americans recognition of the fish regardless of the background, was the same. For the Japanese had much more likely recognition with the fish when it was in the original background.

Know the characteristics of and distinctions between monochronic and polychronic time. What correlates to "pace of life" (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999)? (Note: this information was discussed in Class #22/23.)

Monochromic cultures like to do just one thing at a time. They value a certain orderliness and sense ofthere being an appropriate time and place for everything. They do not value interruptions. They like toconcentrate on the job at hand and take time commitments very seriously. In addition, monochromic people tend to show a great deal of respect for private property and are reluctant to be either a lender or a borrower. Polychromic cultures like to do multiple things at the same time. Though they can be easily distractedthey also tend to manage interruptions well with a willingness to change plans often and easily. Peopleare their main concern and they have a tendency to build lifetime relationships.

How does culture influence motivations for harmony and distinctiveness?

More interdependent motivation for more harmony, more independent motivation towards distinctiveness

What is naïve dialecticism (i.e., tolerance for contradiction)? What type of thinking style (analytic or holistic) encourages naïve dialecticism?

Naïve dialecticisms is a perspective in which events and objects in the world are perceived as interconnected and fluid. Such view leads to the acceptance of contradictions between two opposing beliefs.

Do East Asians really self-enhance less than North Americans? What are some alternative explanations for this finding? (see pgs. 307-310)

One alternative is that East Asians really are just as motivated as Westerners to evaluate themselves positively; east Asians may be more motivated to enhance their group selves rather than their individual selves. Another possibility is that east Asians value a different set of traits from those that have been explored in research thus far, and if they were asked to evaluate themselves on especially important traits, the cultural differences would be reduced. Lastly, another is that these studies are not measuring people's true feelings but are instead tapping into differences in cultural norms for describing oneself.

If you knew that a culture tended to be individualistic (or collectivistic), would you be able to identify the types of self-descriptions members of that culture might use on the Twenty-Statements Test (TST; Kuhn & McPartland, 1954)?

People in an individualistic culture tend to focus on the self on the Twenty-Statements Test, for example, they would say "I am creative." People in a collectivistic culture would emphasize a hierarchical relationship or an experience with the self that is related to others like "I am a younger sister."

c. The Rozin et al (2006) study on culture and the effects of too much choice.

Research shows that Americans fare better when they have only few choices to make. Having too many choices can be quite debilitating at times, as making choices requires a great deal of cognitive resources.

Know the characteristics of independent and interdependent self-construals. How do these self-construals differ across cultures? How do these differ across situations? For example, how does residential mobility influence self-construal? What other situations may temporarily shift one's self-construal?

Self-construal regarding the independent focus on oneself (me, myself, I) or intuition, for interdependent it focuses others (we, ourselves, us) or long distance; situations that self-construal include having money or not, having a large or small family, and the stability of the environment

1) What is self-enhancement? How does culture influence this motivation? What evidence suggests that self-enhancement is a predominant motivation in the U.S.?

Self-enhancement is the motivation to view one's self positively ADD MORE

What is the difference between subjective and objective self-awareness? Why does the experience of objective self-awareness tend to be aversive (at least in the U.S.)? How does culture affect people's self-awareness?

Subjective self-awareness concerns us with the world outside of ourselves and we are largely aware of ourselves, we consider ourselves from the perspective of an object, the same as the we perceive the rest of the world; objective self-awareness our concerns are directed specifically at ourselves, from the outside in. we are conscious of how we are being seen and evaluated by others.

What is subjective well-being? Why do rates of subjective well-being differ across cultures? Specifically, know the effects of money, human rights, and equality on subjective well-being.

Subjective well-being is the feeling of how satisfied one is with one's life. Many factors contribute to the overall satisfaction that people have with their lives. People who live in countries in which they have access to enough wealth to meet basic needs easily, tend to be more satisfied than those who do not. Another factor is human rights. Those countries in which people live under constant threat of being thrown in jail for suspicious of plotting against the government are not as happy. Also, income equality. Factors that predict life satisfaction across cultures is whether or not they are living up to others' standards for being a good person and how happy they think they should feel.

How does culture influence people's daily emotional lives? (See pgs. 427-428, with particularemphasis on the research on interpersonally engaged and disengaged emotions.)

The Japanese participants who reported feeling a great deal of positive interpersonally engaged emotions reported a lot more positive feelings in general. In contrast, Americans who reported feeling a great deal of positive interpersonally disengaged emotions reported much more positive feelings in general. This shows that the Japanese feel especially good when they're focusing on how their emotional experiences lead them to connect with others, whereas Americans feel especially good when they're dwelling on those emotional experiences that distinguish from others

How do cultures influence people's views of gender equality? Review the material on the William & Best (1990) study as well as Boserup's (1970) theory and related research (Alesina et al., 2011) about agricultural innovation and gender equality.

The research on gender equality by William & Best included items that reflected the "traditional" views on gender and more "modern" views. Within a culture, men and women viewed gender equality similarly,in most every case, males had a significantly more traditional gender views than females, Women in Pakistan, India, and Nigeria are more likely to embrace traditional gender attitudes than women from European countries; the study by Alesina viewed women immigrant women who came to the US

b. The Snibbe & Markus (2005) study on social class and satisfaction with one's choices.

The working class participants were almost as satisfied with the pen they received in the usurped choice condition as they were in the free choice condition. However, the upper class participants were significantly less satisfied when their choice has been taken away from them

How has Protestantism influenced achievement motivation? (HINT: focus on the research studies that test Weber's ideas and especially the findings from these studies, pgs. 318-322. Again, locating thesis sentences is helpful!).

Weber proposed that Protestantism converted into a more enduring secular cold of behavior that included honesty, hard work, seriousness, and the thrifty use of money and time. LOOK AT PAGES

d. The Oettingen studies on choice in East and West Germany before and after unification.

West German children felt they had more control than East German children. At the bar, the body language showed that people of East Germans were far more likely to show signs of depression.

Which of the following conclusions about the interplay between religion and work motivation is INCORRECT based on the research discussed in your textbook? a. Protestants have less fun when engaged in a casual, social task (in comparison to non-Protestants). b. Protestants are more formal (meaning, less socially-focused) when working (in comparison to non-Protestants) c. Protestant's display more motivation in work contexts when feeling guilty about immoral behavior (in comparison to non-Protestants) d. Notions of hard work and salvation are implicitly linked for Americans (in comparison to Canadians).

a

Ji-hyo is a Korean student, and Alice is a European-Canadian student. They are both participating in a study in which they are asked to provide some self-descriptions. Based on what you know about cultural differences in tolerating contradiction, which of the following is the likeliest outcome of this study? a. Ji-hyo is likelier than Alice to say that she is an introverted person across different situations. b. Ji-hyo is likelier than Alice to say that she is both considerate and selfish. c. Ji-hyo is likelier than Alice to focus on her individual characteristics, such as intelligence. d. Ji-hyo is likelier than Alice to reference her family relationships.

b

Monika typically construes herself as interdependent. Therefore, it is MOST likely that... a. Monika's sense of self is quite rigid across time and situations. b. Monika thinks about her important group memberships when asked to define herself. c. Monika has a stronger need to be liked by other people than a person with a strong independent self-construal. d. Monika is extroverted.

b

Helen has lived in an Eastern, collectivistic culture her entire life. Which of the following statements about Helen is consistent with your knowledge of cultural influences on primary and secondary control? a. When Helen and her friends disagree about what movies to watch or restaurants to visit, Helen feels compelled to go along with her friends' wishes, and ends up feeling frustrated and unhappy. b. When Helen was a child, her mother gave her a lot of opportunities to choose how they would spend their day and what meals they would eat for dinner. c. When talking with her therapist, Helen remembers several instances where she agrees to take on more of the household chores because her partner was working longer hours to complete a major project. d. Although Helen likes yoga more than aerobics, she signs up for an aerobics class because sessions are held at night and it is more convenient for her to attend night classes.

c

Imagine viewing an image of an underwater scene containing two red fish, a zebra-striped fish, pink rocks and sand on the "sea" floor, seaweed, and a sunken ship. You view this image for two minutes before it is removed. Which of the following statements is MOST true of you, if you are using a field dependent attentional style? a. If asked to recall the image later in the day, the first information you would recall would be the colors of the fish. b. If asked to recall the image later in the day, you would likely have difficulty remembering the color of the rocks and sand. c. If shown an image of the zebra-striped fish in a different underwater scene, you would have difficulty recognizing that fish. d. If shown an image of the zebra-striped fish in the same underwater scene, you would have difficulty recognizing the fish.

c

In which of the following situations would Junko, a woman born and raised in Japan, most likely experience post-decisional dissonance? a. When choosing between two different Winter jackets she likes equally. b. When choosing between two health insurance plans with similar prices. c. When choosing between buying a watch or a scarf for her best friend. d. When choosing between studying for her PSY355 course or her PSY301 course.

c

Recall that Miller (1984) conducted a study examining the developmental process by which people from the U.S. and India develop different attributional tendencies. All of the following accurately depict the findings from this study EXCEPT... a. Indians become increasingly likely to make situational attributions as they get older. b. Americans do not become increasingly likely to make situational attributions as they get older. c. Cultural differences in attributions are found with both young children and adults. d. Indian adults show evidence for a reverse fundamental attribution error.

c

Which of the following pieces of evidence does NOT support the notion that facial expressions of emotions are universally similar around the world? a. The Fore, who are relatively unfamiliar with Western culture, make the same facial expressions as Americans in response to the same situations. b. People across a range of cultures (including Brazil, Japan, the U.S.) were able to accurately match emotion terms with their corresponding facial expression. c. English speakers are better at recognizing facial expressions made by Americans than are Spanish speakers. d. All of the research stated above supports the notion that facial expressions are similar around the world.

c

Which of the following statements about cultural differences in subjective well-being and/or happiness is MOST ACCURATE, based on the research described in your textbook? a. In general, people around the world are moderately satisfied with their lives. b. Money is more strongly correlated with happiness among people who have a lot of money. c. The more a country promotes human rights, the more happy its citizens are. d. Experiencing positive emotions is associated with greater life satisfaction in all cultures (whether more individualistic or collectivistic).

c

Cross-cultural research suggests that East Asians chronically take _____________ when thinking about the self, and thus seem to spend a greater proportion of their time experiencing the state of ________________. a. their own perspective; subjective self-awareness. b. their own perspective; objective self-awareness. c. the perspective of others; subjective self-awareness. d. the perspective of others; objective self-awareness.

d

Identify the statement that most accurately reflects what you've learned about cultural differences in the value of choice. a. Asian-American children will play more games than European-American children if the game is chosen by an outgroup member. b. People from the U.S. will prefer to choose from 10 ice-cream flavors, whereas people from Eastern European countries will prefer to choose among 50 flavors. c. Upper middle class Americans will be more satisfied with a gift if they chose it, whereas working class Americans will only be satisfied with the gift if someone else chooses it. d. If offered 7 different types of soda, members of Eastern European cultures whose governments recently transitioned from communism to democracy will likely view these 7 options as 1 - soda or no soda.

d