Developmental Psychology Final - NYU UG Psychology (Aalai, Fall 2022)
Know about the prevalence of eating disorders and why we often see them first develop during adolescence.
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Cowan & Cowan (2019) - "Introduction: bringing dads back into the family" (Attachment & Human Development) 1. Why do the authors posit that fathers have been traditionally left out of research on attachment? 2. What is the cultural context that leads the authors to conclude that it is a vital time to include fathers in attachment research? 3. Be able to identify what other important relationships the authors talk about within a family system, not just the mother-child dyad. 4. How can we recruit more fathers to participate in attachment research?
1. Attachment research began in a time when ignoring fathers was standard practice in academic psychology and in the design of services to address the needs of children and their families. In the 1950s, research on fathers was focused on the impact of father absence due to war service and death 2. There have been ongoing attempts to address what has been described as an across-generations "transmission gap" (van IJzendoorn, 1995) in the research. Investigators are frustrated that they cannot explain a large portion of the variance in children's secure attachment on the basis of information about the mother's security of attachment and/or her warm and sensitive behavior toward her child. Our position is that family systems theory guarantees that outcome. Without shining a light on information from fathers and other co-parents who have a close connection to the child, we will remain in the dark about a substantial source of the determinants of children's security and adaptation. 3. We are not suggesting that every attachment study must include fathers, father figures, or other co-parent figures, but rather that the discipline of attachment theory and research would do well to consider the intra-family. Dagan and Sagi-Schwartz (2018), in a recent article cited by nearly all the authors in this issue of the Journal, recently issued a challenge to attachment researchers by pointing out that in two-parent families, children are influenced not simply by mothers or fathers, but by the network of relationships in which they are embedded. (more specifically, relationship between parents) 4. active recruitment, especially using male staff as recruiters, visiting places where men congregate, not accepting their word when mothers say "he's too busy to participate" - and conducting our studies in settings and at times of day that accommodate men's lives and schedules
Nelson (2016) 1. Be able to define "ageism" as a construct. 2. If older people have internalized ageist ideas, what are some negative effects this can cause? 3. How does the author suggest reducing ageism? What do they cite as obstacles to reduction of ageism?
1. Prejudice directed against someone based on his or her age (also pervasive and rather institutionalized nature of prejudice against older persons in the United States) How psychological and medical research has demonstrated that negative stereotypes about aging have a direct and significant negative impact on the mental and physical well-being of older adults 2.Negative stereotypes about older people → negative influence on the mental and physical health of older people -Cognition Influence on cognition can be very strong, even when not consciously thinking about the negative stereotypes → worse memory recall, greater memory decline Psychosocial influences (how a culture views aging) can predict memory decline over decades Individual is less interested in engaging in healthy preventive behaviors. -Physical Health The way older people are perceived, and how they perceive themselves can either hasten physical decline or, in fact, work to greatly reduce it // longitudinal studies Those who endorsed negative stereotypes = demonstrate worse hearing Impaired recovery from illness Increased cardiovascular reactivity to stress Positive views may even facilitate recovery after an acute myocardial infarction and recovery from disability -Decreased longevity Influence on will to live Those who attribute health problems to aging = higher mortality rate Place less importance on seeking health care or preventative health behaviors when believing negative age stereotypes People with positive ideas about mental/physical health lived 2.5-4.5 years longer 3. Obstacles to reducing ageism One of most institutionalized forms of prejudice today (people do not regard stereotypes about older people the same way as they recognize the harmful stereotypes about racism or sexism) Cultural influences reinforcing stereotypes Biases in attitude of even health care professionals (prefer to see younger clients) • many physicians view older patients as "depressing, senile, untreatable, and rigid" // doctors don't view illnesses that accompany old age as important & change how they give care Less older adults in clinical trials Suggestions to reduce ageism Educate society about myths of aging by emphasizing positive aspects Foster continued & positive family relations and social support systems as they an be a buffer against negative selfviews & and negative mental/physical outcomes - programs designed to bring children into contact with older persons can reduce likelihood of developing ageist attitudes and also benefits older persons with socialization and positive emotional/cognitive progress Education and training of psychologists & health care professionals to dispel age myths & stereotypes - addressing aging bias among professionals, choose careers in gerontology and geriatrics Primary among these solutions is more education about myths and stereotypes about aging directed at youth, college and graduate programs training future geriatric workers, policymakers and politicians, and older people themselves. Second, research has shown that when older people shun negative age stereotypes and instead see aging as a time of continued growth, positivity, socializing, and activity, they tend to show significantly better mental and physical health outcomes compared to their counterparts who view aging with greater pessimism
What age-range is credited for having a "language explosion"?
18 Months to 3 Years
Know the common milestones in gender identity development during early childhood.
Gender Identity Development 1-2 yrs old: Children understand differences b/w men and women (also comes from male vs. female newborns being treated different in gender binary societies) 3 yrs old: Children declare gender (a lot of times told) 4 yrs old: Gender identity stabilizes *3-4 years one common time period when children can declare non-cisgender identity 5-6 yrs old: Children sensitive to gender messages
What aspects of infancy make it a critical period of development?
Period of rapid, transformational growth cognitively, psychologically, physically, biologically • Physical development in the nervous system & psychological growth (cognitive development and capabilities) Growth is to ensure survival of infant
What does psychological and social development look like during adolescence? How has the rise of the internet and social media seem to have affected these developmental processes?
Psychological and social transitions How we interact with others, how we feel about ourselves Key is the formation of identity outside of family are more prominent socializing agents at this point in development Ask questions like "who am i" and "where do i belong in the world Egocentrism remerges and peaks at 13 and then declines ADOLENCENCE Psychological and social transitions Lots of feelings of wanting to conform but also wanting to have certain characteristics that are different then others There is a recognition that there Is a distinction from how we view ourselves and how others see us Can be based on our gender identity, more complexity to identify This is where individuals might try on different things like different friends, interests ect. If we dont successfully pass through the cricis we wont successfully develop a core sense of self ERICSON There will be a disconnection in terms of our sense of self Changes of puberty affect all aspects of development, and the internet and subsequent stress it has caused is a factor to earlier onset of puberty. Thought becomes more abstract, academic achievement starts to shape the future, and the search for identity continues unabated
Which period of development is considered especially critical for gender diverse children? Why?
Tanner stage 1: prepubertal, birth until Tanner stage 2: puberty begins, first initial growth of pubic hair, growing breasts and testicular size. Intensely distressing and dramatic
Steinem (1978) - "If Men Could Menstruate" (Ms. Magazine) Understand Steinem's motivation for writing the article. What point is she trying to make about how we treat menstruation in the popular culture?
"What would happen, for instance, if suddenly, magically, men could menstruate and women could not? The answer is clear—menstruation would become an enviable, boast-worthy, masculine event" In popular culture, menstruation is seen as dirty and shameful because women are seen as dirty and shameful. It is a natural, human phenomenon that is shunned in a patriarchal society.
Understand that infants are not just passive recipients of their environment/experiences.
-Active seekers of stimulation → if anything passes in their field, will look at it -Infants will show clear signs of imitation 7-10 days after birth (i.e., stick tongue out at baby, baby will likely do it back) Evidence to suggest that they require sensory stimuli (tactile, sight, etc.) to grow and develop
Breast vs. bottle-feeding. Understand how patterns and attitudes have changed over the last several decades and how they are related to political/social expectations. Know advantages and disadvantages to both.
-Attitudes getting better, advantages is that there is closeness with child and passes on hormones and resistance to sickness but downsides is that it passes on STD -In USA research is focused on breast vs bottle feeding -Infant formula 1930s, women were entering the workforce and -Call to destigmatize breastfeeding in public, better educated women breastfeed less -3/5 women breast feed women, worlds health organization recommend breastfeeding after 1 year, but most women stop after ⅕ continue after 6 months -Meds can affect breast feeding -As baby gets older the milk changes, the moms antibodies can protect the baby against viruses, bronchitis, childhood lymphoma -Breast milk is associated with less obesity and better neural organization -Reduces breast cancer for mother -Mothers cant breast feed if HIV positive 1
What are some major criticisms of attachment theory?
-Bias in Bowlby's research Even today, very difficult to establish causation between parenting & child behavior Bowlby recommended the mother to stay home for the first 5 years of the child's life, too much for the mother -Doesn't discern quality of deprivation e.g., loss based on death vs neglect vs failure to develop a bond/attachment -Has lead to "mom-blaming" -Doesn't acknowledge systemic issues that may make consistent parenting impossible in certain cases (e.g., working parents, substance abuse issues, etc.) -Doesn't account for resiliency -Focuses on one primary attachment figure (mom) A recent study showed that children can have 5 or more attachments, only 13% of 18 month olds were found to be only attached to their parents, so the weight that is placed on parent child relationships is disproportionate
What do we mean when we say the brain is "plastic"? How does environment play a role in the structural plasticity of the brain?
-During infancy, neural connections are increasing rapidly -Neural plasticity: capacity of the nervous system to modify itself, functionally and structurally, in response to experience -Structural plasticity: the brain is malleable and adapts and changes based on environmental exposures -Environment significantly impacts brain development = Our brains are more open to change at certain stages of development called critical periods of development Brain and nervous system rapidly developing in infancy Brain requires nurture based exposures to fully and optimally develop. Critical period of development: time where the brain is susceptible to environmental exposures and will experience rapid formative growth Infancy is the first kind of critical period of development for the brain at birth If there is ideal conditions in enriching environment it will optimize neural connections Epigenetics, what we focus on can change how our brains grow Significance of sleep for learning & development Most of our "behavioral repertoire" as individuals doesn't come from our genes, it comes from our environment. Brain is a "learning machine" Our experiences early on change what we are skilled with later Once you do learn something, it becomes stably maintained in your nervous system as if it were built-in... Learning changes the structure, chemistry, and function of your brain Human development is slow (compared to other animals) because our greatest asset is our ability to adapt, so development happens in response to our individual environment Counterpoint to Lichtman's closing remark: Our brains aren't PERMANENTLY changed, it is possible to learn new skills and rewire your brain in adulthood
Understand the "Strange Situation" experiment and how it can be used to assess children's attachment style.
-Strange Situation: (child is with mom in room, child is mom without room, child in room with stranger, gives insight in child's attachment with primary caretaker) -The mother, as the caregiver, serves as the base of security in which basically everything else rests upon for the infant -Unlike Bowlby, Ainsworth explores the quality of absence in the parent because she believed that neglect or abandonment is a different reason for absence than if a parent dies -She identified that the sensitivity of the mother will impact the quality of the attachment; it is not solely dependent on physical affection or actions
Twohey & Jewett (2022) - "They Paused Puberty, but Is There a Cost?" (NYT) Be able to identify the criticisms of the article's rhetoric as described in lecture.
-The "bad science". There is a lack of accurate literature review surrounding the efficacy and safety of puberty blockers, erroneously convincing youth that they are more dangerous than other medications -The framing of puberty blockers as "buying time" for a child to decide if they are trans, which is inaccurate. By the time a child is asking about puberty blockers, they have thought deeply about their long-term goals. It provides time to make medically informed decisions. -The people profiled in the article imply that de-transitioning and regretting gender-affirming healthcare regret their decisions, when the reality is that this is less than 2% of cases in the literature. USPATH and WPATH Respond to NY Times Article "They Paused Puberty, But Is There a Cost?" published on November 14, 2022 11 - "The recent New York Times article...furthers the atmosphere of misinformation and subjectivity that has grown to surround the area of gender affirming medical interventions for transgender youth." - "The single expert who performed the literature review, Dr. Farid Foroutan, PhD, is an epidemiologist with no experience in clinical medicine, child and identity development, bone density, or any aspect of the field of transgender health." - "The blockers themselves do not impact bone density. Bone density is impacted by the fact that sex steroid production is temporarily halted when puberty blockers are initiated. The adolescent in this anecdote was already using estrogen, which promotes bone health. Therefore, the point about stopping blockers due to bone density loss is moot." - "The spotlighting of three youth, one of whom continues on treatment, one of whom stopped due to bone density loss under unclear circumstances, and one of whom reversed their transition, is not a proportionate representation of the actual population."
What is temperament and how can it impact parenting style?
-The constitution or underlying state of the child, not just the parent acting on the child, its also how the child is behaving -Historically temperament is more nature based, temperament is a child's baseline state of the child, -GOODNESS OF FIT MODEL: in families with more then one child the parenting should depend on the childs underlying disposition, parents modulate how they parent their child -Does the temperament carry over to adulthood -Even though research says its more biologically based, if your parented in a way where you feel safe and you have anxiety disposition then you can change it slowly -You may have an open disposition but trauma will lead you to be closed off -Studies found that child positive emotional reactivity, fearfulness, and self regulation elicit warmth from parents -Negative emotional reactivity leads to more negative parental control -If parents are warm and have boundaries and let the children have boundaries then it leads to a positive temperance for the children
Know the two general dimensions used to characterize parenting styles and how they may interact with each other.
-Warm vs cold On the warm side: Parents are affectionate to the children They're less likely to use physical discipline Cultivating a secure attachment Parent tend to have greater attunement when they are on the warm side of the spectrum Children tend to be better adjusted emotionally, socially and morally On the cold side: May not enjoy being with their children May display fewer feelings of affection towards them -Permissive (neglect or indulgent) vs restrictive On the restrictive Clear boundaries However if the restriction is created by physical discipline, intruding on the child that can have negative effects such as disobedience and stunted cognitive development On permissive Indulgent Less rules and boundaries imposed on the child May be accompanied by warmth so not as bad as neglect Lack of boundaries created and a sense of entitlement Greater deviance, but higher in social competence and self esteem They tend to perform worse in school Whether this is good or not depends on the culture Neglect Associated with more negative outcome since it is more likely to be accompanied with rejection of the child and cold parenting Associated with less competency These are both continuums and will vary from parent to parent Authoritative parenting Market by warmth but also clear boundaries and parameters regarding what is deemed as acceptable / permissible behavior Most positive outcome for children / more secure attachment Greater self reliance. Independence, self esteem and high levels of activity and exploratory behavior, and social competence. Authoritarian Militant style of parenting marked by high disciplined, less warmth / more coldness Interpreted as coldness and rejection of the child Less academic competence of the child Could lead to greater aggression for men, for females they could have less ability to be independent More susceptible to conforming, low self esteem What are the parenting styles demonstrated in our culture today? How do they compare to or overlap with the original studies that we were doing? Helicopter parenting Parents who hover or are overly involved in what their children are doing Oversensitive to child's risk Overbearing -> prevents children from learning basic skills Lower levels of self efficacy Trust in your own ability to do things Poorer relationships with their peers Lawn mower parenting Parents do too much work for the child Children don't have the choice to cultivate their own skills Tiger parent Overscheduled child who is pushed to the max, no downtime, expected to perform a lot
Traditional gender dynamics in child-rearing and childcare. How have they been changing over the past several decades? How do they still reflect stereotypical gender norms and expectations?
-Women are still expected to take care of the children but now also expected to get a job. Recently men have been doing more -The glass ceiling Systemic barrier that women experience in the workforce Women are expected to be the primary caretakers even if they are the primary breadwinners In the pandemic you saw a decrease of women in the labor force bc women take care of in laws and children More pressure and expectation for men to be the breadwinners, changes in trends for opportunities women have In us there is 12 weeks unpaid job protection, in sweden each parent have 250 days and they make the dad take some too Parental leave is important for creating norms 96% of dads say that they want Women are delaying pregnancy is a trend that shows a shift in the culture and women being involved in the workforce
Richtel (2022) - "A Teen's Journey Into the Internet's Darkness and Back Again" (NYT) 1. Be able to articulate the complicated relationship between teens' underlying moods and development and how Internet use affects their mood and health. 2. What activities decline in prevalence when screen time and Internet usage increases?
1. "In a widely covered study in 2021 first reported by The Wall Street Journal, Meta (formerly Facebook) found that 40 percent of girls on Instagram, which Meta owns, reported feeling unattractive because of social comparisons they experienced using the platform. The reality is more complex. What science increasingly shows is that virtual interactions can have a powerful impact, positive or negative, depending on a person's underlying emotional state." "heavy technology use is interacting with a key biological factor: the onset of puberty, which is happening earlier than ever. Puberty makes adolescents highly sensitive to social information — whether they are liked, whether they have friends, where they fit in. Adults face the same onslaught, but pubescent teens encounter it before other parts of the brain have fully developed to handle it." "The ability of youth to cope has been further eroded by declines in sleep, exercise and in-person connection, which all have fallen as screen time has gone up" "Now, the combination of early puberty and information overload presents "a double whammy" that can lead to "anxiety and depression when people feel a lack of control," Dr. Meltzoff said" 2. Sleep and outside connections
Levine (2022) - "How Breastfeeding Mothers Are Being Sexualized On Social Media" (Forbes) 1, Why do mothers report wanting to post about breastfeeding at all, even with the risk of harassment? 2. Identify the different ways harassment looks on different platforms as described in the article, including the platform which is described by mothers and scholars as the most problematic.
1. ""I am literally feeding my child," she said. "There's nothing sexual about it. ... The more that we encourage other people to do it, and I encourage other people to do it, the more common it'll be, and then the less sexualized" it'll become." - Trinity Anderson 2. Twitter, the mainstream platform with perhaps the loosest policies around adult nudity, permits breastfeeding content. Meta and Instagram, which had banned breastfeeding content until 2014, now allow this material. Content depicting breastfeeding is also fully permissible on TikTok. On TikTok, "there's not really that resource sharing happening as much, and it's not as moderated," says Skelton. When anyone can see or share these videos on TikTok, whether they're searching for them or being served them by the algorithm, "that's when the door opens to all of these people who are sexualizing or stigmatizing." TikTok alone provides more than a half-dozen destinations where users can send a given video — including Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter and Telegram — and with just two taps of the screen, many videos can also be saved to a stranger's smartphone. (TikTok says creators can disable video downloads to prevent this from happening.) Forbes found several breastfeeding videos from TikTok turn up on Reddit and Twitter, where they were mixed in with pornography. Twitter allows pornography on its platform, and a simple search of the word "breastfeeding" pulls up a good amount of it De la Myco said that after having her content flagged or removed from TikTok, getting suspended from the app and having to appeal the platform, "I felt very unsafe because of TikTok — and less because of the people in my comments section Skelton, the Towson researcher, said that the openness of TikTok creates a more voyeuristic dynamic than that of organically grown, closed Facebook groups for breastfeeding content — which can serve as helpful peer-to-peer support networks
Meadows-Fernandez (2020) - "Why Won't Society Let Black Girls Be Children?" (NYT) 1. What are some stereotypes applied to young Black girls inside and outside of the classroom? 2. What are the effects of adultifying Black girls?
1. "At the time, I didn't know that my experiences weren't uncommon. I was experiencing what academics call "adultification," in which teachers, law enforcement officials and even parents view black girls as less innocent and more adult-like than their white peers. This perspective often categorizes black girls as disruptive and malicious for age-appropriate behaviors." "At 1 year old, I've heard many people describe my daughter's temperament as mean, sassy or intentionally difficult." 2. "Adultification means teachers, parents and law enforcement are less protective and more punitive with certain kids." "sexism and racism interact to shape our experiences in education, criminal justice and even our social relationships"
Puhl & Latner (2007) - "Stigma, Obesity, and the Health of the Nation's Children" (Psychological Bulletin) 1. Who does the paper identify as holding stigmatized beliefs towards overweight and obese children? 2. What negative impacts can anti-fat bias have on young people?
1. "When referring to weight stigma in this article, we are referring to negative weight-related attitudes and beliefs that are manifested by stereotypes, bias, rejection, and prejudice toward children and adolescents because they are overweight or obese [held by peers, educators, and parents alike]. Stigma encountered by overweight and obese youths can include verbal teasing (e.g., name calling, derogatory remarks, being made fun of), physical bullying (e.g., hitting, kicking, pushing, shoving), and relational victimization (e.g., social exclusion, being ignored or avoided, the target of rumors). Thus, stigma can emerge in subtle forms, and it can be expressed overtly" 2. "A stigmatized child possesses an attribute or characteristic that is linked to a devalued social identity (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998; Goffman, 1963) and is ascribed stereotypes or other deviant labels that increase vulnerability to status loss, unfair treatment, prejudice, and discrimination (Link & Phelan, 2001)." "First, although weight loss may result secondarily in a reduction of bias, early teasing and victimization may have a lasting, harmful effect that persists even once an overweight child becomes thin. Second, discrimination could continue during or after weight loss. Third, if prejudices go uncorrected, the same unchanged sources of bias will continue to harm future generations of overweight children. The problem is a societal one, and broader, population-level efforts at reducing stigma are needed." Self-esteem, depression (kinda inconclusive), body dissatisfaction (teasing > eating behaviors), interpersonal relationships suffering, suicidal behaviors Eating behaviors (& stress), cardiovascular health
Parke (2020) - "Toward a contextual perspective on the issue of gay fathers and attachment" (Attachment & Human Development) 1. Be able to summarize Parke's assertion of the interchangeability of parent gender in the article's introduction. 2. Parke is advocating for more research on gay fathers and attachment. What are a few research questions that he identifies as gaps in the literature?
1. . It may be helpful to recast the issue by asking whether exposure to male and female parents is the key, or whether it is exposure to the parenting processes (affection, guidance, discipline, etc.) that is critical for child outcomes (Parke, 2013). The provision of parental input can be viewed as at least partly independent of the gender of the parental agent who delivers these socialization ingredients. The gender of the parent with whom the infant developed a secure attachment did not matter for the infant's sociability; the parents were substitutable for one another. Parents of either gender are interchangeable. 2. Are the characteristics of the men who seek to adopt different from the wider pool of gay men, such that only the more educationally and economically successful and highly motivated men either seek to adopt or are successful in adopting? Especially in view of the skepticism regarding gay men as parents (Goldberg, 2010), these men are under heightened scrutiny and therefore will be motivated to raise well-adjusted children. It is not only the men themselves who are self-selected as adoptive parents, but the adoption agency itself may also more stringently screen gay men who seek to adopt than in the case of heterosexual applicants. Clearly, future work involving representative samples of gay men would be helpful in addressing these issues. It would be helpful to document the quality of the couple relationship, especially in terms of their mutual support for each other and the nature of their co-parenting arrangements. Examination of the social context including extended families, friends, neighbors and the community in which gay parents are situated is important. Do these gender-based contacts vary with the gender of the adoptive child? Would it be less likely that the men in the current study would seek female support since the majority of adopted children were boys?
Ghorayshi (2022) - "Puberty Starts Early Than It Used To. No One Knows Why" (NYT) 1. Identify a few possible explanations cited in the article for why puberty may be starting earlier, particularly in girls. 2. What are some potential negative consequences of starting puberty earlier?
1. Childhood Obesity, Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (such as phthalates in plastic), and Stress/Trauma 2. "Girls who go through puberty early are at a higher risk of depression, anxiety, substance abuse and other psychological problems, compared with peers who hit puberty later. Girls who get their periods earlier may also be at a higher risk of developing breast or uterine cancer in adulthood"
Steinmetz (2017) - "Beyond 'He' or 'She': The Changing Meaning of Gender and Sexuality" (Time) 1. What group of people is Steinmetz profiling? 2. What are the differences Steinmetz cites between older and young people with regards to ideas about gender and sexuality?
1. Gender and sexually diverse students and young people. 2. "Others who have identities they describe as fluid or changeable say the pushback even comes from some older gay and transgender people, who have long fought for equality with arguments that one's gender or sexual orientation does not change." overall, there is a generally less fluid definitions to categorizations of gender and sexuality among older generations
Gottlieb (2011) - "How to Land Your Kid in Therapy" (The Atlantic) 1. Be able to identify the types of overparenting that Gottlieb writes about in the article, particularly those that were also discussed in lecture. 2. What potential negative consequences might result from overparenting?
1. Overparenting Examples from Lectures: -Parents are micromanaging their children's lives giving them little autonomy and freedom, in terms of achieving academic success as well as from a psychological perspective -Not clear boundaries between the parents and children, both of their identities are too attached to each other -These come from a place of love, they tend to be under a lot of pressure nowadays to not make mistakes -Higher levels of anxiety and or stress, less satisfaction with life and less ability to report their emotions -Higher sense of entitlement and increased drug use when comparing to individuals with less involved patients -They reported feeling empty and lacking a sense of purpose Overparenting Examples from Reading: -my colleagues and I began to wonder: Could it be that by protecting our kids from unhappiness as children, we're depriving them of happiness as adults? 2. Bohn believes many parents will do anything to avoid having their kids experience even mild discomfort, anxiety, or disappointment—"anything less than pleasant," as he puts it—with the result that when, as adults, they experience the normal frustrations of life, they think something must be terribly wrong. -What does this have to do with parenting? Kids feel safer and less anxious with fewer choices, Schwartz says; fewer options help them to commit to some things and let go of others, a skill they'll need later in life.
Understand the key tenets of Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory, including the four steps involved in this learning process. How can we apply Bandura's theory to gender socialization?
1. See the action of others 2. See how the action is done 3. See if you have the ability to do the action yourself 4. See if you have the motivation to do the action Bandura's famous experiment was with Bobo clown dolls, kids would watch adults treat the Bobo doll in various ways and copy them. We can apply his theory to gender socialization by the way in which kids watching gender performance leads to them internalizing the behavior on their own. ANDURA SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING We learn by watching ohers and imitating behaviors we see, modeling is performing a behavior that 4 steps for learning, there is higher order processing and thinking to see if we want to imitate. We dont just robotically PAY ATTENTION TO MODEL Can be a delay between when you see it and act it out HAVE TO STORE A MENTAL REPRESENTATION OF THE BEHAVIOR TO BE PERFORMED AT A LATER DATE HAVE TO BE CAPABLE OF TRANSLATING WHAT YOU OBSERVED TO AN ACTION Having access to something like a child could play with fake guns but wont have access to real gun MOTIVATION Higher order processing, more likely to perform behavior if you see a reward Not every role model is equally influential We imitate those similar to us so with gender we could replicate people that are similar to ourselves
Kingsford, Hawes & de Rosnay (2018) 1. Be able to define "moral development" and "moral identity". 2. What phase of life do the authors suggest researching in order to better understand moral development?
1. The passage notes that although research on moral identity has focused on its predictive power in explaining the behavior of adults and adolescents in moral contexts, there has been a lack of strong developmental models of moral identity in the literature. The passage then goes on to critique the generally accepted model of moral identity emergence and suggests that middle childhood may be a potentially fruitful period for research on the emergence and early development of moral identity. The passage also notes that moral identity development across the lifespan and the emergence of moral identity in the first instance are distinct concepts, and that the current model of moral identity emergence is based on the assumption that moral identity emerges in adolescence and is shaped by moral reasoning abilities. However, the passage suggests that this model may be incomplete and that research on moral identity emergence in middle childhood may provide a more nuanced understanding of the development of moral identity Based on the text, moral development refers to the process by which individuals develop their moral beliefs, values, and behaviors. Moral identity, on the other hand, refers to a person's subjective sense of themselves as a moral person and is thought to mediate the relationship between moral judgment and moral behavior. 2. The authors suggest that research on moral identity emergence in middle childhood may provide a more nuanced understanding of the development of moral identity and may be a more fruitful period of investigation than the generally accepted model of moral identity emergence in adolescence.
Identify the three peak age ranges when children most commonly declare a non-cisgender identity, and why we believe those to be the most common.
At the ages of 1-2 children are able to understand that there are physical differences between girls and boys/ mena nd women By ages 3 children will say if they are male or woman or sometimes nonbinary At 4 gender identity is stable, at 6 children have When kids declare transgender. Trimodal, at 3 or 4 children might wear cisgender outfits, right before puberty people express, and then right as they leave the home like 19 when they have financial freedom Gender identity evolves over time
Understand how and why fathers have traditionally been left out of the attachment literature.
Attachment research began in a time when ignoring fathers was standard practice in academic psychology and in the design of services to address the needs of children and their families. In the 1950s, research on fathers was focused on the impact of father absence due to war service and death
Understand why sex is not a binary construct, and be able to articulate generally what we mean when we say "intersex".
Destabilizing a sex binary (nature) Sex is the biological material reality of ones body Intersex conditions Hornmones, gonads Secondary sex characteristics A person could be insensitive to androgens which is the male called androgen insensitivity syndrome which results in feminine appearance Secondary sex characteristics: what do you look for to check if someone is a female or male Intersex people XO chromosomes turner syndrome, kliens xxy
Identify the general biological changes that take place during puberty and the scale we use to describe the stages of puberty.
Biological Measured and quantified via tanner scale Objective classification system based on the primary sex characterisitcs that are developing First physical evidence for women of puberty is budding breast, for men it is bigger testes More focused on girls bc easier to measure Puberty is incremental changes over time Psychical changes bring sociology changes Stage of development where you look at identity formation Has to do with bio changes as well as the development of the frontal lobe Physically the individual is not yet an adult from the perspective of mind or brain People treat you different based on how u looks Children of different color are more likely to get treated as adults sooner Tanner Scale
What were John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Harry Harlow's contributions to attachment theory, respectively?
Bowlby • Father of attachment theory • Established attachment as a critical process • Emphasized the negative impact of "maternal deprivation" Ainsworth • Expands on Bowlby's initial attachment theory • Quality of attachment & parental attunement matter • Attachment influences how child views themselves, others, & the world • Specific styles of attachment (assessed with "Strange Situation") Harlow • Studies with rhesus monkeys showed importance of comfort, warmth, nurturance, etc. from attachment figures,, not just physical needs • The longer the monkeys went without contact, the worse their outcomes • Aalai, 2016
Why is adolescence often thought of as a time of emotional volatility when compared to other developmental stages? How is this related to C. Stanley Hall's research on adolescence being a phase of "storm and stress"?
Common association: most emotionally volatile period of the entire lifespan? → not substantiated in the literature Emotional response as extreme or disproportionate Sense of everything being very high stakes emotionally Cultures have own rites of passage regarding transition One of reasons for potential volatility - really close to adulthood but not quite there yet Esp. looking at pressures they have today compared to earlier generations Are there more pressures today; is identity more complex in the 21st century? Something to consider G. Stanley Hall (1844 - 1924): Background w/ strong emphasis on psychoanalysis, overlaps w attachment researchers in terms of his trainings Established Clark University, First Presidents of APA Credited with notion that adolescence is an emotionally volatile stage Credited with discovering adolescence in 1904 Defined it as period of 14-24 years (not a lot of science behind that) When identifying this stage of development, marked by specific changes in society & when children grow into adults Identified adolescence as period of "storm and stress" → where we get the idea that this is emotionally volatile period in development Markers: attention seeking, engaging in risky behaviors, strong dependence on friendships
What types of research studies help explain why gender identity may not completely be a social construct?
Destabilizing a social construction (nurture) Gender identity is not entirely socially constructed Neuropsychological research The brains of transgender people and their brain makeup and biology aligns more closely to their identified gender rather then the sex they were assigned at birth Devid reimer and john money David reimer was a twin and had a botched circumcision and they visited john money which was one of the first people who thought of the idea of gender identity, advised the paretns to preform sex reassignment surgery. Bruce turned into brenda but was very depressed, david reimer died at the age of 38
Critical period (age range) for attachment?
Develops during first 2-5 yrs of life
Explain the role that parents play in the development of a child's food habits and preferences.
Mothers are the gatekeepers of food choices and access Despite the changes of sterotypical gender roles there is still a traditonal positions, the mothers will still be the gatekeepers for chosing food Parents play formative roles of eating, how much of obesity is biologically based A child is 3x times to be obese if paretn obese, if individual overweight, child has 65-75 chance of growing up to be overweight as well, more nurture based then shared biologically based, There is a shift where people used to think obesity is biologically but because there is so many obese people and it happended so fast, they said that it cant be biologically Singling out children to be healthy when no one else is doing it, is not going to work Trends toward overconsumption and no exercise
Cognitive and social benefits of being bilingual/multilingual.
Greater ability to multitask, focus, concentration, more gray matter in certain areas of the brain, protection against Alzheimer's disease
Be able to identify the risks associated with childhood obesity from a physical health perspective as well as psychological and social perspectives.
HEALTH PERSPECTIVE Health concerns Higher blood pressure, cholesterol, type 2 diabetes, breathing problems (asthma, sleep) With pandemic, if a person gets covid Biggest predictors of obesity is socioeconomic status Socioeconomic status More likely to live in a food desert As the education of the head of household increases there is lower obesity 30% children eat fast food daily, Fast food restaurants are more in ethnic minority youth Soft drinks and juice make up 6% of calories for 2-5 year olds, 7% 6011, 10% 12-19 Ethnic minority are less likely to participate in school sports PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Kids who are obese dont do as well in sports, which can be a powerful socializing agent STIGMA: target put on children that possess a quality that is frowned upon in society Fat shaming has to do with our culture and how we were raised One form of acceptable discrimination, also agism Embedded in the way we raise women - normal for women to minimize aging and hide their age, ageism at work starts at 35 for women Unfavorable labor practices and reduced education and housing opportunities Disney halo vs horned effect : associate attractiveness with goodness Where we get antifat bias: negative traits associated with being overweight like being unmotivate, lack discipline, incompetent Strong influence between screen and obesity Reasons for being obese is probably more nurture based then genetically affected : tasking away from their time that could be spent outside
Know the significance of Harlow's monkey experiments as well as criticisms.
Harlow took away baby monkeys from their mothers at birth and replaced them with steel monkeys, one replacement had food while the other provided comfort. Criticisms: Animal Cruelty
Liebert (2022) - "Chris Crawford is Changing NFL Cheerleading..." (Jezebel) Who is Chris Crawford, and why is he in the news?
He's one of the first men to join the Carolina Panthers' cheerleading squad, TopCats. "Chris Crawford, a 23-year-old Black gay male who slides between femininity and masculinity as he pleases, is doing a hell of a lot of heavy lifting for gender identity diversity within a league that has glorified the gender binary since its inception. Crawford doesn't care whether fans are ready for people like him to appear on their televisions and in their stadiums, because unabashed gender expression like his is the future. And the future, apparently, is the Carolina TopCats" "NFL cheerleaders have long been expected to hide any traces of individuality, constraining expression of gender or sexuality that deviates from hetero norms in service of the larger uniformity of the team. This also means that the ideals of uniformity and tradition have been weaponized as excuses for excluding racially or gender-diverse people: same fluffed-up hair, same shaded abs, and, often, same skin color"
Know the approximate age ranges discussed in class for defining infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence.
Prenatal (Conception-Birth) Infancy (Birth-2) Early Childhood (2-6) Middle Childhood (7-11) Adolescence (12-18) Early Adulthood (19-34) Middle Adulthood (35-64) Later Adulthood (65+)
What types of gender-affirming healthcare are available for transgender and non-binary individuals? What are the consequences of gender diverse children not being able to seek the healthcare that they need/desire?
If a child is not allowed to express their identity it has negative mental health and developmental Higher rates of anxiety, depression Just because a child is expressing gender questioning they might not become transgender People think that trans people might want to have surgery but some people might not Abortion and gender expression is both issues of body autonomy Tanner stages Classify puberty into tanner stages Tanner stage 1: prepubertal, birth until tannerstage 2 A transition will not be surgical but mostly, wearing clothes All transitioning is exclusively social Tanner stage 2: puberty begins, first initial growth of pubic hair, growing breasts and testicular size. Intensely distressing and dramatic "Theres a monster growing inside of me" Children can begin puberty blockers, cut off hormones that cause the puberty cascade when the body starts producing more sex hormones Puberty blockers cant regress but it will stop it from regressing further, wont stop body order, growth Puberty blockers does not decide if a child is trans, its to decide what a childs long term transition is. There is fertility problems Puberty blockers allows time for children to have the conversations Children who wanted medication but could not receive it had 12 times the amount of suicide ideation 98% of children who go on puberty blockers will go on to receive gender affirming healthcare. If you stop puberty blockers then the child will continue to develop What happens after For trans girls who takes hormone replacement hormones will take estrogen, For trans boys they will take testogen, voice deepens and drops and their voice will depend Later there might be vaginoplasty, penial plasty, bottom growth, but cant produce sperm Facial surgery Trans children have a higher level of eating disorders to have more control Chrisitine found that in young transgender children whos parents support them, the suicidal ideation is gone. Result with sociatual Minority stress theory: translating societal oppression into a health risk, going through every day with a minority or marginalized identity you have more stress
Understand the prevalence of the childhood obesity epidemic in the U.S.
In the UD pediatric cases of being overweight affects more than 30% of children and makes it the most chronic The standard diet, lack of exercise, New rates of obesity are being identified as early as elementary school and we are seeing higher numbers earlier in childhood then later 40% of today's highschool students and young adults had experienced obesity or could be categorized as overweight before leaving primary school Children born in 2000s are experiencing rates of obesity at higher levels and at younger ages then children 12 years earlier despite Non black hispanic kindergarteners had 29% higher incidence of developing obesity by 5th grade compared to 12 years earlier The risk of developing obesity in primary Variations for risks for race and socio economic status Global problem, most of the world population lives in countries where being overweight and obese kills more people then being underweight. Shows that we are better at feeding others Ages 2-19 Prevalence of obesity was nearly 20% and affected 20 million children and adolescents As we progress over the lifespan the percentages of obesity are becoming higher
Be able to define the concept of "maternal deprivation".
Infant development when there are continual disruptions with the presence of the mother (introduced by Bowlby)
Understand the significance of sleep in infancy, especially as it relates to neural development.
Infants need 16-17 hours of sleep in their first week, and spend the most time in REM sleep.
Know the common healthcare protocol for children who are born intersex, and how attitudes towards this practice have been changing in recent years.
Intersex children Might not always be visible with genitalia. They might go through puberty and have nonfunctioning testis They have a ruler and if the penis is less then a certain amount they turn them into a woman First hospital to pledge to end unnecessary surgeries on intersex children is the childrens hospital in chicago
Why is middle childhood considered a critical period of development for weight status?
Obesity: as children transition into middle adulthood they need less food Socialization is fused more with food as kids are immersed in schooling and greater association outside of school like parties and there is more of an opportunity of children to make food choices outside of supervision of parents Many children and adults consume excessive amounts of salt and sugar Infants are born with a preference for sweet foods over other things but it also interacts with environment and what the mother is eating, epigenetically what your family members ate Critical period of development from the view of structural plasticity of our brains - identifiers that there are windows of times where the brain Middle childhood is crucial period of development for weight status, children who are obese have later prediction for being obese later BMI has lot of issues, what your finding is that BMI is increasing during childhood but if you have BMI that is increasing too rapidly you have chance for obesity
Know what mirror neurons are and how they are significant for child development.
One of the most social systems of the human brain Mirror neurons: watching and translating what you see. See other peoples actions as your own. Mirror neurons tie us to other peoples actions and feelings Send messages to the limbic / emotional parts of our brains The mirror neuron system is the most social system of our brains that suggested we are literally wired for empathy It also suggests that we crave social connection with others And that one of the most important and basic ways that we learn is through watching others and imitating what we see them doing Although the mirror neuron shows that we have capacity for empathy because of brain plasticity and the way that environment can influence you, you can cultivate more empathy in your child by exposing them to an environment that encourages empathy -ITS NOT TRUE THAT Autism being associated with less empathy
What gendered messages or values are often transmitted to children in the type of play they are encouraged to participate in and the type of toys they receive?
Play can be informative for the children that do it, play is an important socialization process When we give a child a toy we are sending implicit messages Toys are more gendered in the 200s then they were prior, related to capitalism In cases where an individual is socialized with stereotypical or traditional notions of masculinity and femininity it is damaging fro both sexes and imposes a lot of restrictions Toxic masculinity: telling people to hold in their feelings or expressing through violence Told to not cry, leads to suicide For both sexes there is a performative aspect of gender where you put on a show Toys that are associated with boys are more associated with fighting and aggression Toys for girls are related to appearance, nurturing and domestic skills, Intelligence toys were neutral or more masculine Gender identity and gender expansiveness○ View that non-binary conceptions of gender are "novel" is notAccurate Nuance in our nature and nurture conceptions of both sexand gender There is not a sex binary either Gender labels are social constructions, but gender identity is not fully based on "nurture" Healthcare for trans and intersex children ○ Larger issue of bodily autonomy Transitioning looks different for every trans/non-binary individual Critical period of development: Puberty Mental health○ Trans/nonbinary children have much higher rates of mental disorders as a result of societal stigma & minority stress
What are reflexes and what are examples of reflexes that infants are born with?
Reflexes: Automatic responses to stimuli that are present at birth (ex: Breathing, sucking, swallowing, elimination)
Be able to identify the four different attachment styles. What type of parenting is presumed to lead to a child developing each of these attachment styles? How does each attachment style manifest in a child's attitudes and behavior?
Secure • Secure, explorative, happy • Results when caregiver is: quick, sensitive, consistent • Child trusts that their needs will be me Anxious-Avoidant • Emotionally distant, not very explorative • Results when caregiver is: distant, disengaged • Child believes their needs will not be met Anxious-Ambivalent • Anxious, angry • Results when caregiver is: inconsistent, sometimes sensitive & other times neglectful • Child doesn't know whether or not their needs will be met Disorganized • Depressed, angry, completely passive, non-responsive • Results when caregiver is: erratic, extreme, unpredictable • Child is so confused, they cannot develop a strategy to get their needs met
What role does self-regulation (or the lack thereof) play in enabling obesity in children?
Self-regulation: purposeful process originating from within a person whereby they can exert control or modify behavior Related to how adaptable you are; are they able to modify or adjust behavior as needed based on the goal or environment Parenting styles can impact the extent to which children have self-regulatory capabilities Kids who have self regulation in their relationship with food are able to recognize when they're full & stop eating Self-regulation is a protected factor against obesity Lack of self-regulation has been associated with weight gain in childhood Middle childhood critical period of development in terms of type of relationship we're developing with food Cross-sectional & longitudinal studies: show that high levels of self-regulation (even outside relationship w/ food) is protective against rapid weight gain in children, associated with lower rates of obesity in adolescence Ability to delay gratification is critical factor in being able to identify self-regulation (related to portion, food choices and how we're motivated by food)
Identify the difference(s) between sex and gender, including sex and gender roles, as they are traditionally defined.
Sex and sex roles Commonly thought of as being Nature-based Sex = biological distinctions that determine whether a person is male, female, or intersex Gender and gender roles Commonly thought of as nurture- Based Gender = social, psychological, & cultural identity associated with masculinity or femininity SEX: biological distinctions that determine whether an individual is male female or intrsex Sex roles: the underlying reproductive capibilties (biologically based) Gender: social, cultural and psychological meanings we associate with masculinity and femininity Gender roles is the norms or expectations, appropriate permissible behaviors based on the underlying assumptions of masculinity or femininity, Changes with culture and time period Gender identity is the extent to which a person internalizes gender roles / masculinity and femininity
Sandra Bem's Gender Schema Theory - know the main principles of this theory as highlighted during lecture (no need to carefully review the readings on this theory).
Social-cognitive theory: Individuals become gendered from an early age, this gendering impacts how they process info throughout their lifetime (The notion that gender is an overarching filter that individuals use to process and understand the world around them) Gender schemas People are gender schematic by default b/c we live in a gendered society Schematic: people that are more likely to divide and view their world through gender Gender aschematic: less likely to organize info they receive and regulate their behavior based on gender — gender less salient Thought that kids would evaluate different behaviors in terms of cultural gender appropriateness, and reject any behaviors that don't fall into their definition
Understand the process of gender socialization, including how it is defined, how it is related to early stages of development, and who prominent agents of socialization are.
The process of transmitting cultural messages about gender to kids. Happens through internalization of gender norms & roles as kids interact with key socializing agents ○ Starts incredibly early, even prenatally ○ Indicates performative aspect of gender Agents of socialization = who or what is transmitting values regarding constructions of masculinity & femininity Gendered messaging to children can be explicit or implicit ○ Influence of play and toys Stereotypical gender role socialization is harmful for all sexes Relation to Bandura's Social Learning Theory Who or what is giving values for what is appropriate behaviors for boys and girls Gender socialization: The process by which individuals develop, refine, and learn to "do" gender through internalizing gender norms and roles as they interact with key agents of socialization There is a performative aspect to gender, heightened in adolencence Agents of socialization: Who or what is transmitting values regarding constructions of masculinity and femininity What are our traditional ideas of what its like to be male or female Can be parents, mass media, institutions Stereotypical gender socialization: Process whereby boys and girls are socialized with traditional or outdated notions of what constitutes appropriate girl versus boy behaviors Gender socialization: is the process by which a individual develops, refines, and learns to do gender through internalizing the roles and norms throughout the culture Evidence that gender socialization happens early could even be prenatally, plays such an influnetial role in how we filter the world around us Can even be prenatally, like expectations for each gender and feminize or masculine child with colors and de=corating Babies have no cognitive preference for color
Be able to articulate a few theorized reasons for the observed relationship between autism/autistic traits and gender diversity.
Transgender and gender diverse individauls have higher rates of autism and higher rates of reporting autism traits Autisic individal smight be less senstive to gender sterotyping. People who have autism might follow their naturally occuring traits nd might not pay so much mind to the societal pressures of gender development