Early Americas/Oceania

Mayan religion + bloodletting rituals

1. Describe the Mayan concept of the world. They saw the universe as a threefold world composed of the earth, the celestial realm (i.e. the sky above), and the Underworld ("Xibalba" in Maya Quiché) below. The world of the living (i.e. the Earth) is divided in four quadrants organised according to the cardinal directions. West and East are determined by the points where the sun rises and sets during the winter and summer solstices. Each direction is associated with a specific colour. At the center of the world grows the cosmic tree. The Underworld was the dwelling place of the gods and also the resting place of the ancestors. Caves (cenotes) and water bodies such as lakes were considered passageways to the Underworld. 2. How were the Maya similar to and different from the Egyptians (pyramids, afterlife, gods)? Similar to the Egyptians, the Mayans built pyramid-like temples for religious reasons. The main difference was that the Mayan pyramids have a flat top to build small temples on top; nor were they used as tombs for the leader. The best known pyramid is El Castillo or Temple of Kukulkan in the archaeological site Chichen Itza, in the Mexican state of Yucatan. The Mayans built two types of pyramids, and one type was meant to be climbed. These pyramids were used during human sacrifices, which would please the Gods. The other type was not to be climbed, or even touched. These pyramids were sacred and often were built with steps too steep to climb, or a false door. When these pyramids were being used, a priest would use the dangerous steps and get closer to the Gods. Mayan rulers were seen as intermediaries between the gods and the people, and as semi-divine themselves and they were buried in elaborate tombs filled with valuable offerings like the Egyptians. The Mayan religion was Polytheist, and they worshiped more than 165 Gods, the Gods were also human-like. This is similar to Egyptian god who sometimes were animalistic like Bast. 3. What are the main traits of the gods/goddesses? Gods would do other human-like activity that was deemed acceptable behavior. This included: creating, planting and harvesting maize, performing divination, conducting business, fighting wars, forming alliances and intermarrying. This behavior led to the Gods having interrelated jobs within their hierarchy. The Maya worshipped a pantheon of nature gods, each of which had both a benevolent side and a malevolent side. 4. Who were the Hero Twins and what did they do? Their adventures are recounted in the 16th-century Quiche Popol Vuh. According to the Popol Vuh, their father, Hun Hunahpu, and their uncle, Vucub Hunahpu, who were also two twins, were tricked and killed by the Lords of the Underworld. Hun Ajaw and Yax Bahlam later avenged their father when they defeated these deities in the ballgame. In Maya iconography, the twins are represented as handsome young men, usually wearing white headbands and god-markings. Hun Ajaw is also covered with black spots while Yax Bahlam has patches of jaguar skins. 5. How did the Maya tie science/astronomy to their religion? They accurately (and nearly perfectly) calculated a solar year, compiled precise tables of positions for the Moon and Venus, and were able to predict solar eclipses. The Maya practiced a form of divination that centered on their elaborate calendar system and extensive knowledge of astronomy. Solar eclipses, which they could sometimes predict, and comets as signs from the gods. It was the job of the priests to discern lucky days from unlucky ones, and advising the rulers on the best days to plant, harvest, wage war, etc. They were especially interested in the movements of the planet Venus and Maya rulers scheduled wars to coordinate with its rise in the heavens. 6. What was the idea behind human sacrifice? It was believed to encourage fertility, demonstrate piety, and propitiate the gods when blood was spilled. The Mayan gods were thought to be nourished by human blood, and ritual bloodletting was seen as the only means of making contact with them. The Maya believed that if they neglected these rituals, cosmic disorder and chaos would result. The most important sacrifice involved the shedding of human blood, which the Maya believed would prompt the gods to send rain to water their crops of maize Some bloodletting rituals centered on war captives Before sacrificing the victims by decapitation, their captors cut off the ends of their fingers or lacerated their bodies to cause a copious flow of blood in honor of the Gods Yet the Maya did not look upon those rituals simply as opportunities to torture their enemies The frequent and voluntary shedding of Royal Blood, as in the case of Chan Bahlum's self-sacrifice at Palenque testifies to the depth of Maya convictions that they inhabited a World created and sustained by deities who expected honour and reverence from their human subjects

llamas/alpacas

1. What are the origins of llamas (the whole family)? Camelids made their way through the Bering land bridge. 2. How did they uniquely adapt to the Andes? They got thicker fur because it was colder than they were used to. Their Hooves might have changed. Camel and altitude might have affected size when became llama because large is not good in mountains. 3. To what animal is the llama compared; for what was it domesticated? Camel, was domesticated for being a pack animal and then for fur 4. What happened to the llama family after the arrival of the Spanish? Endangered, became marginalized 5. What is the more recent status of the llama family? We appreciate it more. An important difference is that domestication allowed the llamas' additional use as a beast of burden as well as selective breeding for specific traits. The llama's adaptability and efficiency as a pack animal in the mountain terrain of the Andes made it possible to link the diverse altitude zones and to cover the great linear distances of the region. The llama was bred specifically to produce a large, strong animal for the packing function. The alpaca was bred to accentuate its naturally finer wool. The harvest of this fine wool served as the base for a significant domestic textile market.

Pick Essay Topic: comparing decline of American civilizations

All of them are mysteries, but what caused it is different. Olmec (NA tail): The most perplexed mysteries surrounding the Olmecs is the decline and fall of their society. The Olmecs systematically destroyed their ceremonial centers at both San Lorenzo and La Venta and then deserted the sites. Archaeologists studying these sites phone statues broken and buried, monuments defaced, and the capital of themselves burned. Although Intruders may have ravaged the ceremonial centers, many scholars believe that the Olmecs deliberately destroyed their capitals, perhaps because of civil conflicts or doubts about the effectiveness and legitimacy of the ruling classes. By about 400 B.C.E. Olmec Society had fallen on hard times and soon thereafter societies and other parts of Mesoamerica eclipsed it all together. Chavin (Peru + Bolivia): The site and the Chavin culture in general entered into decline sometime in the 3rd century BCE for reasons which remain unclear but that are probably related to several years of drought and earthquakes and the inevitable social upheaval caused by stress. Chitchen Itza-decline likely due to warfare and over-farming. Dominated trade, largest cenote and ballcourt. Maya (NA Tail): Historians have suggested many possible causes of the decline, including invasion by foreigners from Mexico, internal dissension and civil war, failure of the system of water control leading to diminished harvest and demographic collapse, ecological problems caused by destruction of the forest, the spread of epidemic diseases, and natural catastrophes such as earthquakes. Possibly several problems combined to destroy Maya Society. It is likely that debilitating civil conflict and excessive siltation of agricultural Terraces cause particularly difficult problems for the Maya. In any case, the population declined, the people abandoned their cities, and long-distance trade with Central Mexico came to a halt. Teotihuacan: Teotihuacan began to experience increasing military pressure from other people around 500 C.E. Works of art from this time frequently depicted Eagles, Jaguars, and Coyotes animals that Mesoamericans associated with fighting and military conquest. After about 650 C.E. Teotihuacan entered a period of decline. About the middle of the eighth century, invaders sacked and burned the city, destroying its books and monuments. After that catastrophe most residents deserted Teotihuacan and the city slowly fell into ruin. Mochica (Andean): Although they integrated the regional economies of the various Andean valleys, none of these early states were able to impose order on the entire region or even to dominate a portion of it for very long The exceedingly difficult Geographic barriers post by the Andes Mountains presented challenges that ancient technology and social organization could not meet In addition, during the 6th and 7th centuries C.E. climate fluctuations brought a long series of severe droughts to the Andean region As a result, by the end of the first millennium C.E. mo-chica and several other Andean societies had disappeared Andean society exhibited regional differences much sharper than those of mesoamerica and early complex societies in the eastern hemisphere Lapita (Kinda): Contest for power and influence between ambitious subordinates frequently caused tension and turmoil, but the probability of migration offered an alternative to conflict Dissatisfied or aggrieved parties often built voyaging canoes, recruited followers, and set sail with the intention of establishing new settlements in uninhabited or lightly populated islands The spread of austronesian people throughout the Pacific Islands came about partly because of population pressures and conflicts that encourage small parties to seek fresh opportunities in more hospitable lands Over the long-term, descendants of Lapita people built strong, chiefly societies particularly on large islands with relatively dense populations like those of the Tongan, Samoan, and Hawaiian groups

Andean environment and products

Although they were exact contemporaries, early Mesoamerican and Andean societies developed largely independently . The heartland of early Andean Society was the region now occupied by the states of Peru and Bolivia . Geography discouraged the establishment of communications between the Andean region and Mesoamerica. Neither the Andes Mountains nor the lowlands of modern Panama and Nicaragua offered an attractive Highway linking the two regions. Several agricultural products and technologies diffused slowly from one area to the other. Cultivation of maize and squash has spread from its Mesoamerican home to the central Andean region. Andean gold, silver, and copper metallurgy travelled north to Mesoamerica. Geography conspired even against the establishment of communications within the central Andean region. Deep valleys were on the western flank of the Andes Mountains so transportation and communication between The Valleys were difficult. The powerful Andean States sometimes overcame the difficulties and influenced human affairs as far away as modern Ecuador and Colombia to the north and Northern Chile to the South.Most of the early Andean heartland came under cultivation between 2500 and 2000 B.C.E. and permanent settlements dotted the coastal regions in particular. The earliest cultivators of the region relied on beans, peanuts, and sweet potatoes as their main food crops. The most important domesticated animals were camel like llamas and alpacas which provided them with both meat and wool. They also served as pack animals in some areas of the Andean highlands. They also cultivated cotton, which they used to make fishnets and textiles. The rich marine life of the pacific ocean supplemented agricultural harvest, enabling coastal people to build an increasingly complex society. Settlements probably appeared later in the highlands than in coastal regions, but many varieties of potato supported agricultural communities in the highlands after about 2000 B.C.E. By 1800 B.C.E. Andean people were constructing canals and irrigation systems to support cultivation on the dryland at the mouth of the Western Andean valleys. They also began to have distinct styles of pottery and build temples and pyramids in large ceremonial centers. Along with cities, there appeared regional states. The earliest Andean States arose in the many villages on the western side of the mountains. These states emerged when conquerors unified the individual valleys and organized them into integrated societies. They coordinated the building of irrigation systems so that the lower valleys could support intensive agriculture, and the established trade and exchange networks that tied the highlands, the central valleys, and the coastal regions together. Each region contributed products to the larger economy of the valley. From the highlands came potatoes, llama meat, and alpaca wool. The Central Valley supplied maize, beans, and squash. The coast provided sweet potatoes, fish, and cotton. This organization of the Andean valleys into integrated economic zones did not come about by accident. Builders of the early Andean States worked deliberately and did not hesitate to use force to consolidate their domains. Surviving stone fortifications and warriors depicted in works of art testify that the early and Andean states relied heavily on arms to introduce order and maintain stability and their small realms.

ball-game

Apart from the calendar and sacrificial rituals, the Maya also inherited a distinctive ball game from the Olmecs The game sometimes pitted two men against each other, but it often involved teams of two to four members mostly men But there is evidence that women sometimes played the game as well The object of the game was for players to score points by propelling a rubber ball through a ring or onto a marker without using their hands The Maya used to ball about 20 cm in diameter Made of solid baked rubber, the ball was both heavy and hard A blow in the head could easily cause a concussion and players needed great dexterity and skill to maneuver it accurately using only their feet, legs, hips, torso, shoulders, or elbows The game was extremely popular in almost all Maya ceremonial centers, towns, and cities had stone paved courts on which players performed publicly The Maya played the ball game for several reasons Sometimes individuals competed for sporting purposes oh, and sometimes players are spectators laid bets on the outcome of contest between professionals The ball game figured also in Mayan political affairs as a ritual that honored the conclusion of treaties High-ranking captives often engaged in forced public competition in which the stakes were their very lives Losers became sacrificial victims and faced torture and execution immediately following the match Alongside some ball courts were skull racks that bore the severed heads of losing players Thus Maya concerns to please the gods by shedding human blood extended even to the realm of sport

Chichén Itzá

Bitter conflict between small kingdoms were sources of constant tension in Maya Society Only about the 9th century C.E. did the state of Chichén Itzá in the northern Yucatan Peninsula speak to dampen hostile instincts and establish a larger political framework for Maya Society The rulers preferred to absorb captives and integrate them into their own society rather than annihilate them or offer them up as sacrificial victims Some captives refused the opportunity and went to their deaths as proud warriors, but many agreed to recognize the authority and participate in the construction of a larger society Between the 9th and 11th centuries C.E. they organized a loose Empire that brought a measure of political stability to the northern Yucatan Maya Decline However, by about 800 C.E. most Maya populations had begun to desert their cities Within a century Maya Society was in full decline everywhere except the northern Yucatan, where Chichén Itzá continued to flourish

Mayan collapse

Drought, Deforestation, maybe Warfare The ice-core evidence from Greenland indicates that around the time of the Maya Collapse, a minimum in solar insolation and a low in solar activity occurred, accompanied by severe cold and dryness over Greenland, indicating hemispheric climatic conditions propitious for drought in the Maya Lowlands. A 2012 study in the journal Science analyzed a 2,000 year old stalagmite from a cave in Belize and also "found that sharp decreases in rainfall coincided with periods of decline in the culture," said Discovery. Explanation: Scientific evidence clearly indicates that the Maya lowlands suffered a sustained series of droughts between c. 800 and c. 1050. However, it should be noted that not all cities suffered from droughts, as some lakes and rivers never dried up completely. For those regions which did suffer a water shortage, the lack of rain and repeated crop failures make it entirely conceivable that either the lower levels of society - 90% of the population were farmers - or perhaps more likely, non-ruling elites, rebelled against the ruling class, who could no longer justify their role as protectors of society and intermediaries with the gods such as Chahk the rain god. Historians have suggested many possible causes of the decline, including invasion by foreigners from Mexico, internal dissension and civil war, failure of the system of water control leading to diminished harvest and demographic collapse, ecological problems caused by destruction of the forest, the spread of epidemic diseases, and natural catastrophes such as earthquakes Possibly several problems combined to destroy Maya Society It is likely that debilitating civil conflict and excessive siltation of agricultural Terraces cause particularly difficult problems for the Maya In any case, the population declined, the people abandon their cities, and long-distance trade with Central Mexico came to a halt Meanwhile, the tropical jungles of the lowlands encroached upon human settlements and gradually smothered the cities, temples, pyramids, and monuments of a once vibrant society

Tikal

From about 300 to 900 C.E., The Maya built more than 80 large ceremonial centers in the lowlands all with pyramids, palaces, and temples as well as numerous smaller settlements Some of the larger centres attracted dense populations that involved into genuine cities Foremost among them was to Tikal, the most important Maya political center between the 4th and the 9th centuries C.E. Add a tight roughly 600 to 800 C.E. it was a wealthy and bustling city with a population approaching 40,000 It boasted an enormous paved plazas and scores of temples, pyramids, palaces, and public buildings The Temple of the Giant Jaguar, a stepped pyramid rising sharply to a height of 47 m dominated the skyline and represented their control over the surrounding region, which had a population of about 500,000 They organized themselves politically into scores of small city kingdoms Tikal was probably the largest, but Palenque and Chichén Itzá also were sizable states The smaller kingdoms had populations between 10,000 and 30000 Maya Kings often bore menacing names such as Cruel Snout, Smoking Frog, and Stormy Sky Especially popular names were associated with the Jaguar, the most dangerous predator of the Mesoamerican forests Prominent Maya kings included Great Jaguar Paw, Shield Jaguar, Bird Jaguar, and Jaguar Penis (meaning the progenitor of other jaguar-kings)

Olmec way of life

Historians and archaeologists studied Olmec Society only since the 1940s and many questions about them remain unanswered Their proper name is unknown, the term Olmec meaning rubber people did not come from the ancient people themselves, but the rides instead from the rubber trees that flourished in the region they inhabited Some of the basic features of the society have become reasonably clear as it is certain that their cultural traditions influenced all complex societies of Mesoamerica until the arrival of European people in the 16th century C.E. The first Olmec ceremonial center arose about 1200 B.C.E. on the site of the modern town of San Lorenzo, and it served as the capital for four hundred years When the influence waned, leadership passed to new ceremonial centers at La Venta and Tres Zapotes These sites defined the heartland of Olmec Society where agriculture produced rich harvests The entire region receives abundant rainfall, so there was no need to build extensive systems of irrigation Like the Harappans, the Olmecs constructed elaborate drainage systems to divert waters that otherwise might have flooded their fields or destroyed their settlements Some Olmec drainage construction remains visible and effective today Was probably authoritarian in nature Untold thousands of labourers participated in the construction of the ceremonial centers at San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes Each of the Olmec sites featured an elaborate complex of temples, pyramids, altars, stone sculptures, and tombs for rulers Common subjects delivered a portion of their harvest for the maintenance of the elite classes living in the ceremonial centers and provided labor for the various large-scale construction projects Common subjects labored regularly on behalf of the Olmec elite Not only in building drainage systems and ceremonial centers but also in providing appropriate artistic adornment for the capitals The most distinctive artistic creations of the Olmecs were colossal human heads possibly likenesses of rulers sculpted from basalt rock The largest of these sculptures stands 3 meters tall and weighs some 20 tons In the absence of draft animals and wheels, human laborers dragged enormous folders from queries, floated them on rafts two points near their destinations, dragged them to their intended sites, and then positioned them for the sculptors The largest sculpture is required the services of about 1,000 laborers Apart from the Colossal heads, the Olmec capitals featured many other large stone sculptures and monumental buildings that required the services of laborers by the hundreds and thousands Construction of the huge pyramid at La Venta for example required some 800,000 man days of work Trade in Jade and Obsidian Influence extended too much of the Central and Southern regions of modern Mexico and beyond that to Modern Guatemala and El Salvador They spread their influence partly by military force, but trade was a prominent link between the Olmec Heartland and other regions of Mesoamerica They produced large numbers of decorative objects from Jade which they had to import In the absence of any metal technology, they also made extensive use of obsidian from which they fashioned knives and axes with wickedly sharp cutting edges Like Jade, obsidian came to the Gulf Coast from distant regions in the interior of Mesoamerica In exchange for the Imports, the olmecs traded small works of art fashion from Jade, Basalt, or ceramics, and perhaps also local products such as animal skins The most perplexed mysteries surrounding the Olmecs is the decline and fall of their society The Olmecs systematically destroyed their ceremonial centers at both San Lorenzo and La Venta and then deserted the sites Archaeologists studying these sites phone statues broken and buried, monuments defaced, and the capital of themselves burned Although Intruders may have ravaged the ceremonial centers many scholars believe that the Olmecs deliberately destroyed their capitals, perhaps because of civil conflicts or doubts about the effectiveness and legitimacy of the ruling classes By about 400 B.C.E. Olmec Society had fallen on hard times and soon thereafter societies and other parts of Mesoamerica eclipsed it all together Olmec Traditions deeply influenced later Mesoamerican societies They made astronomical observations and created a calendar to help them keep track of the seasons They invented a system of writing Unfortunately little of it survived beyond calendrical inscriptions They also carried out ritual involving human sacrifice and invented a distinctive ball game Later Mesoamerican people adopted all these Olmec Traditions as well as their cultivation of maize and their construction of ceremonial centers with temple pyramids The later and better known societies of Mesoamerica still largely on Olmec foundations

Geography of the South Pacific/Oceania

Human migrants reached Australia and New Guinea long before any people had begun to cultivate crops or keep herds of domesticated animals. The earliest inhabitants of Australia and New Guinea lived by hunting and gathering their food. For thousands of years, forging people probably traveled back and forth between Australia and New Guinea. Migrations ceased about ten thousand years ago when sising seas separated the two lands. After that time, human Societies in Australia and New Guinea followed radically different paths. The Aboriginal people of Australia maintained hunting and Gathering societies until large numbers of Europeans established settler communities there in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries C.E. New Guinea people however turned to agriculture beginning about 3000 B.C.E. the cultivation of root crops such as yams and Taro and the keeping of pigs and chickens spread rapidly throughout the island. Like hunting and gathering people in other places, the aboriginal Australians lived in small, mobile communities that undertook seasonal migrations in search of food. Over the centuries, they learned to exploit the resources of the various ecological regions of Australia. Plant foods, including fruits, berries, roots, nuts, seeds, shoots, and green leaves, constituted the bulk of their diet . In the tropical region of Cape York in Northern Australia, they consumed no fewer than 141 species of plants. They also used a lot of plants as medicines, ointments, and drugs. To supplement their plant-based diet, they used axes, spears, clubs, nuts, lasses, snares, and boomerangs to bring down animals ranging in size from rats to giant kangaroos, and to catch fish, waterfowl, and small birds. The earliest inhabitants of New Guinea forage for food, like their neighbors to the South. About five thousand years ago however a process of social and economic change began to unfold in New Guinea.

aboriginals

Indigenous peoples there "from the origin" of Australia and New Zealand. Human migrant entered Australia and New Guinea at least by 50000 years before the present, and possibly earlier than that They arrived in watercraft possibly rafts, or perhaps canoes fitted with sails but because of the low sea levels of the era, the migrants did not have to cross large stretches of open ocean Those earliest inhabitants of Oceania also migrated perhaps over land when sea levels were still low to the Bismarcks, the Solomons, and other small island groups near New Guinea Five thousand years ago, seafaring people from Southeast Asia visited the northern coast of New Guinea for purposes of trade Some of them settled there, but many others ventured farther and established communities in the island groups of the Western Pacific Ocean During the centuries that followed, their descendants sailed large, ocean-going canoes throughout the Pacific basin oh, and by the middle centuries of the first millennium C.E. they had established human communities in all the habitable islands of the Pacific Ocean Early Societies in Australia and New Guinea Human migrants reached Australia and New Guinea long before any people had begun to cultivate crops or keep herds of domesticated animals The earliest inhabitants of Australia and New Guinea lived by hunting and gathering their food For thousands of years, forging people probably traveled back and forth between Australia and New Guinea Does migrations seized about ten thousand years ago when Rising Seas separated the two lands After that time, human Societies in Australia and New Guinea followed radically different paths The Aboriginal people of Australia maintained hunting and Gathering societies until large numbers of Europeans established settler communities there in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries C.E. New Guinea people however turned to agriculture beginning about 3000 B.C.E. the cultivation of root crops such as yams and Taro and the keeping of pigs and chickens spread rapidly throughout the island Early Hunting and Gathering Societies in Australia Like hunting and gathering people in other places, the aboriginal Australians lived in small, mobile communities that undertook seasonal migrations in search of food Over the centuries, they learned to exploit the resources of the various ecological regions of Australia Plant foods, including fruits, berries, roots, nuts, seeds, shoots, and green leaves, constituted to the bulk of their diet In the tropical region of the Cape York in Northern Australia, they consumed and no fewer than 141 species of plants Aboriginal people found abundance plant life even in the harsh desert regions of interior Australia In the vicinity of modern Alice Springs in central Australia for example they included about 20 species of greens and 45 kinds of seeds and nuts in their diet They also used a lot of plants as medicines, ointments, and drugs To supplement their plant-based diet, they used axes, spears, clubs, nuts, lasses, snares, and boomerangs to bring down animals ranging in size from rats to giant kangaroos, and to catch fish, waterfowl, and small birds Austronesian Peoples The earliest inhabitants of New Guinea forage for food, like their neighbors to the South About five thousand years ago however a process of social and economic change began to unfold in New Guinea

Olmec mysteries (Olmecs in general)

Invasion of foreigners (from Mexico) Internal dissension and civil war Failure of water control systems leading to less harvest (river dried up) Deforestation leading to ecological collapse Epidemic diseases Natural catastrophes Mystery: Olmecs disappeared as rivers changed maybe from volcanoes or buildup of silt People brought ideas and cultures all around mesoamerica "Parent culture" Olmecs influenced the rest of the mesoamerican civilizations after - specifically the maya

Other

Maya - Mesoamerican lowlands in Mexico, irrigation Teotihuacan - North in highlands of Mexico, people got water from channeling mountain streams Both are heirs to Olmecs Olmecs- Drainage system Early Andean Society - Peru + Bolivia, bronze gold silver metallurgy, western Andean valleys had canals and irrigation Andean State: Mochica - Western side of mountain, economic zones, organized each region, used military to have order, pottery, climate Andeanstate:Chavin,Andeanstate:Tiwanaku,highaltutudeplateau Early Oceania: - aboriginals H + G, aboriginal stayed this way till Europeans, Plant diet used weapons to draw animals - New Guinea turned to ag. pigs chickens, started as H + G, Austronesians seafarers Earliest Austronesian to sail is Lapita, had trade with New Guinea and more, heirarchical chiefdoms, irrigation, thought they were divine/semidivineRedPalace-SanLorenzo,Maize/Bean/Squash,Allmayacitieswereunitedundersulturallanguage/dependencyonmaize/corn,cenotes,ajaw-priests,pakal-thegreatking,hurakane-createdearth,createdhumanbeingsfrommudtoworshipthegods,sunandmoon-herobrothers,tepew-god

chocolate

Maya cultivators also raised cacao, the large being that is the source of chocolate It was a precious commodity consumed mostly by Nobles in Maya Society They whisked powdered cacao into water to create a stimulating beverage, and they sometimes even ate the bitter cacao beans as snacks It was so valuable that the Maya used cacao beans as money The first people clearly known to have discovered the secret of cacao were the Classic Period Maya (250-900 C.E. [A.D.]). The Maya and their ancestors in Mesoamerica took the tree from the rainforest and grew it in their own backyards, where they harvested, fermented, roasted, and ground the seeds into a paste and the basis for a drink. The Aztecs adopted cacao.By 1400, the Aztec empire dominated a sizable segment of Mesoamerica. The Aztecs traded with Maya and other peoples for cacao and often required that citizens and conquered peoples pay their tribute in cacao seeds—a form of Aztec money. Like the earlier Maya, the Aztecs also consumed their bitter chocolate drink seasoned with spices—sugar was an agricultural product unavailable to the ancient Mesoamericans.Drinking chocolate was an important part of Maya and Aztec life.Many people in Classic Period Maya society could drink chocolate at least on occasion, although it was a particularly favored beverage for royalty. But in Aztec society, primarily rulers, priests, decorated soldiers, and honored merchants could partake of this sacred brew. Chocolate also played a special role in both Maya and Aztec royal and religious events. Priests presented cacao seeds as offerings to the gods and served chocolate drinks during sacred ceremonies.

Mayan achievements

Maya priests constructed the most elaborate calendar of the ancient Americas. Its complexity reflected a powerful urge to identify meaningful cycles of time and to understand human events in the context of those cycles. The Maya calendar inter of two kinds of years a solar year of 365 days governed the agricultural cycle, and a ritual year of 260 days governed daily affairs by organizing time and to 20 months of 13 days a piece. They believe that each day derive certain specific characteristics from its position in both the solar and the ritual calendar and that the combined attributes of each day would determine the fortune of activities undertaken on that day. It took 52 years for the two calendars to work through all possible combinations of days and return simultaneously to their starting points so 19980 different combinations of characteristics could influence the prospects of an individual day. Maya priests studied the various opportunities and dangers that would come together on a given day hoping that they could determine which activities were safe to initiate. Apart from calculating the prospects of individual days the Maya attributed especially great significance to the 52 year periods in which the two calendars ran. While building on the calendrical calculations of the Olmecs, the Maya also expanded upon their predecessors' tradition of written inscriptions. In doing so they created the most flexible and sophisticated of all the early American systems of writing. The Maya script contains both idiographic elements like Chinese characters and symbols for syllables. Scholars have begun to decipher this script only since the 1960s, and it has become clear that writing was just as important to the Maya as it was to early complex societies in the eastern hemisphere. Maya scribes wrote works of history, poetry, and math. They also kept genealogical, administrative, and astronomical records. Most Maya writing survives today in the form of inscriptions on temples and monuments but scribes produced untold numbers of books written on paper made from beaten tree bark or on vellum made from deerskin. When Spanish conquerors and missionaries arrived in Maya lands in the 16th century C.E., they destroyed all the books they could find in hopes of undermining native religious beliefs. Only four books of the Ancient Maya survive today, all dealing with astronomical and calendrical matters. While the Maya flourished in the Mesoamerican lowlands, different Society arose to the north in the highlands of Mexico. For most of human history, the valley of central Mexico, situated some 2 km above sea level, was the site of several large lakes fed by the water's coming off the surrounding mountains. Most of the Lakes have disappeared during the past two or three centuries because of environmental changes and deliberate draining of the water. In earlier times, their abundant supplies of fish and waterfowl attracted human settlers. The lakes also served as sources of freshwater and as transportation routes linking communities situated on their shores. The earliest settlers in the valley of Mexico did not build extensive irrigation systems, but they channeled some of the waters from the mountain to stream into their fields and established a productive Agricultural Society. Expanding human population led to the congregation of people in cities and the emergence of a complex society in the Mesoamerican high-lands. The earliest centers that society was the large and bustling city of Teotihuacan, located 50 km northeast of modern Mexican City.

Mochica

Mochica is a society in the Andean valleys, near the Moche River, that left behind a remarkable artistic legacy. They made ceramics that represented gods and everyday life. Because early Andean societies did not make use of writing, their beliefs, values, and ways of life remain largely unknown One of the early Andean states, however, left a remarkable artistic legacy that allows a glimpse into the life of a society otherwise almost entirely lost The Mochica state had its base in the Valley of the Moche River, and it dominated the coast and valleys of Northern Peru During the period about 300 to 700 C.E. Their painting survives largely in pottery vessels, and it offers a detailed and expressive depiction of early Andean society in all its variety Many Ceramics take the form of portraits of individuals' heads Others represent the major gods in the various subordinate deities and demons Some of the most interesting depict scenes in the everyday life of the Mochica people Aristocrats embarking on a hunting party, warriors leading captives bound by ropes, women working in a textile factory under the careful eye of a supervisor, rulers receiving messengers or ambassadors from neighboring states, and beggars looking for handouts on a busy street Even in the absence of writing, artist left abundant evidence of a complex society with considerable specialization of labor Mochico was only one of several large states that dominated the central Andean region during the first millennium C.E. Although they integrated the regional economies of the various Andean valleys, none of these early states were able to impose order on the entire region or even to dominate a portion of it for very long The exceedingly difficult Geographic barriers post by the Andes Mountains presented challenges that ancient technology and social organization could not meet In addition, during the 6th and 7th centuries C.E. climate fluctuations brought a long series of severe droughts to the Andean region As a result, by the end of the first millennium C.E. mo-chica and several other Andean societies had disappeared Andean society exhibited regional differences much sharper than those of mesoamerica and early complex societies in the eastern hemisphere South, In Peru, Same as Mochican in book, 700 years before Inca, Peruvian coast had millions of bricks to make structions, shows specialization of labor, aqueducts, water irrigation, social hierarchy. Burial of a powerful lord buried with things for the afterlife, guards with feet cut off to not run away, rank was very obvious God like figure, Cican King or High Priest (ahaw) Council, Priesthood part of royal family Nobles, Merchants and artisans Soldier has helmet, stone mace, shield fighting over lack of resources Decapitation

Chavín

Shortly after the year 1000 B.C.E. a new spiritual belief appeared suddenly in the central Andes The Chavin Cult which enjoyed enormous popularity during the period 900 to 800 B.C.E. spread through most of the territory occupied by modern Peru and then vanished about 300 B.C.E. Unfortunately no information survives to indicate the precise significance of the cult nor even it's proper name Scholars have named it after the modern town of Chavin de Huantar, one of the cults' most prominent sites One theory suggests that the cult arose when maize became an important crop in South America The capacity of maize is to support large populations might well have served as the stimulus for the emergence of a cult designed to promote fertility and abundant harvests The large temple complexes an elaborate works of art that accompanied the code demonstrated it's important ace to those who honored it Devotees produced intricate stone carvings representing their deities with the features of humans and wild animals such as Jaguars, Hawks, Eagles, and Snakes The extensive distribution of the temples and carvings show that the cult seized the imagination of agricultural people throughout the central Andean region During the era of the cult, Andean Society became increasingly complex Weavers produced elaborate and intricately designed textiles of both cotton and wool using looms that they braced with straps around their backs Artisans manufactured light, large, and strong fishnets from cotton string Craftsman experimented with minerals and discovered techniques of gold, silver, and copper metallurgy They mostly fashioned metals into pieces of jewelry or other decorative items but also made small tools out of copper Early Cities There is no evidence to suggest that Chavin cultural and religious beliefs led to the establishment of a state or any organized political order The probably inspired the building of ceremonial Center is rather than the making of true cities As the population increased and the society became more complex however cities began to appear shortly after The disappearance of the Chavin cult Beginning about 200 B.C.E. large cities in merge that the modern-day sides of Huari, Pucara, and Tiahuanaco Each of these early Andean societies had a population exceeding 10,000, in each also featured large public buildings, ceremonial plazas, and extensive residential districts Mountainous Region above Ocean, thrived as ritual capital, lare square, temple (stone blocks), jaguar sculpture, no interaction with Mesoamerican culture, no mortar, carved tablets of ritual scenes, conch shells are oracles, stone corridors, highest ranking could see secret temple, large stone pillar in place (half man half beast man) , important center of worship, monuments and sculptures Drugs to control people from cacti, Mescaline

Popol Vuh

Surviving inscriptions and other writings shed considerable light on Maya religious and cultural traditions The Popol Vuh, A Maya creation myth, taught the gods had created humans out of Maize and water, the ingredients that became human flesh and blood The Maya religious thought reflected the fundamental role of agriculture in their society, much like religious thought in early complex societies of the eastern hemisphere Maya priests also taught that the gods kept the world going and maintained that agricultural cycle in exchange for honors and sacrifice is performed for them by humans

Mayan City States

The Classic Period, which began around A.D. 250, was the golden age of the Maya Empire. Classic Maya civilization grew to some 40 cities, including Tikal, Uaxactún, Copán, Bonampak, Dos Pilas, Calakmul, Palenque and Río Bec; each city held a population of between 5,000 and 50,000 people.

Pyramid of the Sun

The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest single structure in Mesoamerica It occupies nearly as much space as the Pyramid of Khufu in Egypt, though it stands only half as tall At its high point of about 400 to 600 C.E. the city was home to almost 200,000 inhabitants, a thriving metropolis with scores of temples, several palatial residences, neighborhoods with small apartments for the masses, busy markets, and hundreds of workshops for artisans and craftsmen The organization of a large urban population, along with the hinterland that supported it, required a recognized source of authority

Tiwanaku

The city of Tiwanaku, capital of a powerful pre-Hispanic empire that dominated a large area of the southern Andes and beyond, reached its apogee between 500 and 900 AD. Its monumental remains testify to the cultural and political significance of this civilisation, which is distinct from any of the other pre-Hispanic empires of the Americas.Tiwanaku is located near the southern shores of Lake Titicaca on the Altiplano, at an altitude of 3,850 m., in the Province of Ingavi, Department of La Paz. Most of the ancient city, which was largely built from adobe, has been overlaid by the modern town. However, the monumental stone buildings of the ceremonial centre survive in the protected archaeological zones.Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture began as a small settlement which later flourished into a planned city between 400 A.D. and 900 A.D. The maximum expression of this culture is reflected in the civic - ceremonial organized spatially with a centre oriented toward to the cardinal points, constructed with impressive ashlars stones carved accurately and equipped with a complex system of underground drainage that was controlling the flow of rain waters.Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture is one of the urban accessions the most important pre-Inca of the Andean region of South America. Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture was the capital of a powerful empire that lasted several centuries and it was characterized by the use of new technologies and materials for the architecture, pottery, textiles, metals, and basket-making. It was the epicentre of knowledge and 'saberes' due to the fact that it expanded its sphere of influence to the interandean valleys and the coast. The politics and ideology had a religious character and it incorporated to the sphere of influence to different ethnic groups that lived in different regions. This multiethnic character takes form of the stylistic and iconographic diversity of his archaeological materials. The monumental buildings of his administrative and religious centre are a witness of the economic and political force of the cardinal city and of his empire.

Mayan geography/environment

The earliest Heirs of the Olmecs were the Maya, who created a remarkable Society in the region now occupied by southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador The highlands of Guatemala offered fertile soil and excellent conditions for agriculture Permanent Villages began to appear there during the third century B.C.E. The most prominent one was Kaminaljuyu, located on the site of modern Guatemala City Like the Olmec capitals, it was a ceremonial center rather than a true city but it dominated the life of other communities in the region 12000 to 15000 laborers work to build its temples, and its products traveled the trade routes as far as central Mexico During the fourth century C.E. it fell under the economic and perhaps also the political dominance of the much larger city of Teotihuacan in central Mexico and lost much of its influence in Maya Society After the 4th Century, Maya society flourished mostly in the poorly drained Mesoamerican lowlands, were thin, tropical soils quickly lost their fertility To enhance the agricultural potential of the region, they built terraces designed to trap silt carried by the numerous Rivers passing through the lowlands By artificially retaining rich earth, they dramatically increase the agricultural productivity of their lands They harvested maize in abundance, and they also cultivated cotton from which they was fine textiles highly prized both in their own society and by trading partners and other parts of mesoamerica The cultivators also raised cacao, the large being that is the source of chocolate It was a precious commodity consumed mostly by Nobles in Maya Society They whisked powdered cacao into water to create a stimulating beverage, and they sometimes even ate the bitter cacao beans as snacks It was so valuable that the Maya used cacao beans as money

Lapita

The earliest austronesian migrants to sail out into the Pacific Ocean and establish settlements in Pacific Islands are known as the Lapita people No one knows what they called themselves the name lapeta comes from a beach in New Caledonia were some of the earliest recognizable Lapita artifacts came to the attention of archaeologists It is clear that between about 1500 and 500 B.C.E. Lapita people maintain communication and exchange networks throughout a large region extending about 4,500 km from New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago to Samoa and Tonga Wherever they settled, the people established agricultural Villages where they raised pigs and chickens and introduced crops they inherited from their austronesian ancestors These were things like yams, taro, breadfruit, and bananas They supplemented their crops and domesticated animals with fish and seaweed from nearby waters and they soon killed off most of the large land animals and birds that were suitable for human consumption They left abundant evidence of their presence in the form of their distinctive Pottery decorated with stamped geometric designs For about 1,000 years, Lapita people maintained extensive networks of trade and communication across vast stretches of open ocean Their agricultural settlements were largely self-sufficient, but they placed high value on some objects from distant lands Their Pottery was a principal item of long-distance exchange as with high-quality obsidian which they sometimes transported over thousands of kilometers since it was available at only a few sights of Lapita settlement Are there trade items include shell jewelry and stone tools it is likely that they also traded feathers, foodstuffs, and spouses all the evidence for those exchanges does not survive an archaeological record In any case it is clear that like their counterparts in other regions of the world the earliest inhabitants of the Pacific island maintained regular contact with people will beyond their societies Chiefly Political Organization After about 500 B.C.E. Lapita trade networks fell into disuse probably because the various Lapita settlements had grown large enough that they could supply their own needs and concentrate on the development of their own societies By the middle part of the first millennium B.C.E. Lapita and other austronesian people had established hierarchical chiefdoms in the Pacific Islands Leadership passed from a chief to his eldest son, and near relatives constituted a local aristocracy Contest for power and influence between ambitious subordinates frequently caused tension and turmoil, but the probability of migration offered an alternative to conflict Dissatisfied or aggrieved parties often built voyaging canoes, recruited followers, and set sail with the intention of establishing new settlements in uninhabited or lightly populated islands The spread of austronesian people throughout the Pacific Islands came about partly because of population pressures and conflicts that encourage small parties to seek fresh opportunities in more hospitable lands Over the long-term, descendants of Lapita people built strong, chiefly societies particularly on large islands with relatively dense populations like those of the Tongan, Samoan, and Hawaiian groups In Hawaii military skilled Chiefs cooperated closely with priests, administrators, soldiers, and servants ruling their districts which might include a portion of an island, an entire island, or even several islands Chiefs and their retinues claimed a portion of the Agricultural Surplus produced by their subjects and they sometimes required subjects to deliver additional products such as fish, birds, or timber Apart from organising public life in their own districts, Chiefs, and other of their administrators vied with the ruling classes of neighbouring districts, like public ritual observances, and oversaw irrigation systems that water the taro plants that were crucial to the survival of Hawaiian Society Eventually, the chiefly and aristocratic classes became so entrenched and powerful that they regarded themselves as divine or semi-divine, and the law of the land prohibited common subjects from even gazing directly at them

Austronesians

The earliest inhabitants of New Guinea forage for food, like their neighbors to the South About five thousand years ago however a process of social and economic change began to unfold in New Guinea The Agents of change were seafaring people from Southeast Asia speaking Austronesian languages, whose modern linguistic relatives include by Malayan, Indonesian, Filipino, Polynesian, and other Oceanic languages as well as the malagasy language of Madagascar and the tongue spoken by the indigenous people in Taiwan and Southern China These people possess remarkable seafaring skills They sailed the open ocean in large canoes equipped with outriggers, which stabilize their craft and reduce the risks of long voyages By paying close attention to winds, currents, stars, cloud formations, and other natural indicators, they learned how to find distant lands reliably and return home safely Beginning about 3,000 B.C.E. these mariners had visited the northern coast of New Guinea where they trade with the indigenous people and establish their own communities Early Agriculture in New Guinea Austronesian seafarers came from societies that depended on the cultivation of root crops and the herding of animals When they settled in New Guinea, they introduced yams, Taro, pigs, and chickens to the island, and the indigenous people themselves soon began to cultivate crops and keep animals Within a few centuries Agriculture and hurting had spread to all parts of New Guinea Here as in other lands have agriculture brought population growth and specialization of labor after the change to agriculture permanent settlements, pottery, and carefully crafted tools appeared throughout the island Separated from New Guinea only by the Torres Strait, the aboriginal people of Northern Australia new about the cultivation of foodstuffs, since they had occasional dealings with traders from New Guinea Agriculture even spread to the islands of the Torres Strait, but it did not take root in Australia until the arrival of European people in the late 18th century C.E. Meanwhile, Austronesian-speaking people who introduced Agriculture and hurting to New Guinea sailed their outrigger canoes farther and established the first human settlements in the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Austronesian speaking people possessed a sophisticated Maritime technology as well as agricultural expertise, and they established settlements in the islands of the Pacific Ocean

Mesoamerica

Unclear about the early population of the America by human communities First is large waves of migration from Siberia to Alaska probably took place around 13,000 B.C.E. Small number of migrants may have crossed the Bering land bridge earlier, and it is also possible that some of them reached the Western Hemisphere by watercraft, sailing or drifting with the currents from Northeast Asia down to the west coast of North America Some Scholars also say that it is possible some migrants cross the Atlantic Ocean and established communities on the east coast of North America Archaeological excavations at widely scattered sites in both North America and South America have yielded remains that scholars date to 15,000 B.C.E. or earlier suggesting that at least a few human groups made their way to the Americas before the beginning of large-scale migration from Siberia After 13,000 B.C.E. migrants arrived in large numbers, and they quickly populated all habitable regions of the Western Hemisphere By 9500 B.C.E. they had reached the southernmost part of South America more than 17,000 km from the Bering land bridge The earliest human inhabitants lived exclusively by hunting and gathering Changed about 8,000 B.C.E. because it became increasingly difficult for them to survive by foraging Large game animals became scarce, partly because they did not adapt well to the rapidly warming climate and partly because of overhunting by expanding human communities By 7500 B.C.E. many species of large animals were on the road to extinction Some human communities relied on fish and small game to supplement food they gathered Others turned to Agriculture, and they gave rise to the first complex Societies in America's The Olmecs By 8000 to 7000 B.C.E., The people of Mesoamerica (which was the region from the central portion of modern Mexico to Honduras and El Salvador) had begun to experiment with the cultivation of squashes, manioc, beans, chili peppers, avocados, and gourds

Human settlement of the Americas (my presentation),

Until recently, it was believed the Americas were first populated by a single group of people from the Siberian interior of northeast Asia (ancestors of today's American Indians) Theory- they crossed the Bering land bridge about 12,000 years ago following big game like mastodons, during the last ice age; they slowly migrated southward Theories: Migrants may have traveled from Europe by boat or land bridge (Solutrean Theory based on similar tools/points)- no genetic evidence Some genetic similarities between Japanese and South Americans, along with similar pottery and fishing styles (Ecuador) Early immigrants to South America may even have come by boat from Africa. Skeletons found in Brazil dating back 11,000 yrs. ago seemed to share some genetic traits with Africans and aboriginal Australians, though this has been genetically disproven. Kennewick Man Controversy a three-inch spear point embedded in his pelvis various groups claimed his descent was unique, either Asian, (specifically Japanese), or even European. Genetics reveal he's just a relative of the original Beringian people. A group who split from a Siberian/East Asian population from around 35,000 years ago, began arriving to Beringia by land or boat (>20,000 yrs ago) and came in several different waves through an ice-free passage. Genetics indicate they then remained in Beringia for 1000's of years before some split off and moved into the Americas. The first humans to invade Alaska or neighboring Yukon, split into two groups. This happened between 17,500 and 14,600 years ago. One group colonized North and Central America, the other South America. The peopling of the Americas ensued by leaps and bounds, as small bands of hunter-gatherers traveled far and wide to settle in new areas until they reached Tierra del Fuego in a movement lasting one or at most two millennia. Not all Native Americans are the same people, though they have the same origins. Different waves of settlement and 1000's of years can explain these differences in culture, language and physical appearance.

Teotihuacan

While the Maya flourished in the Mesoamerican lowlands, different Society arose to the north in the highlands of Mexico For most of human history, the valley of central Mexico, situated some 2 km above sea level, was the site of several large lakes fed by the water's coming off the surrounding mountains Most of the Lakes have disappeared during the past two or three centuries because of environmental changes and deliberate draining of the water In earlier times, their abundant supplies of fish and waterfowl attracted human settlers The lakes also served as sources of freshwater and as transportation routes linking communities situated on their shores The earliest settlers in the valley of Mexico did not build extensive irrigation systems, but they channeled some of the waters from the mountain to stream into their fields and established a productive Agricultural Society Expanding human population led to the congregation of people in cities and the emergence of a complex society in the Mesoamerican high-lands The earliest centers that society was the large and bustling city of Teotihuacan, located 50 km northeast of modern Mexican City It was probably a large agricultural village by 500 B.C.E. It expanded rapidly after about 200 B.C.E. and by the end of the millennium its population approach to 50000 By the year 100 C.E. the city's two most prominent monuments, the colossal Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon, dominated the skyline Although the city generated large numbers of books and records that perhaps would have shed light on the character of that authority, they unfortunately perished when the city itself declined Paintings and murals suggested that the city was a theocracy of sorts Priestly figure prominently in the works of art, and scholars interpret many figures as representations of deities Priests were crucial to the survival of the society, since they kept the calendar and ensured that planting and harvesting took place at the appropriate seasons Thus it would not have been unusual for them to govern Teotihuacan in the name of the gods, or at least to cooperate closely with the secular ruling class The Society of Teotihuacan Apart from rulers and priests, Teotihuacan's population included cultivators, artisans, and merchants As many as two-thirds of the city's inhabitants work during the day and fields surrounding teotihuacan and return to their small apartments in the city at night Artisans of Teotihuacan were especially famous for their obsidian tools and fine orange pottery, and scholars have identified numerous workshops in stores where toolmakers and potters produced and marketed their goods with in the city itself The residence of Teotihuacan also participated in extensive trade and exchange networks Professional Merchants traded their products throughout mesoamerica Archaeologists have found numerous samples of the distinctive obsidian tools an orange pottery insights far distant from the city, from the region of modern Guatemala City in the South to Durango & beyond in the North Until about 500 C.E. there was little sign of military organization in the city They didn't have defense walls, and works of art rarely depicted warriors Yet the influence of Teotihuacan extended too much of modern Mexico and Beyond The Maya capital of Kaminaljuyu for example fell under the influence of teotihuacan during the 4th century C.E. Although the rulers of teotihuacan may have established colonies to protect their sources of obsidian and may have undertaken military expenditures to back up their authority throughout central mexico, the city's is influence apparently derived less from military might then from its ability to produce manufactured goods that appealed to consumers in distant markets Cultural Traditions Like the Maya, the residents of Teotihuacan built on central foundations established by the Olmecs They played the ball game, adapted the Olmec calendar to their own uses, and expanded the Olmecs' graphic symbols into a complete system of writing Unfortunately, only a few samples of their writing survive in stone carvings Because their books have all perished, it is impossible to know exactly how they viewed the world and their place in it Works of art suggest that they recognized and Earth God and a Rain God, and it is certain that they carried out human sacrifices during their religious rituals Decline of Teotihuacan Teotihuacan began to experience increasing military pressure from other people around 500 C.E. Works of art from this time frequently depicted Eagles, Jaguars, and Coyotes animals that Mesoamericans associated with fighting and military conquest After about 650 C.E. Teotihuacan entered a period of decline About the middle of the eighth century, invaders sacked and burned the city, destroying its books and monuments After that catastrophe most residents deserted Teotihuacan and the city slowly fell into ruin