Earth and Space Science

Tectonic Convection

- Heat is transferred through the process of Convection which is a cycle. Hot material rises and spreads cooling as it spread. The cooling material then sinks where it is heated again Convection Process can be seen in a pot of boiling water and is believed to be happening deep within the Earth. Greater depths are associated with More Pressure and Heat. Weight of all the rocks causes the increase in Pressure while the Decay of heavy radioactive elements such as uranium produces heat. This creases hot areas of Molten material that find their ways upward and to the surface in an effort to equalize, which means pressure and Temperature are Reduced. This causes the process involved in Plate tectonics.

Relative and Absolute Time

A numerical or Absolute age is specific number of years such as 150 million years ago A relative age refers to a time range- Mesozoic Era It is used to determine wheather one roock formation is older then another formation Radioactive dating is a form of absolute dating and stratigraphy is form of relative dating. Radioactive dating techniques have provided the most information about the absolute age of rocks and other geological features. Together geochronologists have created a geologic time scale. Biostratigraphy used plants and animals fossils within rock to determine its relative age.

Percipitation

After clouds reach the dew point, precipitation occurs. Precipitation can take the form of a liquid or a solid. It is known by many names including Rain Snow Ice Dew Frost. Liquid forms precipitation includes Rain and Drizzle that freezes on contact is known as frozen rain or freezing drizzle. Solid or frozen forms of precipitation include Snow Ice Needles, Diamond Dust, Sleet, Ice Pellets, Hail, Grupel or Snow Pellets. Vira is a form of precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground, It usually looks like sheets or shafts falling from a cloud. The amount of rainfall is measured with a rain gauge. Intensity can be measured according to how fast precipitation is falling or by how severely it limits visibility. Precipitation plays a major role in the water cycle since it is responsible for depositing much of Earth's Fresh Water.

Rocks

Aggregates of one or more Minerals and contain Mineraloids - Minerals lacking a crystalline Structure and Organic Remains Rocks are classified based on their Formation and the Minerals they contain

Folded Mountains

Alps Himalayas

Deep Sea Currents

Deep sea currents re oftern lieneded to conveyor belt beacusethey circumnavigate the entire ocean, Albeit weakly and slowly mx deeper and shallower water, In the WInter deep circulation carries cold water from high latitudes to lower latitudes throughout the world. This takes pplace in areas where most water is at a depth of between 4 and 5 km. This water mass can be as cold as or colder then 2C. Surface ocean temperature averages about 17C but can vary from -2C to 36C. The vast cold mass of sea water is also dense and has a high sline contnent which forces it to sink at HIgh Latitudes. It spreads out stratifies and fills the ocean basins. Deep mixing occurs and then the water upwells. This manner in which deep sea currents move can be descibed as abyssal circulation

Luster

Determined by reflected Light Metallic - Shiny Submetallic - Dull Non Metallic - Vitreous like Glass Earthy - Dirt or Powder

Gyres And Coriolis Effect

Gyres are surface ocean currents that form large circular patterns, In the Northern Hemisphere they flow Clockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere they flow counterclockwise. These directions are caused by the Corris Effect. occurs due to the fact that the Earth is rotating object. In the Northern Hemisphere currents appear to be Curving to the RIght. In the Southern Hemisphere currents appear t be curving to the left. This is because the earth is Rotating, Gyres tend to flow in the Opposite direction near the Earths poles. In the portion of the Pacific Ocean north of the equator the major currents are North Pacific California North Equatorial Kuroshio. In the south Pacific, they are South Equatorial East Astria South Pacific Peru In the North Atlantic they are North Atlantic Drift Canary North Equatorial Gulf Stream South Atlantic South Equatorial Brazil South Atlantic Bengula

Physical Properties

Identify Minerals Hardness Luster Color - Not definitely - More than one color Cleavage Streak Form (external Shape)

Igneous Rock

Igneous Rock is formed from MAgma which is molten material originating from beneath the Earths surface. Depending upon where Magma cools the resulting Igneous Rock can be classified Intrusive Plutonic Hypabyssal Extrusive Volcanic Magma that Solidifies at a Depth is Intrusive - Cools slowly has a Coarse grain - Granite Magma that solidifies at or near the Surface is Extrusive - cools quickly - Fine Grain - Basalt Some Extrusive rock cools so quickly it does not Crystals - Glossy Appearance - Obsidian Hypabyssal Rock is Igneous Rock that formed at Medium Depths Magma that actually flows out of Earth's surface is called Lava

Latitude variation of Solar Radiation

Latitude is a measurement of the distance from the equator. The distance from the equator indicated how much solar radiation a particular area receives. The equator receives more Sunlight, while Polar areas receive less. The earth tilts slightly on its rotational axis. This tilt determines the seasons and affects the weather. There are 8 biomes or ecosystems with particular climates that are associated with latitudes. Those in latitudes closest to the equator are the warmest. The biomes are desert and tropical rain forest. The 8 biome is the ocean which is unique because it consists of water and spans the entire globe. Isolation refers to incoming solar radiation. Diurnal Variations refers to the daily changes in insolation. The greatest insolation occurs at noon.

Minerals

Naturally Occuring Inorganic Solids with a definite Chemical Composition and an Orderly internal Crystal Structure

Ocean Floor

Ocean floor included features similar to those found on land such as Mountains, Ridges, Plains, Canyons. The oceanic crust is thin Dense layer that s about 10 km thick. The greatest volume of water is contained in the Basins with lesser volumes that occupy the low-lying areas of the continents which are known as the continental shelves. The continental Slope connects the shelf to the ocean floor of the basin, The continental rise is a slightly sloping area between the slope and the basin. a seamount is an undersea volcanic peak that rises to a height of at least 1,000 meters. A guyot is a seamount with a flat top. A mid-ocean ridge is a continuous undersea mountain chain. SIlls are low parts f ridges separating ocean basins ao other seas. Trenches are long Narrow troughs. Many isolated peaks and seamounts are scattered throughout the ocean basins and interrupting ocean currents

Mountains

Orogeny - formation of Mountains from Folding and Faulting caused by Plate Tectonics Folding - Layers of Sedimentary Rock are pressed together by Continental Plates Movement Anticlines - sections of rock that fold Upward Synclines - sections of rock that fold Down Mountains can also be caused by volcanic activity and erosion

Core

Solid Inner Core Moving outward the Molten Outer Core occupies the space from about a depth of 5,150 km to a depth of 2,890 km

Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is a bunch of geology that involves the study of rock layers and layering. Sedimentary roks are the primary focus of stratigraphy. Subfields include lithosphere which is the study g the vertical layering of rock types and biostratigraphy which is the study of fossil evidence in rock layers Magnetostratigraphy is the study changes in detrital remanent magnetism DRM which is used to measure the polarity of earth's magnetic field at the time a stratum was developed. Chronostratigraphy focuses on the relative dating of rock strata based on the time of rock formation. Unconformity refers to missing layers of rock.

Petrology

Study of Rocks including their Composition Texture Structure Occurrence Mode of Formation History

Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle and nutrients cycle of the ocean are processes that are due in part to the deep currents, mixing and upwelling the occur in the ocean. Carbon Dioxide CO2 from the atmosphere is dissolved into the ocean at high latitudes and distributed to the denser deep water. Where upwelling occurs, CO2 is brought back to the surface and emitted into the tropical air. Phytoplankton is typically single-celled organisms that are nourished by the sun. They are photosynthetic autotrophs meaning the converted water, carbon dioxide, and solar energy into food. They drift with the currents, produce oxygen as a byproduct and serve as a food source. Zooplankton feeds on Phytoplankton. Zooplankton is Heterotrophic organisms meaning they do not synthesize their food. Zooplankton can be single called creatures or much larger organisms such as jellyfish mollusks and crustaceans.

Ellipsoid

The earth is Ellipsoid - Not Spherical Diameter is different through the Poles and at the Equator. Through the Poles - 12,715 km in Diameter Center of Earths Depth - 6,378 km

Fault-block Mountains

created when tectonic plate movement produces tension that results in Displacement Mountains in the Southeast United States

Mohs Hardness Scale

1 - 10 Resistance a Mineral has to scratches.

Polymorph

2 Minerals with the same Chemical Composition BUT different Crystal Structure

Heat Waves

A heatwave is a stretch of hotter than normal weather. Some heat waves may involve High humidity and last longer than a week. Heat waves can form if warm High Pressure weather system stalls in an area. The jet stream is a flow that moves air through the middle Latitudes. When this shifts, it can bring a pattern of unusually warm weather into a region, creating a heat wave. Heat can be trapped by cities. Of there is no rain or clouds to help cool weather, the heat wave can linger. In humans heat waves can lead to stroke, heat exhaustion, cramps, dehydration, Death. Plants can dry up and crops can fail. There is also a greater threat of fires during a heat wave in dry areas.

Air Masses ans Weather fronts

Air masses are large volumes of air in the Troposphere of the Earth. They are categorized by their temperature and by the amount of water vapor they contain. Artic and Antartic air masses are cold polar air masses and by the amount of water vapor they contain. Arctic and Antarctic air masses are Cold polar air masses are cool. Tropical and Equatorial air masses are hot. Other type of air masses include: Martinime and Monsoon, both of which are Moist and Unstable. There are also Continental and Superior air masses, which are dry. A wether front separates two masses of air of different densities. It is principal cause of meteorological phenomena. Air masses are quickly and easily affected by the land they are above. They can have certain characteristics, and then develop new ones when they get blown over a different area.

Antarctic Circle

Antarctic Circle - Located 66.5 South Marks the start of when the Sun is Not Visible above the Horizon. Occurs on June 21st - which marks the begging of Winter in the Southern Hemisphere and is when the Sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer

Aphelion

Aphelion - This is the point in an Object's Orbit when it is Furthest from the Sun

Arctic Circle

Arctic Circle - Located 66.5 North Marks the start of when the Sun is Not Visible above the Horizon. Occurs on December 21st - the same day the Sun is directly over the Tropic of Capricorn.

Astronomy

Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects and their positions movement and structures. Celestial does not refer to the earth in particular but does include its motions as it mines through space. Other objects include the Sun Moon Planes Satellite Asteroids Meteors Comets stars Galaxies The universe Space phenomena The term astronomy has its roots in the Greek words Astro & Nomos which means Laws it the Stars

Beaches

Beaches weathering erodes that parent material of benches, ROck, and Soil into Sand which is typically Quartz. Other parts of the soil such as Clay and Silt are deposited in areas of the Continental shelf. The larger sand particles get deposited in the form of beaches. This includes nearshore which is underwater a foreshore, the area typically considered the beach and a backshore. The offshore starts about 5 meters from the shoreline and extends to about 20 meters. The beach also includes Wet and Dry parts and a fore dune and rear dune. Waves typically move sand from the sea to the beach and gravity and wave action move it back again. The wind gradually pushes sand particle uphill in a jumping motion called Saltation. Sand stays deposited in the form of Dunes and the Dunes appear as if they roll backward. Storms can both Erode a beach and provide additional Deposition

Beaufort Wind Scale

Beaufort Wind Scale assigns a numerical value to wind conditions and the appearance of the sea. Zero represents a Calm mirror-like the sea with no measurable wind. Twelve is the maximum on the Beaufort Wind Scale and represents hurricanes force wind with speeds of 35.2 meters per second (m/s). Visibility is greatly reduced the sea air is filled with Foam and the sea is completely white with driving spray. The scale is as follows: 1 is light wind w/ speed of 1.2 m/s 2 - light breeze - 2.8 m/s 3 - Gentle Breeze 4.9 m/s 4 - Moderate Breze 7.7 m/s 5 Fresh Breeze 10.5 m/s at 5 there are moderate waves any white caps and some spray 6 - Strong Breeze 13.1 m/s 7 - Near Gale 15.8 m/s 8 - gale force winds 18.8 m/s 9 - Strong Gales 22.1 m/s 10 is considered a storm with wind speeds 25.9 m/s 11 - Violent Storm

Black Smokers

Black Smokers are a relatively discovered feature of the ocean floor. They were first identified in 1977. A black smoker is a type of hydrothermal vent formed when superheated water from below earths crust emerges from the Ocean floor. This hot water is also rich in Sulfides and other minerals from the Earths Crust. When the ht water comes in contact with cold ocean water it creates a black chimney like structure around the vent. Water temperature around black smokers have been recorded at 400C however, water pressure is too great on the sea flooe to allow for boiling. The water is also very Acidic twice that of Vinegar. It is estimated that the yearly volume if water passing through black smokers is 1.4 x 10 ^ 14 kg.

Granite and Basalt

Both Granite and Basalt are plentiful igneous rocks, but granite is intrusive and Basalt is extrusive. Intrusive rocks come from magma within the Earth's crust and cool slowly. Extrusive rocks are formed from lava on the Earth's surface and cool more quickly than intrusive rocks. Granite is an Igneous Rock with a medium to a coarse texture that is formed from magma. It can be a variety of colors. It's intrusive massive hard and coarse-grained. It forms a major part of the Continental Crust. It can be composed of Potassium Feldspar, Plagioclase Feldspar, Quartz, as well as various amounts of Muscovite, Biotite and Hornblende-type Amphiboles. Basalt is prophetic meaning it contains larger crystals in a fine matrix. Basalts is usually composed of Amphibole and Pyroxene and sometimes Plagioclase, Feldspathoids Olivine.

Cenozoic Era

Cenozoic Era began about 65.5MA and continues to the present. It is maked by the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event _ extinction of Dinasors and Invertebrates and plants. The Cenozoic era is further divided into the Paleogene Neogene Quaternary Periods. During the Cenozoic era, Pangea continued to drift and the plates eventually moved into their present positions. The Pleistocene Ice Age also known as the Quaternary Glaciation r the current ice age began about 2.58 Ma including the Glaciation occurring today. Mammals continued to evolve and other plants and animals came into existence during this era. The fossil record includes the ancestors of the Horse, Rhinoceros and Camel. It also includes the first Dogs and cats and the first human-like creatures. The first humans appeared less than 200,000 years ago.

Cloud Formation

Clouds form when Air Cools and Warm air is forced to give up some of its water vapor because it can no longer hold it. This vapor condenses and forms tiny droplets of water or ice crystals called clouds. Particles or Aerosols are needed for water vapor to form water droplets. These are called condensation nuclei. Clouds are created by Surface heating, Mountains and Terrain, Raising air masses, Weather fronts. Clouds precipitate, returning the water they contain to earth. Clouds can also create atmospheric optics. They can scatter light, creating colorful phenomena such as Rainbows, Colorful Sunsets, Green Flash Phenomenon.

Types of Energy Produced Coal-fired Power Plants

Coal-fired Power Plants - these generate electricity and are the largest source of greenhouse gases, including sulfur Oxides responsible for Acid Rain, Carbon Dioxide, Mercury and Nitrogen Oxides

Comets

Comets consist of Frozen Gases and Rocky and Metallic Materials. Comets are usually small and typically have long tails. A comet's tail is made of ionized gases. It points away from the Sun and follows the comet as it approaches the Sun. The tail precedes the head as the comet moves away from the Sun. It is believed that as many as 100 billion comets exist. About 12 new ones are discovered each year. Their orbits are elliptical, not round. Some scientist theorizes that short period Comets originate from the Kuiper Belt and long-period comets originate from the Oort Cloud, which is thought to be 100,000 Au away. Comets orbit the sun in time periods varying from a few years to hundreds of thousands of years. A well-known comet Halley's Comet has an orbit of 76 years. It is 80 percent Water and consists of Frozen Water Carbon Dioxide (dry Ice) Ammonia Methane.

weather Phenomena

Common Atmospheric conditions that are frequently measured are temperature, precipitation, wind and humidity, These weather conditions are often measured at permanently fixed weather stations so weather data can be collected and compared over time and by region. Measurements may also be taken by a ship, buoys and underwater instruments. Measurements may also be taken under special circumstances. The measurement taken include temperature, Barometric pressure, Humidity, Wind speed, Wind Direction, and Precipitation. Usually, the following instruments are used: Thermometer - measuring temperature Barometric - Air Pressure Hygrometer - Humidity Anemometer - wind sped Weather Vane - Wind direction Rain gage - Precipitation

Nonstandard Cloud Types

Contrials, Condensation Trails are Thin White streaks caused by Kets. These are created from water vapor condensing and freezing the jets exhaust particles. Contrials can be further classified as short-lived, persistent non-spreading and persistent. Lenticular or lee waves clouds are created by an air current over an obstacle such as a Mountain. They appear to be stationary but are actually forming dissipating and reforming in the same place. They look like ocean waves. Mammatus cloud hangs down from the base of a cloud usually a cumulonimbus cloud. They often occur during the warmer months.

Earth Cemical Compostion

Core - Hot Iron & Nickel Mantel - Iron, Magnesium, Calcium Crust covers the Mantel is a thin layer of light rock and subdivided into Continental and Oceanic portions Continental consists of Silicates - Granite Oceanic Portions - heavier volcanic rock - Basalt The upper 10 miles of the Lithosphere layer (crust and part of the Mantel) = 95% Igneous Rock (or its Metamorphic equivalent) 4% Shale 0.75% Sandstone 0.25% Limestone 4,000 Know Minerals but only 20 make up some 95% of all Rocks. more than 3,000 Individual kinds of Minerals in the Earth's Crust Silicates are largest group of Minerals

Cyclones

Cyclones generally refer to large air masses rotating in the same direction as the earth. They are formed in low-pressure areas. Cyclones vary in size. Some are mesoscale systems that vary in size from about 5 km to hundreds of kilometers. Some are Synoptic scale systems which are about 1,000 km in size. The subtropical cyclones are somewhere in between. Cold Core Polar and Extratropical cyclones are Synoptic Scale Systems. Warm Core Tropical Polar low and mesocyclones are mesoscale systems. Extratropical cyclones sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones, occur in the middle latitudes. They have neither tropical nor polar characteristics. Extratropical cyclones are everyday phenomena which along, with anticyclones drive the weather over much of the earth. They can produce cloudiness, mild showers heavy gales and thunderstorms. Anticyclones occur when there is a descending pocket of air of higher than average pressure. Anticyclones are usually associated with clear skies and drier, cooler air.

Tornadoes

During a tornado wind speeds can be upward of 300 miles per hour. Tornadoes are rotating funnel-like clouds. They have a very high energy density, which means they are very destructive to a small area. They are also short-lived. About 75% of the world's tornadoes occur in the US mostly in an area of the Great Plains known as Tornado Alley. If there are two or more columns of air it is referred to as a multiple vortex tornado. A satellite tornado is a weak tornado that forms near a large one within the same mesocyclone. A waterspout is a tornado over water. The severity of tornadoes is measured using the Enhanced Fujita Scale. An EF-0 rating is associated with a 3-second wind gust between 65 and 85 miles per hour, while an EF-5 is associated with speeds of greater than 200 mph.

Earth Moon Sun Systems

Earth Moon Sun Systems is responsible for Eclipses. From Earth the Sun and the Moon Appear to be about the Same Size. An Eclipse of the Sun occurs during a New Moon, when the side of the Moon facing the Earth is Not Illuminated. The Moon passes in front of the Sun and blocks its view from Earth. Eclipses do not occur every Month because of the orbit of the Moon is at about 5 Degrees angle to the plane of Earths orbit. An eclipse of the Moon happens during the Full Moon Phase. The Moon passes through the Shadow of the Earth and blocks sunlight from reaching it , which temporary causes Darkness. During a Lunar Eclipse there are two parts to the Shadow. The Umbra is the Dark Inner region. The Sun is completely blocked in this area. The Penumbra is a partially lighted area around the Umbra. Earth's shadow is 4x longer than the Moon's Shadow.

Eath

Earth is the third planet from the Sun and orbits the Sun every 365 days. Approximately 71% of its surface is salt-water oceans. The earth is Rocky has an Atmosphere composed of Oxygen and Nitrogen. It has one Moon and supports millions of Species. It contains the only known life in the solar system.

atmospheric layers

Earth's Atmosphere 5 main layers - Lowest to highest Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere exosphere. Between each pair is a layer that is a transition layer called a pause. The troposphere included the tropopause which is the transition layer of the stratosphere. Energy from the earth's surface is transferred to the troposphere. Temperature decreases with altitude in this layer. In the stratosphere, the temperature is inverted meaning that it increases with altitude. The stratosphere includes the Ozone layer which helps block ultraviolet light from the sun. The stratosphere is the transitional layer of the mesosphere. The temperature of the mesosphere decreases with height. It is considered the coldest place on the Earth and has an average temperature of -85 degrees celsius. Temperature increases with altitude in the thermosphere which included the thermopause. Just pas the thermosphere is the exobase layer of the exosphere. Beyond the five main layers are the Ionosphere Homoshere Hetroshere Magnetosphere

Earths Formation

Earth's early development began after a supernova exploded. This led to the formation of the Sun out of Hydrogen gas and interstellar dust. These elements swirled around the newly-formed Sun and formed the Plants including Earth. Scientists theorize that about 4.5 Billion years ago, Earth was a chunk of rock surrounded by a gas. It is believed it lacked water and the type of atmosphere that exists today. The heat from radioactive material in the rock pressure in the earth's interior melted the interior. This caused heavier materials such as Iron to sink. LIghter silicate-type rocks rose to the earth's surface. These rocks formed the earth's earliest crust. Other chemicals also rose to the earth's surface helping to form the water and atmosphere. There is one material that has been dated by science and found to be 4.4 billion years old. The material is Zircon which consists of Zirconium, Silicon, Oxygen. Zircon is a mineral that has a high resistance to weathering.

El Nini - Southern Oscillation

El Nini - Southern Oscillation is a Climate pattern of the Pacific Ocean area that lasts 6 to 18 months and causes weather that is different from the expected seasonal patterns and variations. There are two sets of events associated with ENSO: El Nino and La Nina. The usual weather patterns of the Pacific Ocean involve the Movement of Seawater by Winds from the Eastern part of the tropical Pacific Ocean to the Western part of the Pacific Ocean. This pattern causes Cold deep water upwells in the Eastern Pacific. This creates Wet weather and is considered a low-pressure system. Conversely, the Eastern Pacific is Dry high-pressure system. El Nino weakens upwellings because equalization in air pressure leads to less wind, which leads to more water staying in the Pacific. La Nina increases upwelling because winds grow stronger because of higher air pressure across the Pacific. Both El Nono and La Nina cause extreme weather events such as droughts, Heavey Rain, Flooding

Equinox

Equinox occurs twice each year when the sun crosses the plane of the earth Celestial Equator. During an Equinox Earth is Not Tilted away from or Towards the Sun. The Length of the day and night are Roughly Equal. The two Equinoxes are the March Equinox and the September Equinox.

Erosion

Erosion is the weathering away of rock material from the Earths surface. Erosion can classified: Natural Geological Erosion - occurs due to Weathering and Gravity - Long term factors Human Activity Erosion - Occurs over short periods of time Development Farming Deforestation Soil that supports plant growth is the Topmost layer of Organic material. Sheet eriosion - Gradual, somewhat Uniform removal of surface soil. Rills are small rivulets that cut into soil. Gullies are rills that have become enlarged due to extended water rn-off. Sandblows are which can pollute water and damage ecosystems. Erosion can also result in the removal of topsoil, which destroyed crops and prevents plants from growing. This reduces food production and alters ecosystem

Ethical and Moral Issues

Ethical and moral concerns related to genetic engineering arise in the scientific community and in smaller communities with society. Religious and moral beliefs can conflict with the economic interest of business and with research methods used by the scientific community. For example, the US government allows genes to be patented. A company has patented the gene for breast and ovarian cancer and will only make it available to researchers for a fee. This leads to a decrease in research a decrease in medical solutions and possible an increase in the occurrence of cancers. The possibility of lateral or incidental discoveries as a result of the research is also limited. For example, a researcher working on a genetic solution to treat breast cancer might accidentally discover a cure for prostate cancer/ This, however, would not occur if the research could not use the patent gene in the first place.

Devlopment of Geologic Time Scale

First know observations of stratigraphy were made by Aristotle who lived before the time of christ,, He observed seashells in ancient rock formations and on the beach and cocnucled that the fossilized seashekks were similar to current seashells. Avicenna a persian scholar from the 11th century also made early advances in the development of stratigraphy which the concept pf superpositions. Nicolas Steno a denish scnctish from the 17th century expounded upon this with the belief that layers of rock are piled on top of each other. in the 18th century Abraham Werner categorized rocks from four different periods Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Periods This fell out of use when the belief emerged that rock layers contain the same fossils had been deposited at the same time, and were therefore from the same age. British geologist created the names for many of the time divisions in use today. for example the Devonian Period was named after the country Devon and the Permian Period was named after the Perm, Russia

Sedimentary Rocks

Formed by the process of Lithification, involves Compaction, the expulsion of Liquids from Pores, and the Cementation of the Pre-existing rock. Lithification - Pressure and Temperature Sedimentary Rock - formed in Layers in the presence of Water, may contain Organic Remains - Fossils Three Groups of Sedimentary Rocks Detrital Biogenic Chemical Texture - refers to the Size Shape Grains of Sedimentary Rock Texture can be used to determine how a particular Sedimentary rock was Created Composition - type of Minerals presented Origin - type of Water that was involved in its creation Marine - involved in Ocean Environments Continental Deposits - involved Dry Land and Lakes

Fossils

Fossils provide a wealth of information about the past particularly about Flora and Fauna that once occupied the Earth but also about the geological history of the earth itself and how the earth and its inhibitors came to be. Some fossilization remains in the geohistorical record exemplify ongoing processes in the Earth environment, such as Weathering Glaciation Volcanism These have all led to the evolutionary changes in plants and animals. Other fossils support the theory that catastrophic events caused drastic changes in the earth and its living creatures. Ex: of this type of theory is that a meteor struck the earth caused dinosaurs to become extinct. Bith types of fossils provide a scientist with a way to hypothesize whether these types of events will happen again.

Frontal systems

Frontal systems is a mass of cold air usually fast-moving and dense that moves into Warm air from producing clouds. This often produces a temperature drop and rain hail(frozen rain) thunder lightning. A warm front is pushed up by a fast moving cold front It is often associated with high wispy clouds such as Cirrus and Cirrostratus clouds. A stationary front forks when a warm and cold front meet but neither is strong enough to move the other. Winds blowing parallel to the fronts keep the front stationery. The front may remain in the same place for days until the winds direction changes and both fronts become a single war or cold front. In other cases, the entire front dissipates. An occluded front is when a cold front pushed into a warm front. The warm air rises and the two masses of cool air join. These types of fronts often focus on areas of low atmospheric pressure

Galaxies

Galaxies: galaxies consist of stars stellar remnants and dark matter. Dwarfs galaxies contain as few as 10 million stars, while giant galaxies contain as many as 1 Trillion stars. Galaxies are gravitationally bound meaning the stars star systems Other gases and dust orbit the galaxy center. The early exist in the Milky Way galaxy and the nearest galaxy to ours is the Andromeda Galaxies. Galaxies can be classified by their visual shape into Elliptical Spiral Irregular Starburst Galaxies. It is estimated that there are more than 100 billion galaxies in the universe ranging from 1,000 to 100,000 parsecs in diameter. Galaxies can be mega parsecs apart. Intergalactic space consists of gas with an average density of less than one atom per cubic meter. Galaxies are organized into clusters that form superclusters. Dark matter may account for up to 90% of the mass of galaxies. Dark matter is still not well understood.

Geological Time Scale

Geological Time scale 1 yr = 365.25 days long International System of Units SI suggest the symbol "a" for a standard year or annnum Prefix M - Mega - 1 million G - Giga - 1 Billion Ma - Megannum 10^6 Ga - Gigannum 10^9 Earth was formed 4.g Billionyears ago or 4.5 Ga BP - before present present is defined at January 1, 1950 BCE before the Common Era Geologist use Geological Time scale when discussing Earths Chronology and the formation of rocks and minerals. Age is calculated in Millions of years before the present time. Units of time are often delineated by geologic or Paleontologic events. Smaller units of time such as Era are distinguished by the abundance and or Extinction of certain plants and animal life. Extinction of Dinosaurs - marks the beginning of Mesozoic Era and the begging of the Cenozoic the present era. We are in the Holocene epoch. The superon encompasses the greatest amount of time. It is composed of Eons Eons are divided into Eras Ears into Periods Periods into Epochs Layers of rock also correspond to periods of time in geochronology. Current theory holds that the earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago.

Geosynchronous and Geostationary Orbits

Geosynchronous Orbit around the Earth has an orbital period matching the Earths Sidereal rotation period. Sidereal rotation is based on the position of a FIxed Star not the Sun do a sidereal day is slightly shorter than a 24 hour solar day. A satellite in a Geosynchronous orbit appears in the same place in the sky at the same time each day. Technically any orbit time period equal to the Earth's rotational period is Geosynchronous. A Geostationary Orbit is a Geosynchronous orbit that is circular and at 0 inclination which means the objects is located directly above the Equator. Geostationary Orbit are useful for communication satellites because they are fixed in the same spot relative to the Earth. A semi-synchronous Orbit has an Orbital Period of Half a Sidereal Day.

Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram:

Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram: A hertz sprung-russel diagram (H-R diagram or HRD) is a plot or scatter graph depicting stars Temperature and comparing them with stars Luminosities or Magnitudes. This can help determine the age and evolutionary state of a star. A HR diagram is also know as a color-magnitude diagram CMD. It helps represent the life cycles of stars. In these plots temperature are plotted from highest to lowest which aids in the comparison of HR diagrams and observations. HR diagrams can have many variations. Most of the stars in these diagrams lie along the line called the Main sequence which contains stars that are fusing hydrogen. Other groupings including white dwarf Sub-giants Giants and supergiants.

Fracture or Cleveage

How a Mineral Reacts to Stress - being struck with a hammer

Ecosystems

Human impacts on Ecosystems take many forms and have many causes. They include widespread disruptions and specific niche disturbances. Human practices many forms of Environmental manipulation that affect plants and animals in many Biomes and Ecosystems. Many human practices involved the consumption of natural resources for food and energy production the changing of the environment to produce food and energy and the intrusion on ecosystems to provide shelter. These general behaviors include multitude of Specific behaviors including the use and overuse of Pesticides the ENcroachment upon habitat overhunting and overfishing the introduction of plant and animals species into non native ecosystems, not recycling and the introduction of hazardous waste and chemical byproducts into the environment. These behaviors have led to a number of consequences such as Acid Rain Ozone Depletion Deforestation Urbanization Accelerated Species Loss Genetic Abnormalities ENdocrine Disruption in Populations Harm to individual Animals

Humidity

Humidity refers to water vapor contained in the air. The amount of moisture contained in air depends upon its temperature. The higher the air temperature the more moisture it can hold. These higher levels of moisture are associated with higher humidity. Absolute Humidity refers to the total amount of moisture air is capable of holding at a certain temperature. The relative humidity is the ratio of water vapor in the air compared to the amount the air is capable of holding at its current temperature. As temperature decreases absolute humidity stays the same and relative humidity increases. A hydrometer is a device used to measure humidity. The dew point is the temperature at which water vapor condenses into water at a particular humidity.

Hurricanes

Hurricane is one of the three weather phenomena that can occur as a result of a Tropical Cyclone. A Tropical Cyclone is a warm-core, Low-Pressure condition that circles in the same direction as the Earth. A tropical depression has sustained winds of up to 30 miles per hour, with rotational winds around a center. A tropical storm appears more circular and has more rotation than a tropical depression. Its winds range from 39 to 73 mph. A hurricane appears well organized and sometimes has a recognizable eye with storm rotation. Its wind speed is more than 73 mph. Hurricanes are classified using the Saffir Simpson Scale, which ranges from Category 1 to Category 5. A category 5 hurricane has wind speeds greater than 155mph. Hurricanes are named alphabetically through the season starting with A. The letters Q U Z are not used. There are six lists of names that are sued from year to year. The names of devastating hurricanes are retired from the list.

Hydrologic Cycles

Hydrologic or Water cycle refers to water movement on above an in the Earth. Water can be in any one of its three states during different phrases of the water cycle. Three states of Water: Liquid Frozen Ice Water Vapor Process involved in the Hydrologic cycle: Precipitation Canopy Interception Snow melt Runoff Infiltration Subsurface Flow Evaporation Sublimation Advection Condensation Transpiration Precipitation is when condensed water vapor falls to earth. EX: rain, fog drop, forms of snow, hail and sleet. Canopy interception is when precipitation lands on plant foliage instead of falling to the ground and evaporating. Snowmelt is runoff produced by melting snow. Infiltration occurs when water flows from the surface into the ground. Subsurface flow refers to the waster that flows underground. Evaporation is when water in a liquid state changes to a gas. Sublimation is when water in a solid state (snow or ice) changes to water vapor without going through a liquid phrase. Advection is the movement of water through the atmosphere . ' Condensation is when water vapor changes to liquid water. Transpiration is when water vapor is released from plants into the air

Igneous Rock Ferromagnesian can be changed into

Igneous Rocks Schist Gneiss

Superpostion

In geology and in the field of Stratigraphy in particular the law of superposition is that underground layers close to the surface were deposited more recently

Water Disposal Methods: Incinerators

Incinerators - these contribute to air pollution in that they can release nitric and sulfuric oxides which causes Acid Rain

Formation of earths Atmophere

It is generally believed that the eatrths atmosphere evolved into its present state. Some believe earth early atmosphere contained Hydrogen Helium Methane Ammonia Waver Vapor These elements played a role in planter formation. Earths early atmosphere was developed before the emergence of living organisms as we know them today. Eventually the hot Hydrogen and Helium escaped earths gravity and drifted off. Others believed the early atmosphere contained a large amount of carbon dioxide. Either way there was probably little oxygen at the time. One theory is that a second stage of the atmosphere evolved over several hundred million years through a process during which methane ammonia and water vapor broke down and reformed into Nitrogen hydrogen and carbon dioxide. About two billion years ago higher levels of oxygen were formed in the atmosphere which is indicated by large deposits f Iron ore. At the same time, iron ores created in oxygen-poor environments stopped forming. The oxygen in the atmosphere today comes mainly from plants and microorganisms such as algae.

Phases of the Moon

It takes 1 Month for the Moon to go through all its Phases. Waxing refers to the Two Weeks during which the Moon goes from a New Moon to a Full Moon. Two weeks is spent Waning, going from a Full Moon to a New Moon. The lit part of the Moon Always faces the Sun. The phase of Waxing are: New Moon - Moon is Not illuminated and Rises and Sets with the SUn. Crescent Moon - during which a tiny Silver id Lit. First Quarter - Half the Moon is Lit and the phase of the Moon is due South on the Meridian. Gibbous - More than Half the Moon is Lit Full Moon - Moon is Fully Illuminated rises and sets at Sunrise. After a Full Moon, the Moon is Waning. The phrases of Waning are: Gibbous - The left side of the moon is Lit and the Moon rises After Sunset and Sets After Sunrise. Third Quater - Moon is Half Lit and Rises at Midnight and Sets at Noon. Crescent - Tiny Sliver is lit New Moon - the Moon is not illuminated and Rises and sets with the Sun.

Jupiter

Jupiter is the 5th planet from the Sun and the Largest plant in the Solar System. It consists mainly of Hydrogen and 25% of its mass is made up of Helium. It has a fast rotation and has Clouds on the Tropopause composed of Ammonia Crystals that are arranged into bands sub-divided into lighter-hued zones and Darker Belts causing storms and Turbulence. Jupiter has winds speeds of 100 m/s a planetary ring 63 moons and a Grea Red Spot which is an anticyclonic storm.

Water Disposal Methods: Landfills

Landfills: Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse has emitted from landfills. Some is used to generate electricity and some gets into the atmosphere. CO2 is also emitted and landfills gas can contain Nitrogen Oxygen Water Vapor, Sulfur Mercury Radioactive contents such as: Tritium. Landfills leachate contains acids from car batteries Solvants Heavy Metals pesticides Motor Oil Paint Household Cleaning Supplies Plastics Other potentially harmful substances. Some of these are dangerous when they get into the Ecosystem. Lead Mercury and others are toxic.

Large units of distance:

Large units of distance: As astronomical unit also know as AU is widely used measurement in astronomy. One AU is equal to the distance from the earth to the sun which is 150 million km or 93 million miles. These distance can also be expressed as 149.60 x10^9 mi. A light year (ly) is the distance that light travels in a Vacuum in one year. A light hear is equal about 10 trillion km it 64,341 AU and is used to measure large astronomical units. Also uses for measuring large distances in the parsec (pc) which is the preferred unit since it is better suited for recording observational data. A parsec is the parallax of one arcsecond and is about 31 trillion km (about 19 trillion miles) or about 3.26 light-years. It is used to calculate distances by triangulation. The AU distance from the earth to the sun is shed to form the side of a Right Triangle

Mantle

Lower & Upper Mantel Lower Layer - D prime & D Double Prime Lithosphere - rocky sphere - Solid Upper Mantle & Crust below but still in the Mantle - Asthenosphere - weak Sphere Lithosphere - Rigid Asthenosphere - Thick Liquid

Properties to Identify rocks or Minerals

Magnetism Salty Taste Pungent Odor in a Streak Test

Sedimentary Rock Carbonaceous can be changes into

Marbe

Mars

Mars is the 4th planet from the sun. It appears reddish due to iron oxide on the surface has a thin atmosphere and has a rotational period similar to earth and has seasonal cycles. Surface features of Mars include Volcanoes Valleys Deserts Polar Ice Caps Mars has impact craters and the tallest Mountain, Largest Canyons, and perhaps the largest crater yet discovered.

Mass extinction

Mass extinction - Exction Event - is a decrese in the number of speicies over a short period of time. While there are many theories as to the cause of Mass extinction it occus when a relativly large numner of species dies off or when fewer species evolve than expected. Extinction events are classified as Major and Minor. Excepted - 5 Major Extinctions Ordovician - Silurian Permian- Triassic Late Devonian Triassic - Jurassic Cretaceous- Tertiary

Weathering

Mechanical Weathering & Chemical Weathering is a very prominent process on the Earths surface. materials weather at different rates which are know as differential weathering. Mechanical and chemical weathering is independent. Ex: Chemical weathering can loosen the bonds between molecules and allow mechanical weathering to take place. Mechanical weathering can can expose the surface of land masses and allow chemical weathering to take place. Impact, Abrasion Frost wedging root wedging salt wedging uploading Chemical Weathering: Dissolution Hydration Hydrolysis Oxidation Biological Carbonation Primary type of Chemical weathering is caused by water dissolving a mineral. Te more acidic water is the more eddective it is at weathering. Carbonic and Sulfuric Acids can enter rain when they are presented in the atmosphere. This lowers the PH value of rain making it more acidic. Normal rainwater has a PH value of 5.5 Acid Rain has a PH value of 4 or less .

Mercury

Mercury is the closest to the sun and is also the smallest plant. It orbits the sun every 88 days. Has No Satellites or Atmosphere Has a Moon-like surface with craters appears bright and is Dense and Rocky with a large Iron Core.

Mesozoic Era

Mesozoic Era - Age of the Dinosaurs. It is also the era during which the dinosaurs became extinct. the fossil records also show the appearance of mammals and birds. Trees that existed included Gymnosperms - have Uncovered Speeds and are mostly Cone bearing. Angiosperms which have covered seeds and are FLowering plants the Angiosperm group is currently the dominant plant group. It was also during this era that the supercontinent Pangaea divided into the continental pieces that exist today. During the Cretaceous period, sea levels rose until 1/3 of the earth's present landmass was underwater and then receded. This period created huge marine deposits and chalk. The extinction of the dinosaurs happened about 65MA and was believed to have been triggered by the impact of an Asteroid.

Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic Rock is that which have been changed by Great Heat and Pressure Heat and Pressure results outcomes Deformation Compaction Destruction of Characteristics original rock Bending Folding Formation of New Minerals by Chemical Reactions Size and Shape of Mineral Grain Metamorphic Rock Classification Foliated Unifoliate Foliation or Layering occurs when rock is Compressed along one axis during Recrystallization - Schist, Shale Unifoliate rock does not include this Banding - rocks that are compressed equally from all sides or Lack specific Minerals will be Unfoliated - Marble

Weather Climate and Meteorology

Meteorology is the study of the Atmosphere - particularly as it pertains to forecasting the weather and understanding its process. weather is the condition of the Atmosphere at any given moment. Most weather is occurs in the Troposphere. weather includes changing events such as clould, storms, temperature, as well as more extreme evenrts such as Tornadoes, hurricanes and blizzards. Climate refers to the average weather for a particular area over time, typically at least 30 years. Latitude is an indicator of climate. Changes in climate occur over long time periods.

Minerals Classified

Minerals Classified by their Chemical Composition & Internal Crystalline Structure Organized into Classes - Native elements - Gold, Silver are not classified in this manner 8 Classifications - Based on Dominant Anion or Anionic Group - Sulfides - Oxides/Hydroxides - Halids - Carbonates - Sulfates - Phosphates - Silicates Classification 1) Minerals with the Same Anion have Unmistakable Resemblances 2) Minerals with the Same Anion are often found in the Same Geologic Environment 3) Similar to the Naming convention used to identify Inorganic Compounds in Chemistry Minerals can be further separated into groups on the basis of Internal Structure

Cloud Types

Most clouds can be classified according to the altitude of their base above earth surface. High clouds occur at altitudes between 5,000 and 13,000 meters. Middle clouds occur at altitudes between 2,000 and 7,000 meters. Low clouds occur from the Earth's surface to altitudes of 2,000 meters. Types of High clouds include Cirrus - Ci - Wispy Mare's Tail consists of Ice Cirrocumulus - Cc - Small pillow-like puffs that often appear in rows. Cirrostratus Cs - Thin sheetlike clouds that often cover the entire sky. Middle Clouds: Altocumulus - Ac gray-white clouds that consist of liquid water. Altostratus - As Grayish or Blue-gray clouds that span the sky. Low Clouds: Stratus - St - gray and fog-like clouds consist of water droplets that take up the whole sky Stratocumulus Sc low laying Lumppy clouds Nimbostratus Ns - Dark Grey cloud with uneven bases that indicate rain or snow. Cumulus Cu, Cumulonimbus Cb - is capable of Great Vertical Growth. They can start at a wide range of altitudes from the earth's surface to altitudes of 1300 meters.

Earthquakes and Plate tectonics

Most earthquakes are caused by tectonic plate movement. Earthquakes occur along Fractures called Faults or Fault zones. Friction in the faults prevents smooth movement. Tension builds up over time and the release of that tension results in Earthquakes. Faults are grouped backed on the type of Slippage that occurs. Dip-Slip Fault - Vertical movement along the fault plane Normal Dip-Slip Fault the wall that is above the fault plane moves Down. Reverse Dip-Slip Fault the wall above the fault plane moves Up Strike- Slip - involves Horizontal movement Oblique-Slip - Faults involves both Vertical and Horizontal Movement. The Richter Magnitude Scale measures how much Seismic Energy was released by an earthquake.

Tropospheric Circulation

Most weather takes place in the Troposphere. Air circulates in the atmosphere by convection and its various types of "cells". Air near the equator is warmed by the Sun and rises. Coll air rushes under it, and the higher warmer air flows towards earth poles. At the poles it cools and descends to the surface. It is now under the hot air and flows back to the equator. Air currents coupled with ocean currents move heat around the planer creating winds weather and climate. Winds can change by air being heated by the sun. This sir raises draws moisture from the ocean and causes daily rains. In the winter the air cools, sinks pushes the moist air away and created dry weather.

Hydrosphere

Much of the earth is covered by a layer of ice called the Hydrosphere. Most of the hydrosphere consist of ocean water. The water cycle and the many oricessesincilced in it take place in the hydrosphere. There are several theories regarding how the earths hydrosphere was formed. Earth contains more surface water than other planers in the inner solar system. Outgassing the slow release of trapped water vapor from the earth interior is one theory used to explain the existence of water on earth. This does not really account for the quantity of water on earth however. Another hypothesis is that the early earth was subjected to a period of bombardment by comets and water rich asteroids which resulted in the release of water into the Earths environment. if this is true much of the water o the surface of the earth today originated from the outer parts of the solar system beyond neptune.

Neptune

Neptune is the 8th plant from the Sun. and is the planet with the Third largest Mass. It has 12 Moons and an Atmosphere similar to Uranus. A Great Dark Spot and the strongest sustained winds of any planet - wind speed can be as high as 2,100 km/h. Neptune is cold 55K and has a Fragmented Ring System.

Transform Plate Boundary

North American Plate - United states The Pacific plate - Pacific Ocean The point at which these two plates slide Horizontally along the San Andres Fault = Transform Plate Boundary

North Atlantic Oscillation

North Atlantic Oscillation is a climatic occurrence that affects winter weather in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in the East coast regions of the United States, Europe, and North Africa. Atmospheric pressure over the North Atlantic caused by the Icelandic Low and HIgh-Pressure Azores leads to the North Atlantic Oscillation. There is both a Positive and Negative phase of the NAO. The positive phase is when strong winds caused by large differences in air pressure send wet winter storms from Eastern North America to Northern Europe. Weaker winds associated with a smaller difference in air pressure causes eastern North America and Northern Europe to have fewer winter storms. Instead, the weather is rainy in southern Europe and North Africa.

Types of Energy Produced Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear Power Plants: Spent nuclear waste (fuel rods) is incredibly toxic to humans, causing burns sickness and hair loss at low levels. High levels result in death. Storage facilities tend to placed on Native American LAnds and in communities of color. Dirty bombs can be made with uranium.

Ocean Currents

Ocean currents are caused by WInds. Subsurface currents that occur deep beneath the ocean's surface are caused by landmasses and the earth rotation. The density of ocean water is can also affect currents. Seawater with a HIgher salinity is Denser than seawater with lower salinity. Warm water from Denser areas Flows to areas with water that is Less Dense. Currents are Classified by Temperature. Colder Polar seawater Flows South towards warmer water, forming Cold currents. Warm water currents swirl around the Basin and equator. In turn, Heat lost and gained by the ocean created winds. Ocean currents play a significant role in transferring this heat towards the poles, which aids in the development of many types of weather Phenomenon.

Paleozonic Era

Paleozoic Era began about 542 MA and lasted until 251 MA. It is furthered divided into 6 periods. The Paleozoic Era began after the Supercontinent Pannotia started to break up and at the end of a global ice age. By the end of the Era, the supercontinent Pangaea had formed. The begging of the Paleozoic era is marked by the Cambrian Explosion, a time when there were abundant life forms according to the fossil record. The end of the era is marked by one of the major extinction evens, the Permain extinction, during which 90 percent of the species living at the time became extinct. Many plants and animals formed appeared n the land and in the sea during this era, it is also when large land plants first appeared in the fossil records. There are many invertebrates found in the fossil record of the Paleozoic era, and fish, Amphibians and reptiles also first appeared in the fossil record during this era. There were also large swamps and forest some of which were formed into coal deposits that exist today.

Perihelion

Perihelion - this is the point in an Object's Orbit when it is Closest to the Sun

Fossil Types

Preservations of Plants Animals and their remains or traces that date back to the 10,000 years ago. Fossils and where they are found in rock strata makes up the fossil record Fossils are formed under a very specific set of conditions. The fossil must not be damaged by predators and scavengers after death and the fossil misy not decompose. Usually this happens when the organisms is quickly covered with sediment. This sediment builds up and molecules in the organism's body are replaced by mineral. Fossils come in an array of sizes from single celled organisms to large dinosaurs

Radioactive Dating

Radioactive dating - Radiometric Dating - a technique that can be used to determine the age of rocks and even the earth itself. The process compares the amount of radioactive material in a rock to the amount of material that has Decayed. Decay refers to the fact that the Nuclide of an element loses subatomic particles over time. This process includes a parent element that undergoes changes to create a daughter element = Decay Product The daughter element can also be unstable and lose particles creating another daughter element. This is known as a Decay chain. Decay occurs until all the elements are stable. Thee types of Dating techniques can be used to date a variety of natural and manmade material including archaeological artifacts.

Remote Sensing

Remote sensing refers to the gathering of Data about an object or Phenomenon without physical or intimate contact with objects being studies. The data can be viewed or recorded and stored in many forms: visually with a Camera, Audibly or in form of Data. Gathering weather data from a ship satellite or Buoy might be thought as Remote Sensing. The monitoring of a Fetus through the use of Ultrasounds Technology provides a remote image. Listening to the heart beat of a fetus is remote sensing. Examples of radiometric remote sensing include Radar Laser Altimeters Light Detection and Ranging - LIDAR used to determine the concentration of Chemicals in the air and Radiometers used to detect various frequencies of Radiation. Geodetic Remote Sensing involves measuring the small fluctuations in Earth's Gravitational Field. Examples of Acoustic Remote Sensing incluse Underwater Sonar and Seismographs.

Rift Valley

Rift valley occurs both on land and in the ocean. They are a result of plate tectonics and occur when plates are spreading apart. In the ocean, this is part of the Crust development cycle in which new crust is created at mid-ocean ridges and old cruse is lost at the trenches. The Mid Atlantic Ridge is an example of this. It occurs at Divergent Eurasian and North American Plates and in the South Atlantic, Africa, and South American Plates. The East Pacific Rise is also a mid-ocean ridge. the most extensive rift valley is located along the crest of the Mid Ocean Ridge system. It is a result of Sea Floor Spreading

Global Warming

Rising Temperatures may lead to an increase in sea leaves as okar ice melts, Lower amounts of available freshwater as Coastal areas flood, Species extinction because of changes in habitat, Increase in certain disease, and a decrease standard of living for humans. Less fresh water and losses of habitat for humans and other species can also lead to decreased agricultural production and food supply shortages. Increase desertification leads to habitat loss for human and certain other species. Decreases in animal populations from loss of habitat and increased hunting by other species can lead to extinction. Increase in severe weather such as huge sustained snowstorms may also occur at unlikely latitudes. Even though global warming results in weather that is drier and warmer overall it still gets cold enough to snow. There may be more moisture in the atmosphere due to evaporation. Global warming may cause the permanent loss of glaciers and permafrost. There might also be increase in air pollution and Acid rain.

Rocks Classified

Rocks are classified based on their Formation and the Minerals they contain

Seawater

Salinity is a measure of the amount of dissolved salts in the ocean water. It is defined in terms of Conductivity. Salinity is influenced bu the geologic formations in the area with Igneous formations leading to lower salinity and sedimentary formations leading to higher salinity. Dry areas with Greater rates of evaporation also have higher salt concentration. Areas, where freshwater mixes with ocean water, have lower salt concentration. Hydrogen and Oxygen make up about 96.5% of the seawater. The majority constituents of the dissolved solids of the Seawater at an atomic level are Chlorine - 55.3% Sodium - 30.8% Magnesium- 3.7% Sulfur 2.6% Calcium - 1.2 % Potassium - 1.1 % The salinity of ocean water is fairly constant ranging from 34.60 to 34.80 parts per a thousand which is 200 parts per million measuring variations on this small of a scale requires instruments that are accurate to about one part per million.

Saturn

Saturn is the 6th plantet from the sun and the Seconf Largest planet in the solar system. It is composed of Hydrogen some Heliu and trace elements. Saturn has a small core of Rock and Ice a thick layer of Metallic Hydrogen a gaseous outer layer and wind speeds of up to 1,800 km/h a system of Rings and 61 Moons.

Breezes

Sea Breezes and land breezes help influence an area's prevailing winds, particularly in areas where the wind flow is light, Sea breeze also called onshore breezes, are a result of the different capacities for absorbing heat of the ocean and the land. The sea can be warmed to a greater depth capacities for absorbing heat of the ocean and the land. The sea can be warmed to a greater depth than the land. It warms up more slowly than the lands surface. Land heats air above it as its temperature increases. This heated:warmer is less dense and rises as a result. The cooler air above the sea and higher sea levels breezes. Land cools slower at night than the sea surface, the pressure over the ocean is lower than the land. This creates a land breeze. This can cause rain and thunderstorms over the ocean.

Water Disposal Methods: Sewage

Sewage when dumped in raw form into oceans Sewage can introduce fecal contaminants and pathogenic organisms which can harm Ocean Life and cause disease in Humans.

Types of Volcanoes

Shield - created by a long-term, relatively gentle eruption. This type of Volcanic Mountain is created by Each Progressive Lava flow that occurs over time. Cinder Cone - created by explosive Eruptions - Lava is spewed out of a vent into the air. As it falls to the ground the lava cools into Cinders and Ash which builds arounds a volcano in a cone shape. Composition Volcano is a combination of the two types of volcanoes. It has layers of Lava flows and Layers of Ash and Cinder

Human Affairs and the Environments

Since the industrial Revolution Science and Technology has had a profound impact on human affairs. There has been a rapid increase in the number of discoveries in many fields. Many major and minor discoveries have led to a great improvement in the quality if life of many people. This includes longer life span because of better nutrition access to medical care and a decrease in workplace health hazards. Not all of these problems have been solved and many still exist on one forma or another. For example even though there are emasn to recycle not evert business does so because of economic factors. These advances while improving the lives of many humans have also taken their toll on the environment. A possible solution may arise when the carrying capacity for humans on Earth is reaches. The population will decline and solutions will have to be found. Otherwise an immediate halt to decrease in the human behaviors that are causing environmental damage will need to happen.

Solar system Components:

Solar system Components: The solar system is a planetary system of objects that exist in an ecliptic plane. Objects orbit around and are bound by gravity to a star call the sun. Objects that orbit around the sun include Planets Dwarf Plants Moons Asteroids Meteoroids Cosmic Dust Comets The definition of plant has changed at one time there were 9 planets in the solar system there are now 8. Planetary objects in the solar sheen include 4 Inner planets, Terrestrial plants: Mercury Venus Earth Mars They are relatively small dense rocky lack rings and have few or No moons. The four Outer or Jovian planets: Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Which are large and have low densities rings and moons. They are also known as Gas Giants. Between the inner and outer planets is the asteroid belt. Beyond Neptune is the Kuiper belt. Within theses besets are 5 dwarf planes Ceres Pluto Haumea Makemake Eris

Solar system formation:

Solar system formation: A planetary system consists of the various non stellar objects orbiting a star such as planets, dwarf plants, moons, asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and cosmic dust. The sun together wich it's the Planetary System which includes earth is known as the solar system. The theory of how the solar system Was created is that it started with the collapse of a cloud of interstellar gas and dust which is formed the solar nebula. This collapse is beloved to have occurred because the clouds was disturbed. As it collapsed it heated up and compressed at the center forming a flatter protoplanetary disk wish a pro-star at the center. Planes formed as a result of accretion from the disk. Gas-cooled and condensed into tiny particles of Rock metal and Ice. These particles collided and formed into larger particles and then into objects the size of small asteroids. Eventually, some become large enough to have significant gravity.

Spectral classification

Spectral classification: stars use the Morgan-Keenan Classification system which is based on spectral traits that indicate the ionization of the chromosphere. The letters designations are used to indicate Temperature from hottest to coolest: O B A F G K M. the phrase On be fine girl/guy kiss me. Different types of stats also have different t corresponding colors. O - blue A - White G - yellow M - red The numbers 0-9 are used to indicate tenths between two-star classes. Zero indicates 0/10 and 9 indicated 9/10. Luminosity output is an indicator of the size and is expressed with th Roman numbers I II III IV V. Supergiants are included in Class I Giants III Main sequence stars included in class V. Using the sun as an example the spectral type G2V could be expressed as Yellow two tenths toward an orange main-sequence star

Divergent Plates

Spreading Apart - Forming new Crust Divergent Boundary - as plates move apart magma rises to the surface, cools and forms a ridge = Mid Atlantic plate

Star birth:

Star birth: a nebula is a cloud of dust and gas that is composed primarily of Hydrogen 97% Helium 3% Gravity cause loses of the nebula to clump together. This accretion continues adding atoms to the center of the unstable protostar. Equilibrium between gravity pulling atoms and gas pressure pushing heat and light away from the center is achieved. A star died when it is no longer able to maintain equilibrium. A protostar may never become A star if it does not reach critical core temperature. It may become a brown dwarf organs giant instead. If nuclear fusion of Hydrogen and Helium began a dust is born. The Main Sequence is a star's life involves nuclear fusion reactions. During this time the star contracts over billions of years to compensate for the heat and light energy lost. In the stars core temperature Density Pressure increase as the star contracts and the cycle continues.

Star life Cycle:

Star life Cycle: These are different life cycle possibilities for stars after hey initially form and enter into the main sequence stage. Small relatively cold red dwarfs with relativity low masses burn Hydrogen slowly and will remain in the main sequence for hundreds of billion years. The sun is a mid-sized star that may be in the main sequence for 10 billion years. After the main sequence, the star expands to become a red giant. Depending upon the initial mass if the state it can become a black dwarf (from a medium-sized star) and then A small cooling white dwarf. Massive stars become red supergiants (and sometimes blue supergiants) exploding in a supernova and then become neutron stars. The largest stars can become black holes.

Stars

Stars Black Hole: a black while is a space where the gravitational field is so powerful that everything including light is pulled into it. Once objects enter the surface the event Horizon they can not escape. Quasar: quasar stands for quai-stellar radio source which is an energetic galaxy with an active galactic nucleus. Quasars were first identified by their emissions of large amounts of electric-magnetic energy such as radio waves and visible light. These emissions differed from associated with other galaxies. Blazer: a blazer is a very violent phenomenon in galaxies with supermassive black holes. Dark matter; although it's existence has not been proved, dark matter may account for a larger proportion of the universe mass. It is undetectable because it does not emit any radiation but it is beloved to exist because of gravitational forces extended on visible objects.

Types of Deformations created by Earthquakes and Fault Ruptures

Static Deformation - permanently displaces the ground. Ex: when a road or railroad track becomes distorted by an earthquake. Plate tectonic stresses the fault by creating tension with slow plate movements. An earthquake release tension. Seismic waves -plate tectonics deformation in dynamic motions. Sound waves can be compressional waves - Primary P waves or Secondary S Waves P waves travel faster with speeds ranging from 1.5 and 8 kilometers per second. P waves shake the ground in the direction they are Propagating. Shear waves are slower. S waves shake perpendicular or Transverse to the direction of propagation. Seismogram use simple Pendulum to record Earthquakes movement in a record called a Seismogram. Seismogram can help Seismologist estimate the Distance Direction Richter Magnitude and type of fault of an Earthquake

Sun:

Sun: The sun is at the center of the solar system. It is composed of 70% Hydrogen H and 28% Helium He. The remaining 2% is made up of metals. The sun is one of 100'billion stats in the Milky Way galaxy. It's diameter is 1,390,000 km its mass is 1.989x10^30kg it's surface temperate is 5,800 K and its core temperature is 15,600,000 K. The sun represents more than 99.8% if the total mass of the solar system. At the fire the temperature is 15.6 million K the pressure is 250 billion atmospheres and the density is more than 150 times that of water. The surface is called the photospheres. The chromosphere lies above this and the corona which extends millions of kilometers into space is next. Sunspots are relatively cool regions on the surface with a temperature of 3,800 K. Temperature in the corona is over 1,000,000 K. It's magnetosphere it hemisphere extend far beyond Pluto

Atmospheric Variations

Terrain affects several local atmospheric conditions, including temperature wind speed and Wind Direction. When there are land forms heating of the ground can be greater than the heating of the surrounding air then it would be at the same altitude above sea level. This creates a thermal low in the region and amplifies any existing thermal lows. It also changes the wind circulation. Terrain such as hills and valleys increase friction between the air and the land, which distributes the airflow. This physical block deflects the wind, and the resulting airflow is called a barrier jet. Just as the heating of the land and air affects sea and land breezes along the coast, rugged terrain affects the wind circulation between mountains and valleys.

Solar system Size

The Earth is about 12,756 km (7,934 miles) in diameter. The Moon is about 3,476 km (2,160mi) in diameter. The distance between the Earth and the Moon is 384,401 km ( 238,910mi). The diameter of the Sun is approx. 1,390,000 km (866,00 mi). The distance from the Earth to the Sun is about 149,598,000 km also known as 1 Astronomical Unit - AU. The star that is nearest to the Solar system is Proxima Centauri. It is about 270,000 AU away. Some distance galaxies are so far away that their light takes several billion years to reach the Earth. In other words people on Earth see them as they looked billions of years ago.

Piloted Space Mission

The Soviet Space program Successfully completed the first space flight by orbiting Yuri Gagarin in 1961 on Vostok 1. His orbit lasted 1 hour and 48 minutes. Later in 1961, the US completed its first Piloted Space FLight by launching Alan Shepard into space in the Mercury-Redstone 3. This space mission was suborbital. The first Woman in space was Valentina Tereshkova who orbited the Earth 48 times aboard Vostok 6 in 1963. The first space flight with more than one person and also the first that didn't involve space suits took place on the Voskhod in 1964. The first person on the Moon was American Neil Armstrong. In 1969 he traveled to the Moon on Apollo 11 which was the 11th manned space flight competed in the Apollo program which was conducted from 1968 to 1972. In 2003 Yang Liwei became the first person from China to go to space. He traveled onboard the Shemxhou 5. The space Shuttle Orbiter has included piloted space shuttle from 1981 until the present. The program was suspended after 2 space shuttle disasters: Challenger 1986 and Columbia 2003.

Solstice

The Summer Solstice the day with the Most Amount of Sunlight occurs on June 21st in the Northern Hemisphere and December 21st in the Southern Hemisphere. The Winter Solstice the day with the Least amount of Sunlight occurs on June 21st in the Southern Hemisphere and December 21st in the Northern Hemisphere

Shoreline

The area where land meets the sea is called the shoreline. This marks the average position of the ocean. Longshore currents create longshore drift or transport - Beach Drift. This is when ocean waves move towards a beach at an angle, which moves water along the coast. Sediment is eroded from some areas and deposited in others. In this way, it is moved along the beach. Rip currents are strong fast currents that occur when part of longshore currents moves away from the beach. Hard man-made structures built perpendicular to the beach tend to trap sand on the up current side. Erosion occurs on the down-current side. Features formed by the sediment deposited by waves include Spits Baymouth Bars, Tombolos, Barrier Islands, Buildups. Sand is composed of weather-resistant granular material like Quartz and Orthoclase. In some locations, it is composed of rock and Basalt.

Oort Cloud Asteroid Belt Kuiper Belt

The asteroid belt is between Mars and Jupiter. The many objects contained within are composed of Rock and Metal similar to those found on the Terrestrial Planets. The Kuiper Belt is beyond Neptune Orbit but the influence of the gas giants may cause objects from Kuiper Belt to cross Neptune Orbit. Objects in Kuiper Belt are still being discovered. They are thought to be composed of the Frozen forms of Water Ammonia and Methane and may be the source of Short Period Comets. It is estimated that there are 35,000 Kuiper Belt objects greater than 100 km in diameter and perhaps 100 million objects about 20 km in diameter. There is also a hypothetical Oort Cloud that may exist far beyond the Kuiper Belt and acts as a source for long-period comets.

Earths Atmosphere

The atmosphere consists of 78% Nitrogen 21% oxygen 1 % argon Traces of water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gases, dust particles and chemicals from Earth. The atmosphere becomes thinner the farther it is from the Earths surfaces. It becomes difficult to breath at about 3km above sea level. The atmosphere gradually fades into space. The lowest layer of the atmosphere is called the troposphere. Its thickness varies at the poles and equator varying from 7 to 17 km. This is where most weather occurs. The stratosphere to an elevation of about 81 km. It is the coldest layer and is where meteors tend to ablate. The next layer is the thermosphere. It is where the Internal Space Station orbits. The exosphere is the outermost layer extend to 10,000 km and mainly consists of Hydrogen and Helium.

Price of Consumerism

The economics of capitals and even of communism with an increased tendency to a market economy are such that economic growth and quality if living are associated with wasteful cycle pf production. Goods are produced as cheaply as possible with little or no regards for the ecological effects. The ultimate goal is profitability. The production process of wasteful and often introduces hazardous byproducts into the environment. Furthermore, after the product ( which is not necessary for survival) has been consumed it may be dumped into landfills instead if recycles. When consumers products get dumped into landfills they can leach contamination into groundwater. Landfills can also leach gases. These are or have been dumping grounds for illegal substances, business and government waste, construction industry waste and medical waste. These items also get dumped at illegal dump sites in urban and remote areas.

Unpiloted Space Missions

The first artificial object to reach another space object was Luna 2. It crashed on the Moon in 1959. The first automatic landing was by Luna 9. It landed on the Moon in 1966. Mariner 2's flyby of Venus in 1962 was the first successful interplanetary flyby. Venera 7 landing on and transmitting data from Venus was the first interplanetary surface landing, which took place in 1970. The first soft landing on Mars was in 1971. Unpiloted spacecraft have also made successful soft landings on the asteroid Eros and Itokawa as well as Titan, a moon of Saturn. The first flyby of Jupiter was in 1973 by Pioneer 10. Pioneer 10 was also the first craft of its kind to leave the solar system. The first flyby of Mercury was in 1974 by Mariner. The first flyby of Saturn was in 1979 by Pioneer 11. The first flyby of Uranus was in 1986 by Voyager 2 which also few by Neptune in 1989.

Notable Satellites

The first satellite to orbit the Earth was the Soviet Unions Sputnik 1 in 1957. Its two radio transmitters emitted beeps that were received by radios around the world. Analysis of the radio signal was used to gather information about the Electron Density of the ionosphere. Soviet success escalated the americans space program . In 1958 the US put Explorer 1 into orbit. The OSumi was the first Japanese satellites which was put into orbit in 1970. The Vanguard 1 is the Satellite that has orbited the earth the longest. It was put into orbit in 1958 and was still in orbit in June 2009. The Mir Space Station orbited Earth for 11 years an was assembled in space starting in 1986. It was almost continuously occupied until 1999. The international Space Station began assembled in orbit in 1998. At 43,000 Cubic Feet it is the Largest Manned Object sent into Space. It Circles the Earth every 90 Minutes.

Tides

The gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon causes the Oceans to rise and Fall each day, creating high and low tides. Most areas have two high tides and two low tides per day. Because the Moon is closer to the Earth than the Sun, its gravitational pull is much greater. The water on the side of the Earth that is closest t the Moon and the water on the opposite side experience high tide. The two low tides occur on the other sides. This changes as the Moon revolves around the Earth. The tidal range is the measurement of the hight difference between low and high tide. The tidal range also changes with the location of the Sun and Moon throughout the year creating Spring and Neap Tides. When all these bodies are aligned the combined gravitational pull is greater and the tidal range is also greater. This is what created the Sprig Tide. The neap Tide is when the tidal range is at its lowest which occurs when the Sun and Moon are at Right Angles.

Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect refers to a naturally occurring and necessary process. Greenhouse gases are: Ozone Carbon Dioxide Water VApor Methane Trap Infrared Radiation that is reflected towards the Atmosphere. This is actually beneficial in that warm air is trapped. Without the greenhouse effect, it is estimated that the temperature on Earth would be 30 degrees less on average. The problem occurs because Human Activity generates more Greenhouse Gases than necessary. The practices that increase the number of greenhouse gases are the: Burning of Natural Gases and Oil, Farming practices that result in the release of Methane and Nitrous Oxide, Factory operations that Produce Gases, Deforestation practices that decrease the amount of Oxygen available to offset greenhouse gases. Population growth also increases the Volume of gases released. Excessive greenhouse gases caused more infrared radiation to become trapped, which increases the temperature at the Earth's surface

Moon Facts

The moon is the 5th largest satellite in the solar system. It orbits the Earth about every 27.3 days. The changes of the Earth-Sun and Moon in relation to each other caused the phases of the Moon which repeats every 29,5 days. The moons gravitational pull (along with the Suns) is responsible for the Tides on earth. Its diameter is about 3,475 km and its gravity is about 17% of Earth's. They were formed by ancient volcanoes. There are many impact craters on the Moon. There were numerous impacts craters on earth at one time, but they have been transformed by erosion over time. very few are still visible.

Ocean Importance

The ocean covers 71% of the earth's surface and contains 97 % of the planet's water. The ocean is an important part of the Biosphere, Hydrologic Cycle, and Troposphere Circulation. The main uses of the ocean and coastal areas for humans are food Transportation, Oil, Gas, and Recreation. It is estimated that the ocean provides a mean of support for almost 50% of all species on Earth. Roughly 20% of the animal protein in human diets comes from the ocean.

Ocean

The ocean is the salty body of water that encompasses the earth is has the mass of 1.4 x10^ 24 grams. Geographically the ocean is divided into 3 large oceans: Pacific Atlantic Indian There are also other divisions such as Gulfs Bay Various Sea types - Mediterranean and Marginal seas. Ocean distances can be measured by latitude, longitude, degrees, Meters, Miles, nautical miles. The ocean accounts for 10.8% of the surface of the earth amounting to 361,254,000, Km^2. The ocean's depth is the greatest Challenger Deep in the Marina Trench. The ocean floor is 10,924 meters below sea level. The depths of the ocean are mapped by echo sounders and satellite altimeter systems. Echo sounders emit a sound pulse from the surface and recorded the time it takes to return. Satellite altimeters provided better maps of the ocean floor.

Layers of the Earth Surface

The ozone layer, although contained within the stratosphere is determined by ozone (O3) concentrations. It absorbs the majority of ultraviolet light from the Sun. The Ionosphere is part of both the Exosphere and the Thermosphere. It is characterized by the fact that it is plasma a partially ionized gas in which free electrons and positive ions are attracted to each other, but there are too energetic to remain fixed as a molecules. It i starts at about 50 km above the Earth Surface and goes to 1,000 km. it affects radio waves transmission and auroras. The ionosphere pushes against the inner edge of the Earths magnetosphere which is the highly magnetized non-spherical region around the Earth. The homosphere encompasses the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere. Gases in the Homosphere are considered well mixed. In the heterosphere the distance that particles can move without colliding is large. As a result gases are stratified according to their molecular weights. Heavier gases such as oxygen and nitrogen occur near the bottom off the heterosphere while hydrogen the lightest element is found on top.

Suns Energy

The suns energy is produced by nuclear fusion reactions. Each second about 700,000,000 tons of Hydrogen are converted (or fused) to about 695,000,000 tons of helium and 5,000,000 tons of energy in the form of gamma rays. In nuclear fusion 4 hydrogen nuclei are fused into one helium nucleus resulting in the release of energy. In the sun the energy proceeds towards the surface and is absorbed and remitted at a lower and lower temperature. Energy is mostly in the form of visible light when it reaches the surface. It is estimated that the sun has used up about half of the Hydrogen at its core since its birth. It is expected to radiate in this fashion for another 5 billion years. Eventually, it will deplete its hydrogen fuel grow brighter expand to about 260 times its diameter and become a red giant, The outer layers will ablate and become a dense white dwarf the size of the Earth.

Plate Tectonic Theory

The theory of Plate Tectonics states that the Lithosphere, the solid portion of the Mantle and Earth's Crust consist of Major and Minor Plates. These plates are on top of and move with the viscous upper mantle which is heated because of the Convection cycle that occurs in the interior of the earth. Different Estimates to the # of Major and Minor Plates Plates are on top of and move with the viscous upper Mantel, which is heated because of the convection cycle that occurs in the interior of the earth. Estimates to the # of Minor and Major plates 9-15 and maybe as many as 40 minor plates. The movement of Plates is what cause features of the Earths crust such as Mountains Volcanoes Earthquakes

Tilt of the Earth

The tilt of the Earth on the axis is 23.5%. This tilt causes the seasons and affects the temperature because it affects the amount of sun the area receives. when the Northern or Southern Hemisphere are Tilted towards the Sun the hemisphere tilted toward the sun experiences summer and the other hemisphere experiences Winter. This reverse as the Earth revolves around the Sun. Fall and Spring occur between the two Extremes. The equator gets the same amount of Sunlight every day of the year about 12 hours and does not experience seasons. Both poles have days during the WInter when they are tilted away from daylight and no night. The summer solstice the day with the most amount of sunlight occurs on June 21st in the Northern Hemisphere and on December 21st in the Southern Hemisphere. The winter solstice the day with the last amount of sunlight occurs on December 21st in the Northern Hemisphere and on June 21st in the Southern Hemisphere.

Limitations of Space Exploration

There are Many Limitations of space explorations. The main limitation is knowledge. Space exploration is currently time consuming Dangerous and Costly. manned and unmanned missions even within the solar system take years of planning and years to complete. The advocate financial cost are great. Interstellar travel and intergalactic is not yet realistic feasible. Technology advances are needed before these types of missions can be carried out. By some estimates it would take more than 70 yrs to travel to Proxima Centauri ( nearest star) using the fastest rocket technology available. It would take much longer using less advanced technologies. Space travel is dangerous for many reasons. Rocket fuel is high explosive. Non earth environments are uninhabitable for humans. Finally astronauts are exposed to larger than usual amounts of radiation.

Natural Satellites

There are about 335 Moons or Satellites that orbit the planets and objects in the solar system. Many of these satellites have been recently discovered a few are theoretical some are Asteroid Moons (moons orbiting Asteroids) some are Moonlets (small Moons) and some are Moons of Dwarf planets and objects that have not been definitively categorized such as Trans-Neptunian objects. Mercury and Venus do not have any Moons. There are several moons larger than the dwarf planet Pluto and two larger than Mercury. Some consider the Earth and Moon a pair of Double Planets rather than a planet and a Satellite. Some satellites may have started out as Asteroids. They were eventually captured by the Planets Gravity and became Moons.

Catastrophism

This is the belief that the Earth was shaped by sudden short term catastrophic events

Time measurements:

Time measurements: A sidereal day is four minutes shorter than a solar day. A solar day is the time it takes the earth to complete one revolution and face the sun again. From noon to noon is 24 hours. A sidereal day is measured against a distant Fixed star. As the earth completes one rotation it has also completed part of its revolution around the sun so it completes a sidereal rotation in reference to the fixed star before it completes a solar rotation. The sun travels alone the ecliptic in 365.25 days. This can be tracked day after day before dawn. After one year the stats appear back in their original positions. As a result, different constellations are viewable at different times of the year. Sidereal years are slightly longer than tropical years. The differences caused by the precession of the Equinoxes. A calendar based on the sidereal year will be out of sync with the season at a rate of about one day every 71 years.

Maps

Traditional Maps - land in 2 dimensions Topographic - Elevation through the use of Contour Lines - show changes to elevation above the surface of the Earth and Ocean Floor and show the shape of Earths Surface features

Tropic Of Cancer

Tropic Of Cancer - located at 23.5 North. The sun is directly Overhead at Noon on June 21st in the Tropic of Cancer, which marks the Beginning of Summer in the North Hemisphere.

Tropic Of Capricorn

Tropic Of Capricorn - located at 23.5 South. The sun is directly Overhead at Noon on December 21st in the Tropic of Capricorn, which marks the Beginning of Winter in the North Hemisphere.

Streak

True Color of the Mineral in Powder Form Rubbed againges Unglazed Porcelain Tile

TaunMIS

Tsunamis - Seismic Sea Waves - Mistakenly called Tidal Waves are formed by Seismic activity. A tsunami is a series of waves with long wavelengths and long periods. Far out at sea the heights f these waves are typically less than one meter. The wavelength maybe 100 km and the wave period may range from 5 minutes to 1 hr. However, as seismic sea waves approach the shoreline the bottom of the wave is slowed down by the shallower seafloor. The top is not slowed as much and wave height increases to as much as 20 meters. These waves can hit the shore at speeds of up to 30 miles per hour. Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, Submarine Landslides, Volcanic Eruptions

The United States Geological Survey USGS

USGS - produces frequent used Quadrangle Maps in various Scales Quadrangle Topographic Map is bound by 2 lines of Latitude and 2 lines of Longitude 7.5 Minutes Map shows an area that spans 7.5 minutes of Latitude and 7.5 minutes n Longitude The name of the Quadrangle map appears at the Top - indicates the name of the prominent feature Topographic Map - less detail - Larger Area Country or State USGS quad maps refer to Adjacent quad map Information on Quad Maps include: Projection Grid used Scale Contour Intervals Magnetic Declination - difference between True North and Magnetic North

Uniformation

Uniformation - Gradualism is the belief among modern geologist that the forces, processes and laws that we see today have existed throughout geologic times. It involves the belief that the present is the key to the past and that relativity slow precesses have shaped the geological features of earth

Universal Structures

Universal Structures What can be seen if the universe is beloved to at least 93 billion light years across. To put this into perspective the Milky Way galaxy is about 100,000 light years across. Our view of matter in the universe is that it forms into clumps. Matter is organized into Stars Galaxies Superclusters Great Wall if Galaxies. Galaxies consist of Stars Some Planetary Systems Some estimates state that the university is about 13 billion yrs old. It is not considered dense and it is believed to consist of 73 percent dark energy 23% cold dark matter and 4% regular matter. Cosmology is the study of the universe. Inter seller medium ISM is the gas and dust in the interstellar space between a galaxy's stars.

Universal origin

Universal origin The universe can be said to consist of everything and nothing. The universe is the source of everything we know about space matter energy and time. There are Likely still phenomenon that we have yet to be discovered. The universe can also be thought of as nothing since a vast portion of the known universe is empty space. It is beloved that the universe is expanding. The Big Bang theory which is widely accepted among astronomers was developed to explain the origins of the universe. There are other theories regarding the origin of the universes such as the Steady-state theory and the Creationist theory. The Big Bang theory states that all the matter in the universe was once in one place. This matter underwent a huge exploration that spread the matter into space. Galaxies formed from this material and the universe is still expanding.

Opwelling and Ekman Transport

Upwelling occurs where wind blows parallel to coast. This causes the ocean surface to move away from the oast. Deep Seawater which is usually Cold and RIch in Nutrients rises to takes its place. Ekman Transport refers to the impact of the Coriolis Effect when the wind moves water. WInd blowing in one direction tries to mv the surface layer of water in a straight line but the Rotation of the earth causes water to move in a CUrved Direction. The wind continues to blow the surface of the water and the surface water turns slightly. Below the surface, the water turns even more eventually creating a spiral. This creates water movement at a Right Angle to the Wind Direction. The importance of upwelling is that it brings the Nutrient-rich Dead and rotting sea creatures closer to the ocean's surface. Here they are consumed by Phytoplankton which in turn eaten by Zooplankton. Fish eat the zooplankton and larger creatures and humans eat the fish. Downwelling is the opposite of Upwelling.

Uranus

Uranus is the 7th planet from the Sun. Its atmosphere is composed mainly of Hydrogen and Helium and also contains Water, Ammonia Methane and Traces of Hydrocarbons. With a minimum temperature of 49K. Uranus has the coldest atmosphere. Uranus has a Ring System, a magnetosphere and 13 moons.

Venus

Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It orbits the sun every 225 days is Very Bright and is similar to Earth in size Gravity and Bulk composition, It has a dense atmosphere composed of Carbon Dioxide and some Sulfur. It is covered with reflective clouds made of Sulfuric Acid and exhibits signs of Volcanism. Lightning and Thunder have been recorded non Venus Surface.

Othery types of Waves

Waves that reach the shore are not all the same size. They can be larger or smaller than average. About once an hour there is usually a wave that is twice the size of others. There are even larger but rare rogue waves that often travel alone and in a direction different than other waves. Swells are waves that have traveled a great distance. These types of waves are usually large waves with flatter crest. They are very regular in shape and size. The sea level slowly rises and falls over the period of the day. These types of waves on the sea surface are known as tides. Tides have wavelengths of thousands of kilometers. They differ from other wave types in that they are created by slow and very small changes in gravity due to the motion of the sun and the Moon relative to Earth.

Thunderstorms

Weather phenomena that can be created during the ongoing process of heat moving through the Earths Atmosphere. Thunderstorms form when there is moisture to form Rain Clouds Unstable air and Lift. Unstable air is usually caused by warm air rising quickly through the cold air. Lift can be used by fronts, sea breezes, and elevated terrain such as mountains. Single-cell thunderstorms along a squall line. Supercell thunderstorms are large and severe and have the capacity to produce destructive tornadoes. Thunder is a Sonic Shock wave caused by the rapid expansion of air around lightning. Lightning is the discharge of electricity during a thunderstorm. Lightning can also occur during volcanic eruptions

Weather phenomenon

Weather phenomenon Shearline: this evolves from a stationary front that has gotten smaller. Wind direction shifts over a short distance. Dry line or Dew point Line. This separates two warm air masses of differing moisture content. At lower altitudes the moist air mass wedges under the drier air. At higher altitudes the dry air wedges under the moist air. This is a frequent occurrence in the Midwest and Canada, where the dry air of the Southwest and the moist air of the Gulf of Mexico meet. This can lead to extreme event s including tornadoes and thunderstorms. Squall line: severe thunderstorms can form At the front of or ahead of a cold front. In some cases sever thunderstorms can also outrun cold fronts. A squall line can produce extreme weather in the front of heavy rain hail lightning strong winds tornado and thunderstorms. Tropical waves or easterly waves these are atmospheric thoughts or areas of low pressure that travel westward in the tropics causing clouds and thunderstorms.

Weathering forecast

Weathering forecast Short and long term weather forecasting is important because the day to day weather greatly affects humans activity. Sever weather and natural events can cause devastating harm to humans property and sources of livelihood such as crops. The persistence method of forecasting can be used create both shot and long term forecast in areas that change very little or change slowly. It assumes that the weather tomorrow will be similar to the weather today. Barometer pressure is measure because a change in air pressure can indicate arrival of a cold front yang cold lead to precipitation. Long term forecast based on climate data are useful to help people prepare for seasonal changes and severe events such as hurricanes.

Wether fronts and maps

Wether fronts and maps A weather front is the area between two differing masses of air that affects weather. Frontal movements are influenced by the jet steam and other High winds. Movement are determined by the type of front. Cold fronts move up twice as fast as warm ones. It is in the turbulent front area that common place and dramatic wether events take place. This area also creates temperature changes. Weather phenomenon include Rain Thunderstorms High winds Tornados Cloudiness Clear skies Hurricanes Different fronts can be plotted on a weather map using a set of designated symbols. Surface weather maps can also include symbols representing Clouds Rain Temperature Air pressure Fair weather Cold fronts are represented in weather maps as a Blue Line. Solid blue triangles used to indicate different directions of movement. Warm fronts are represented with red lines. Sold red sink circular are used to indicate the direction of movement. The cold and warm front symbols are merged and altered to point in opposite directions to indicate a stationary front. An occluded front is represented by a purple line with alternating solid purple triangle and simi circles. A surface thought is represented by and other dashed line. A squall or sheer line is represented by a red line. Two dots and a dash are alternated to form the line. A dry line is represented by an orange line with semicircles in outline form. A tropical wave is represented by a straight orange line. An L is used to indicate an area of low atmospheric pressure. H is used to indicate an area of high atmospheric pressure.

WInds

Winds are the result of air moving by Convection. Masses of warm air rise and cold air sweeps into their place. The warm air also moves cools and skinks. The term Prevailing Winds refers to the wind that usually blows in an area in a single direction. Dominant winds are the winds with the highest speeds. Belts or Bands that run latitudinally and blow in a specific direction are associated with Convection cells. Hadley cells are formed directly north and south of the equator. The Farrell cells occur at about 30 to 60 Degrees. The jet stream runs between the Farrell cells and the polar cells. At the higher and lower latitudes, the direction is sraterly. At mid-latitudes, the direction is westerly. From the North Pole to the SOuth, the surface winds are Polar High Easterlies, Subpolar Low Waterlies, Subtropical High or Horse Latitudes, North-East Trade Winds, Equatorial Low or Doldrums, South-East Trades, Subtropical High or Horse Latitudes, Subpolar Low Easterlies Polar High

Meteors Meteoroids Meteorites

a Meteoroid is the name for a Rock from space before it enters Earth's Atmosphere. Most Meteoroids burn up in the atmosphere before reaching altitudes of 80 km. A Meteor is the streak of light from a Meteoroid in the Earth's Atmosphere. Also known as a Shooting Star. Meteor Showers are associated with Comets, happen when the Earth passes through the Debris of a Comet and are associated with a Higher than normal numbers of Meteors. Meteorites are Rocks that reach the earth's surface from space. Fireballs are very bright Meteors with tails that can last as long as 30 minutes. A bolide is a fireball that burns up when it enters Earth's Atmosphere. There are many types of Meteorites and they are known to be composed of various materials. Iron Meteorites consist of Iron and Nickel with a Criss-cross or Widmanstatten, internal Crystalline Structure. Stony Iron Meteorites are composed of Iron Nickle and Silicate Materials. Stony Meteorites consist manly of Silicate and also contain Iron and Nickle

Latitude Longitude and Equator

for the purpose of tracking time and location the Earth is divided into sections with imaginary lines. Lines that run Vertically around the Globe through the Poles are lines of Longitude sometimes called Meridians. The Prime Meridian is the Longitudinal reference point 0. Longitude is measures in 15 degrees increments towards the East or West. Degrees are further divided int0 60 Minutes and each minute is divided into 60 seconds. Lines of Latitude run Horizontally around the Earth parallel to the Equator which is the 0 reference point and the Widest Point of the Earth. Latitude is the distance North and South from the Equator and is also measured in Degrees Minutes and Seconds.

The Bergeron classification

he Bergeron classification Uses three sets of letter to identify the following characteristic of air masses: Moisture Content Thermal characteristics from where they originated and the stability of the atmosphere. The first moisture content uses the filling letters C represents the Dry Continental air masses M stands for the moist maritime air masses The second set of abbreviations are: T indicated the air masses is Tropical origin P indicated the air mass is polar origin A indicated the air mass is Antarctic in origin M is for Monsoon E indicated the air mass is equatorial in origin S represents superior air - which is dry air formed by a downward motion Last symbols provided an indicator of the stability of the mass K mass is colder than the ground below W the mass is warmer then the ground. For example cP is a continental polar mass cPk is a polar air mass blowing over the Gulf Stream which is warmer then the mass

Deposition or Sedimentation

is the geological process in which previously eroded material is transported and added to a landform or land mass. Erosion and Sedimentation are complementary geological processes. Running water causes a substantial amount of deposition of transported materials in both Fresh and Coastal areas. Ex: Gravity Transported material down a slope of a mountain an deposition it at the base of the Slope. Sandstorms deposit particles in other locations. When glaciers melt and retreat it can result in the deposition of sediments. Evaporation is also considered to cause deposition since dissolved materials are left behind when water evaporates. Deposition can include the buildup of Organic material . Ex: Chalk is partially made up of the small calcium carbonate skeletons of marine plankton, which helps create calcium carbonate from chemical processes.

Convergent

process of Subduction causes one Plate to go under another Convergent Boundaries - one plate slides under another are often areas of a lot of Volcanic Activity The subduction process creates Magma - when it rises to the surface Volcanoes can be created Volcanoes can be created in the middle of a plate over Hot Spots Hotspots are locations where narrow plumes of Magma rise through the Mantel in a fixed place over a long period of time. Hawaiian Island Midway The plates shift and the island moves. Magma continues to rise through the Mantle however which produces another island. Volcanoes can be Active - Are Erupting or About to Erupt Dormant - might Erupt in the Future and still have internal volcanic activity Extinct - will not erupt

Geology

study of the Planet Earth as it pertains to the Composition Structure Origin of its Rocks

Pressure Systems

the concept of Atmospheric pressure involves the idea that air exerts a force. An imaginary column of air 1 square inch in size rising through the atmosphere would exert a force of 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). Both temperature and altitude affect atmospheric pressure. Low and high pressure systems tend to want to equalize. Air tends to move from areas of High pressure to areas of low pressure. When air moved into a low-pressure system, the air that was there gets pushed up, creating lower temperatures and pressures. water vapor condenses and forms clouds and possibly rain and Snow. A barometer is used to measure Air pressure