Enviro systems exam 3

What are the different types of urban heat island?

- Air temperature: -- urban canopy layer, found beneath roof or tree-top level -- urban boundary layer, found above roof level, and be advected downwind with urban plume - Surface temperature UHI: -- different heat islands according to definition of surface used (described by temps of upper surface of buildings, trees, streets, lawns) - Sub surface UHI -- found in the ground, beneath the surface (ex: asphalt on adjacent soil or soil under asphalt)

cause and effect relationship seen in the Flint water disaster

- Spring 2014, large amounts of lead found in Flint, MI water - Trihalomethanes present as well - boil water advisories - Jan. 2015 officials state water is safe, still in violation of Safe Drinking Water Act - Jan. 2016: State of emergency declared in Flint by MI and USA What happened? - 2013: switch to Karegnondi Water Authority, but used water from local Flint River (waiting for pipeline from Lake Huron, used local source in interim) - April 2014: switched over to new source - Weeks later, complaints of bad smelling water, discolored water - Trihalomethanes, lead found in water (from the lead pipes in the city, oxidizing agents react with exposed lead pipes, releasing soluble Pb 2+ into the water supply, REDOX!) 13,000 ppm vs. 15 ppm SUPER HIGH LEAD LEVELS! How do cities avoid this? - add phosphate ions to water supply (creates insoluble lead phosphate) - create a mineral-like crust on the inside of pipes (water has no contact with pipes) - needs to be continuously added! (you can break down crust + redox rxn if phosphate is not added) - After Flint, phosphate was not added to water supply: crust broke down! - Flint River has high level of chloride (from road salts) - pH was too low (7-8): decreased pH increases solubility of lead carbonate, breaking down crust Where are we now? - October 2015, Flint switched back to Detroit water system - Still have ongoing health problems for 6,000-12,000 children - Lawsuits against flint and Michigan officials (now ended)

How and why has agriculture changed over the centuries?

- agriculture began about 12,000 years ago - not all crops domesticated at the same time - domestication of livestock between 13,000 and 10,000 years ago Key agricultural developments: - crop rotation: rotating crops based on a field system (two-field, three-field, four-field system) -- The sequence of four crops (wheat, turnips, barley and clover), included a fodder crop and a grazing crop, allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The four-field crop rotation became a key development in the British Agricultural Revolution. why does crop rotation work? - crop choice can reduce weeds, control erosion, increase available nitrogen in the soil - row crops (veggies): commodity crops. Wide rows are used for many crop plants, resulting in the following: (1) less seed expenses, (2) better controlling of stubble, (3) less work on the soil, and (4) more easily controlling weeds between rows - legumes: nitrogen! nitrogen in roots. they reduce weeds and enrich the soil by partnering with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil. - grasses and cereals: help provide structure to the soil: extensive root systems that keep soil in place (also they extract N from the soil, accumulated N from legumes is extracted by grasses and cereals). - traditional practices have changed, introduced technology to agriculture - devoted more land to agriculture in some form (rise of high-yield crops such as GMOs) Modern agriculture looks at how are we changing the land-use variables (such as labour, energy, lands, soils, waters, etc.)

solar radiation management

a mitigation technique which works by reflecting the amount of solar radiation we get on Earth

increased

urban environments alter their water cycle with _____ runoff, changes in evapotranspiration (ET)

What factors influence urban lawn ecology?

urban lawn ecology is influenced by maintenance based on preference. Post WW2 focused on weeding. - mostly perennial herbs, grasses, grasses, shrubs, and shade-intolerant trees - ecosystem development - mowing: drives competition between grasses - fertility: good response to N fertilizers, timing important - irrigation: overwatering/drought, drought causes grass to be dormant - weed control: increased rise in prevalence of lawns, pressure to reduce herbicides - Many lawns appear to be monocultures or polystands of grasses (hardy clovers, grass, violets, strawberries, succession of weeds that grow in there) - true in some locations, others have distinct plant communities

How are soil degradation and irrigation interconnected?

Water resources deterioration, diversion of water for other uses, and soil degradation are the major factors affecting the environmental sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Water logging results from the tendency to apply water in excess of irrigation requirements. also, the increase of irrigation leaching nutrients in the soil. uses up too much water and erodes.

NO2 and SO2

_______ and _______ enter the atmosphere and react to create acid precipitation

what are two solutions to climate change discussed in class?

1. Decarbonization/Reduction of GHG emissions 2. Geoengineering

be able to explain solar radiation management techniques and discuss pros and cons of each one

*Albedo Enhancement: amount of light reflected by a surface (ex: white buildings increase albedo, reflectivity of sun, more white reflective paint made) (ex: green roofs have lower albedo than white roofs, but it cools. you can grow food, there are added benefits beyond temperature regulations. older buildings can't support it. green roof has vegetation) (ex: 52% of habitable land is used for agriculture. increasing albedo of agricultural land can help! 10-15ppm from atmosphere. (ex: albedo enhancement of leaves, you can work to engineer plants, plant gets light for photosynthesis, reflects the rest; engineered to absorb light from outside of the cell= fluorophore is a fluorescent chemical compound that can re-emit light upon light excitation. 3D photonic crystals, chaange reflection direction, refraction properties. trying to get broader angles) *Cloud Brightening: how to increase reflectivity of clouds. consequences: oceanic circulation disruption, weather disruptions (ex: can we get sea salt in the atmosphere? project to launch sea salt in the atmosphere. found that with warmer temps, delivery methods is not as good) *Stratospheric aerosol injection: volcanic eruptions, cooling after eruptions. If natural process releases it into atmosphere, how can we model? Sulfur dioxide injection cools atmosphere, but increase SO2 levels and acid rain (trade off: pollution + temp). 1. public health and ecological impacts of SO2 deposition -> acid rain 2. do these programs need to continue in perpetuity? 3. How will this disrupt the hydrological cycle? *Space Reflectors: - paper thin mirrors mounted to satellites, mirrors carried by solar-powered robots - giant "sunshade" @La Grange points: don't need power supply to keep it moving. - could change climates locally, doesn't help with atmospheric carbon

be able to explain carbon engineering techniques and discuss pros and cons of each one

*Carbon capture and storage: - received a lot of attention from heavy emitters - not yet deployed on any commercial scale - research is 50/50: efficacy, short-term and long-term viability, cost effectiveness carbon capture and storage - ambient air capture steps: 1. natural gas burned at power station 2. carbon dioxide separated from other gases 3. carbon dioxide stored under the North Sea basically, liquefy natural gas, inject it in oil and gas reserves 2 ways to store: 1. buoyant trapping 2. residual trapping (passing through, CO2 held in place bc of surface tension) geology important! although, plate tectonics, seismic activity add worry/risk. carbon capture and storage - bioenergy with carbon capture and storage: - grow biomass (fast growing trees to harvest and use as fuel) - combined with carbon capture to collect the emissions from power plants - land usage? - soil depletion. unsustainable, threatening people more than other techniques. enhanced weathering/ocean alkalinity enhancement: - adding silicates + carbonates -> increase alkalinity = decrease ocean acidification - olivine beaches. enhanced weathering of limestone. ocean liming Ocean liming, whereby particulate calcium oxide or, more likely, hydroxide is spread to surface ocean waters can address, at least partly, both the need for carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and ocean acidification enhanced weathering/ocean alkalinity enhancement - ocean fertilization: high-nutrient, low chlorophyll (proxy for productivity) HNLC zones ****Iron fertilization: through the weathering of olivine/other silicates. increase biological activity by adding iron. ****** atmospheric sourcing = adding iron. dumping iron in the ocean = shavings. this disrupts the nutrient balance in the ocean. *Haida Salmon Restoration Corporation: 100 tons of iron dumped, scientists got angry.

pros and cons of water recycling

+ Cheap method + Reduces the demand of freshwater from the river or ocean - Water is not always drinkable *can be recycled and reused onsite: industrial applications * gray water: reusing wastewater that hasn't come into contact with food particles or feces * be careful of personal care product, especially for irrigation and watering plants rain barrels! - this is not gray water (water that's been used): it just fell from the sky - this is water harvesting, not recycling, collect water and use it later. benefits of water treatment and recycling: - can satisfy most water demands - EPA regulates wastewater treatment and drinking water quality - Most commonly used for nonpotable purposes - serve as an additional source of water for local water ways (gets pumped back out into water way) - decrease diversion of freshwater from sensitive ecosystems (steady water going through)

what are the issues with waste in St. Louis?

- 22,000 tons of trash illegally dumped in 2017 - mostly occurring in majority Black neighborhoods - Health threats *st. Louis has a huge problem with illegal waste dumping. also problems with access to waste and recycling dumps. it is hard to dump waste. services also aren't effective in a lot of ways. poor neighborhoods lack equitable waste clean up opportunities.*

What are climate resilient crops and what are the barriers to adoption of them?

- climate change increases chances of drought, heat waves - climate resilient crops better able to cope with abiotic and biotic stressors related to climate change *They are intended to maintain or increase crop yields under stressful conditions and thereby provide a mean of adapting to diminishing crop yields in the face of droughts, higher average temperatures and other climatic conditions. It is adapted to adverse soil and climatic conditions in places where most agriculture is marginal. Examples of climate-resilient crops are quinoa and pearl millet. Both crops were documented for their ability to tolerant heat, salinity and water stresses.* ex: sorghum, quinoa, pearl millet, maize, fruits, veggies, grains Barriers: see pie chart, but essentially barriers to finance and technical resources, advisory networks, knowledge about climate change, education/experience/household characteristic, enabling environment (policies and gov't). IN SHORT: there are knowledge, economic, and feasibility barriers to introducing these methods. also, climate resilient crops mainly have studies in sub-sharan africa. rather than other parts of the world. biased information/studies? expand to other areas such as middle east/north africa and latin america. - farmers are adopting climate resilient crops in addition to other techniques - most studies reflect cereal adoption - many farmers don't have the funds to invest in new crops - this is one of the most widely accepted ways to deal with changing climate and agriculture

how ground water pollution moves

- contaminants can move within an aquifer the same way that ground water moves *In general, liquid contaminants aren't dispersed and diluted in groundwater as much as they are in surface water and, like groundwater itself, they move slowly. A concentrated form of liquid contaminants is called a contamination plume. Often, a plume flows in the same path as the surrounding groundwater.* - possible to predict movement: -- rates, flow of groundwater, where contaminants are that affect areas, plume -- fractures through a wrench in pollutants groundwater pollution moves with groundwater flow groundwater pumping: - drawdown: pull water from one aquifer into another - unsaturated + saturated zones, groundwater can dilute pollutants but then plume

problems with radioactive waste disposal and how waste is classified

- different than other chemical wastes! - disposal needs to be different - some radioactive materials are also chemical toxins! try to balance radiation. *take into account radioactivity and chemical wastes. take into account half life. reduce levels of radiation* classified as= Low-level: - low-radioactivity, does not require extraordinary disposal precautions -- held on site until radioactivity is just background, then dumped. fairly harmless. -- ex: washing from protective gear, floor drains, decomposition processes, lab materials. - 90% of radioactive waste High-level: - high-radioactivity! - spent reactor fuel rods (nuclear energy) - by-products from fabrication - more concentrated and condensed radioactivity - awaiting plan for permanent disposal *rule: need to cause less than 1000 deaths over 10000 years*

What are the trends in heavy metals in urban soils?

- elevated heavy metal concentrations almost universal, highly variable - may accumulate onto surfaces and in soil - sink for heavy metals via sorption (two substances sticking together), complexation, precipitation reactions - variable effects, dependent on the metal (high OM, oxides, etc.)

smog production and influences on it

- gases, fossil fuels affected by temperature - travel down wind - happens in troposphere, contains ground level pollutants - secondary pollutant: formed from reaction. comes from volatile compounds + nitrogen oxides - a combination of smoke + fog = smog

challenges with land usage (with respect to agriculture)

- globally 5 billion hectares - 38% of total land surface - cropland vs population: growing population, to what extent can we keep up? -- 21% of cropland irrigated? global cropland per capita (deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, loss of carbon sink) land degradation leads to biodiversity loss. increase in cropland.

How are birds adapting to urban ecosystems?

- not lost habitat, but new habitat - urban settings can support large and diverse communities with some management - seed eaters adaptations to urbanization (internally and behaviorally): - exotic and non-native species seen because of non-native vegetation - mockingbirds have elevated stress levels - magpies have difference in stresses. more adapted in presence of humans. longer breeding seasons. Urban bird ecosystems - food density increases in urban settings (natural food sources, increased food supports population) - low quality food - Noise! Synanthropic birds are MUCH more abundant (greater # of species) than native birds in urban environments.

water pollution

- point source pollution: direct connection, you know source of pollution - nonpoint source pollution: diffuse pollution (lots of sources), not a direct connection (leading cause of pollution) - transboundary pollution: across state/country boundaries, also slow creep down river definition: harmful substances contaminate a water source and degrade water quality - drinkable water sources are not renewable <1% freshwater is available to us - challenges expected to increase (demand going up!) - water is a "universal solvent" (can dissolve many things!) - particularly vulnerable to pollution (bc you can easily dissolve + mix substances in water)

What is precision agriculture? What are the pros and cons of it?

- precision agriculture is an integrated crop management system - focused on taking whole fields and creating small areas within fields (focused on crop needs) - systems approach to farming: -- economics -- alliances -- environmental -- management (such as overall land management) - within field variability can be substantial - traditionally, this is observed and fixed with trial and error (difficult to maintain bc of big farming) tools: GPS, yield monitoring (grain elevators), grid soil sampling, remote sensing, crop scouting (crop status, erosion), information management Pros: - gives farmers ability to effectively manage inputs, get greater crop yield and quality - likely would lower pollution and maintain soil quality (you have data so likely you won't over fertilize the field) - can address economic and environmental issues Cons: - pricing these changes is challenging, a lot of this is new - difficult to maintain because it is observed and fixed with trial and error. - scale challenges (small and large scale, precision farming is limited to large farms)

salinization in soil degradation

- salts accumulating so that soils no longer support plant growth - minimal amounts of rainfall + heat = evaporation - also erosion + runoff, how are you managing your fields?

processes of wastewater treatment and desalination

1. Pump Station 2. Bar Screens 3. Grit, sludge removal 4. Primary sedimentation 5. Aeration & Biological reduction 6. Final Sedimentation 7. Disinfection Final Treatment stages 4 and 5: remove contamination, create drinking water amount of Cl based on what you are trying to remove Desalination: making freshwater from salt water (aquifers, salt water intrusion; ocean) Methods: distillation, reverse osmosis, steam evaporates freshwater, condenses for liquid water Steps: 1. seawater intake 2. intake screening facility 3. pretreatment filters 4. reverse osmosis membrane units (semi-permeable membrane) remove salt and other impurities from the water 5. post treatment to drinking water standard 6. drinking water to supply tank 7. seawater concentrate outlet

methods to dealing with toxic waste

1. dilute and disperse 2. concentrate and contain - problem is that mixing chemicals can degrade containers *typically toxic waste is a liquids problem - notably oil*

pros and cons to suggested radioactive waste disposal

1. space: rocks into space bring it out of Earth. expensive and unrealistic! 2. ice: under ice sheets, but global warming, so variable and risky. 3. subduction zones: wait for subduction process to take radioactivity, corrosive seawater (bc a lot of subduction zones are in the ocean) 4. seabed: isolated, covered in clay, stable, one of the better options 5. caverns - liquid waste: held in low permeability unfractured rocks (basalt, granite) 6. bedrock: make sure it won't leak, be invaded by groundwater 7. Waste Isolation Pilot Plant: embedded by salt, mudstones. below earth's surface. dry area so no concern for watertable. impermeable. ***US department of defense is against this***

Compaction in soil degradation

CONCERNS: - collapses macropores, issue for plants trying to root -- from digging: reduction in pore space, compact, moisture, weight of vehicle in field - some benefits to soil compaction: -- earlier germination with compaction - overcompaction reduces productivity and soil function (harder for water to travel down, etc.) MANAGEMENT: - some ways to prevent or fix soil compaction (animals vs technology vs geotextiles (straw, hemp))

contamination in soil degradation

CONCERNS: - diffuse vs point source pollution - From discharge from farming activities, atmospheric deposition - nutrients: not enough microbes to have it be bioavailable. build-up + released into the environment - heavy metals: mineral supplements, excreted by animals, industrial byproducts, atmospheric deposition - organic pollutants: used to control pests (how well are they breaking down?), microbes, hydrolysis, medicines are accumulating in soils

erosion in soil degradation

CONCERNS: - most common with croplands (vs. pasturelands). - dependent on crusts and layers in soil horizon - things that erode= wind and water - trophs for animals, plows, erode MANAGEMENT: - surface cover (leave stubble to help hold soil in place) - high organic matter (OM) content - land management practices: -- till conservatively to preserve soil textures -- geotextiles: clay + hemp + hay harder to erode with reinforcements

Soil organic matter decline in soil degradation

CONCERNS: - soil OM varies based on several factors (low or high OM) - substrate for soil microbes - soil OM and clays (clay content) - once OM levels fall below a specific level, agriculture starts to fail (succession of primary productivity and land cover: forests, grasslands, croplands) MITIGATION/MANAGEMENT: - introduce grass/cover crops to crop rotation (be there for harvesting decay helps growth) - reduce removal of plant residues post harvest - minimum tilling (disrupts OM layer) - optimize nutrients and other inputs from crops/crop residue (best nutrient cycling + benefits to make sure you aren't depleting OM layer)

explain and describe the impact of the Clean Air Act

Clean Air Act (1970): - regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources - establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) - Regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants - meant to protect public health + welfare - regulates outdoor air quality, not indoor air quality (states are responsible) states are responsible for meeting clean air act standards! 1977: update new goals (dates for achieving NAAQs) -> few states met initial deadline/goals, so new 1990: use technology to set standards for air pollution, require different standards for major source and area sources major source: stationary source, group of... - 1990 amendments capped emissions from coal plants. drastic change! almost no sulfur deposition today. -- nitrogen deposition: more spread out, fertilizer use, soil erosion, tilling, fuel combustion. more very dark patches than 20 years ago. not solved. Saw >50% decline in emissions of key pollutants!!!!

Clean Water Act (1972) and Safe Drinking Water Act (1974)

Clean Water Act (1972): - established basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into US water and regulating quality standards for surface water - Basis for CWA was enacted in 1948 - Pollution control programs (illegal to discharge without permits) - does not deal with ground water or water quantity issues Safe Drinking Water Act (1974): - protect quality of drinking water in the US (all users have to have safe drinking water) - focuses on all waters actually or potentially designed for drinking use, both above and below ground - 1996 amendments: EPA to consider peer-reviewed science, can't have injection well near underground source used for drinking

how deep well injection works

Deep well injection is the process of safely storing or disposing of liquids deep underground. It involves drilling beneath drinking water aquifers (1,500 to >3,000 feet deep) to trap the liquid waste under multiple impermeable layers of rock. It requires favorable geology, so it is not suitable for all locations. *limited by permeability of rocks*

how does photochemical smog form

Forms in the presence of sunlight. If there is an abundance of nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, but very few VOCs, ozone forms. A few hours later when sunlight intensity decrease, nitrogen oxide is still present in the atmosphere and the ozone recombines with the NO and reforms into O2+ NO2. When petrochemicals or VOCs form human activity are absent or limited, the cycle of ozone formation and destruction generally takes place on a daily basis with relatively small amounts of photochemical smog formation. the action of sunlight on hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide pollutants. Steps: 1. ozone formation in troposphere: O + O2 -> O3 + M (some other molecule) 2. smog formation in troposphere: NO2 + hv (UV radiation) -> NO + O 3. photolysis (rate at which UV radiation is constant, about 30seconds for reaction to fully occur): O3 + NO -> NO2 + O2 need to know hydrocarbon oxidation? and NOx and radical sink reaction?

impacts of smog on health and vegetation

Health impacts: - low concentrations of ground-level ozone can irritate eyes, nose, throat - can trigger: asthma, increased susceptibility to respiratory infections, decreased lung function - ex: Great Smog of London (1952): caused by temp. inversion and no winds, burned low quality sulfur coal, 4000 died, asthma, horrible! vegetation: - smog can damage leaves, reduce productivity, lower photosynthesis, crops suffer significant damage - enhanced greenhouse effect and acid rain: reduce UV radiation at high levels

How does the water cycle change in urban environments?

In urban systems, evapotranspiration and recharge/soil moisture are more variable. There is less greenery (vegetation) and more concrete/asphalt/artificial surface cover. Urban water budget: P + F + I = D + ET + change in r + change in S + change in A + f left side= water mass added to urban volume right side= transport out Urban environments have more impervious (impermeable, not allowing water to pass through) surfaces. This means there's an increase runoff. - How to increase infiltration important in cities! Pervious/permeable pavement! Water infiltration. Runoff: increase in urban environments - physical structure of the water cycle is modified by urbanization - urban environments can be characterized by point-source discharge - dry weather may be a large source of annual pollutant loads -- less incoming freshwater = consolidation of pollutants - stormwater discharge can lead to flooding, erosion, damage to drainage infrastructure (chemical contaminants to water bodies) - Health impacts on humans (from fertilizers, ibuprofen, etc.) - eutrophication of waterways (algal blooms) -- ex: Lake Erie is known for bad algal blooms from point source pollution Evapotranspiration: - storm water management concentrates water - altered surface cover properties changes how evaporation works (by adding concrete, asphalt, etc.) - generally, urbanization decreases ET rates -- losses of vegetation, lowers rate of evaporation; although in semi-arid areas increase of evapotranspiration bc of infrastructure Where we're at: still lots to look into with regard to 1. impacts of green infrastructure on runoff, infiltration, ET 2. impacts of green infrastructure on nutrient cycling 3. evaluate how to upscale green infrastructure

irrigation

Irrigation is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world.

The impact of the urban heat island in St. Louis

On warm summer days, the city can be as much as 10 degrees warmer than its surrounding areas. The city's infrastructure - largely made up of asphalt, concrete and metal - traps the heat. This is known as the "urban heat island" effect. - air temperatures much hotter than surrounding areas and for longer in the day. For example, retaining high temperatures from the UHI effect at 9pm. Abundance of concrete, asphalt, metal in the city and low amount of green spaces. Energy burden: there's a trend in STL. Poor housing quality -> poor insulation, air leaks, old system (very expensive to cool or heat). Racial and low-income difference because of history of red-lining in STL. - Energy burden falls on the poor (low-income) and then Black households. Also, the water cycle in STL! STL gets water from the river. UHI affects water system.

How do urban heat islands (UHI) work and how do they influence temperature?

Phenomenon where cities are generally warmer than adjacent rural areas - UHI have been recognized since the early 1800s - Feedback loop: contributes to global warming, exacerbated by global warming (not super well understood but being studied) -- The urban heat island effect can intensify the impacts of heat waves by amplifying their intensity. Urban areas, with their concrete and asphalt surfaces, absorb and radiate heat, creating a feedback loop that leads to higher temperatures during heat waves The difference in temperature between urban and less-developed rural areas has to do with how well the surfaces in each environment absorb and hold heat. - Different types of UHIs based on relationship between urban built and vegetative structure Urban Boundary Layer (UBL): atmospheric boundary layer above the city Urban canopy layer (UCL): Urban canopy and the air layer beneath rooftop and treetop level, it forms the urban canopy layer. Urban canopy: The assemblage of buildings, trees, and other objects composing a town or city and the spaces between them.The concept is roughly analogous to that of a vegetative canopy except that the built part is open to the sky and has no stem or trunk zone.

photochemical reactions

Reactions triggered by sunlight: reaction initiated when a photon is absorbed by an ultraviolet molecule

what are the basics of climate change and our current climate goals?

Reducing U.S. greenhouse gas emissions 50-52% below 2005 levels in 2030. Reaching 100% carbon pollution-free electricity by 2035. Achieving a net-zero emissions economy by 2050. Per the Paris Agreement: To limit global warming to 1.5°C, greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030 basics of climate change

how do we reduce solid waste volume/challenges to doing so?

US EPA advocates: 1. source reduction 2. recovery of materials for composting or recycling 3. disposal recycling: paper is pretty effectively recycled (low energy). glass is very easy to recycle and reuse. plastic is hard to recycle (degrade and breakdown). metal cans is very effective to be recycled and reused. problem: have developing countries take developed countries solid waste. this is super unequitable and problematic. E-cycling: challenging! and people don't know how to dispose of it properly.

How do urban heat islands impact energy exchange?

Shortwave radiation/solar radiation: - atmosphere over cities loses 2-10% short wave radiation compared to other areas - air pollution (aerosols) scatters and modifies the amount of shortwave radiation retained (some can absorb, some can reflect) Albedo: - albedo is typically lower in urban environments than rural areas (low amount of energy is reflected, it is absorbed) - due to darker surface materials, short wave radiation trapping (ex: asphalt) - difference between urban and rural environments can vary (dependent on surrounding terrain) Long wave radiation: - affected by pollution and warm, urban surfaces - warmer surfaces promote increased thermal emissions * may not see a huge difference between rural and urban - long wave radiation is electromagnetic energy radiated outward by Earth at a rate dependent on absolute temperatures of the local surface Anthropogenic Heat Sources: heat produced by combustion of vehicle fuels, humans, etc. - 0 to 300% of net radiation, depending on extent of industrialization - Generally larger % in industrialized cities, high latitude cities, winter *Differences in urban canopy layer (UCL) layer (ex: skyscrapers) structure and composition also play a role in heat excesses in cities* *We know a lot about the internal variability in the UCL but still looking into effects of urban structure on energy budgets (not just the materials* UHIs and global warming: UHI contribute to global warming and are exacerbated by global warming. Line of evidence used to say that global warming isn't happening (feedback loop).

what are the effects of acid precipitation on soil, environmental health, amphibians, and stone

Soil: - often soil is slightly basic - Can balance out acid precipitation - Can lead to soil degradation - limestone: increased leaching, sulfuric acid. environmental health: ex: Adirondak Mts. glacial! underneath vegetation is all granite. don't have a ton of calcium to serve as a buffer. steep slopes, young soils, more susceptible to acid precipitation. stress from acid rain leads to vegetation loss (aluminum is not good for tree roots = detrimental effects!) - geology matters! amphibians: - ephemeral habitats (seasonal) - harm, low pH bad! important to nutrient flow between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. - natural acidity does not equal acidity added by human processes. - hard for amphibians to transition between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems because of imbalances in acidity. embryos: very susceptible as they externally fertilized. more acidified lakes reduces population. varies by species. larvae: small growth = change of success of reproduction, more tolerant of low pH than embryos, pull Na out fo these amphibians adults: tend to ignore effect on adults, links aren't super well known. soil pH! many will avoid low pH substrates (an underlying surface or layer). won't survive as well. stone: - subject to weathering. quartz is resistant!!! so granite (silicas, feldspars, quartz) and sandstone is resistant to weathering. - calcium carbonate is highly prone to weathering. it bubbles with acid, readily dissolves with acid. dissolution + alteration (lion statue= loss of carved detail, darker crusts from pollutants, gypsum)

Pacific Garbage Patch (how it got there, why it's a problem, etc.)

Trash that collected because of ocean currents (gyres). Pacific Garbage Patch is in the center of gyre, so not much movement. In HNLC areas, bulk of waste is fishing nets. In the garbage patch, most (70%) trash sinks, lots floats. Not from specific dumping, just trash that gets lost at sea. No country claims responsibility: if one did, it would go bankrupt. *trash that gets lost at sea, not specific dumping. determined by ocean currents, gyres.* *North Pacific Subtropical Gyre created pacific garbage patch* *about 2x the size of Texas* *microplastics are huge problem!!!!*

sources of surface and ground water pollution

agriculture: - ~70% world's freshwater supplies go to agriculture - top source of contamination in rivers, streams - affects wetlands, lakes, estuaries, groundwater - excess nutrients, runoff -> eutrophication - pharmaceuticals given to livestock, as it breaks down -> released into water - heavy metals -> atmospheric deposition + excretion -pesticides and fertilizers sewage/wastewater: - used water (sinks, showers, toilets, sludges), stormwater runoff (road salts, grease, oil, chemicals) - 80% of world's wastewater flows back to environment without treatment or reuse - US treats 34 billion gallons of wastewater per day oil pollution: - make headlines - most oil pollution comes from vehicles (comes from drips of oil on road, precip/runoff) - 500,000 tons of oil from land-based sources radioactive substances: - pollution that emits radiation beyond what is naturally released by the environment - can persist for thousands of years in the environment others: - microorganisms from domestic sewage (bacteria, viruses) - organic waste (decay of plants + animals) - heat (thermal pollution in industry that uses coolant, rereleased back into environment

What are the sources of solid waste in the US?

animals (39%), mineral extraction and processing (38%), crops (14%), municipalities (5%), industry (3%) animal waste!!! is the main source!!!! mine tailings from mineral extraction and processing. can cause water pollution, reactions with weather, covered with soil to prevent rapid weathering. municipalities: individual waste (so much of waste is not individual). worse in cities. leaching in soils, waters = people don't know how to dispose of them.

Synanthropic

animals living in close association with people. undomesticated organism that lives in close association with people and benefits from their surroundings and activities.

acid precipitation and how it varies from 'normal' precipitaton

any form of precipitation that contains high levels of nitric and sulfuric acids Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions. *Most water, including drinking water, has a neutral pH that exists between 6.5 and 8.5, but acid rain has a pH level lower than this and ranges from 4-5 on average* difference in acidity! pH! 5-5.5 vs. 6.5-8.5!

Superfund sites

areas designated by the EPA for cleanup of hazardous waste. - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 1980 (Superfund) - EPA cleans up contaminated sites - Forces responsible parties to perform cleanups or reimburse the government *goals are to protect human health + environments. cost of cleanup is $30 million, overall total costs over trillions.* *cleanup of mine tailings, fireworks, herbicides, etc.* *1000s of contaminated sites*

how do geoengineering techniques fall into climate justice and the role of the global north and global south?

bandaid on problem. global north vs. global south. not acting on false promises for solutions.

smog development: conditions and variability

conditions for development: 1. emission rates of sources -- concentration high over urban densities -- high emissions primary pollutants: carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, nitric oxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) primary pollutants from: airplanes, agriculture, factories, towns and homes, vehicle exhausts, etc. primary pollutants to secondary pollutants such as: ammonium, ozone, particulates, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide, sulphur trioxide, sulphuric acid 2. time of day -- morning traffic causes peak, increasing volatiles, pollutants, into the morning the mixing occurs, sunlight breaks apart ozone 3. Weather -- precip reduces photochemical smog, washing ozone -- winds transfer photochemical smog -- temp. inversion, flip airmass and trap pollutants by surface 4. topography -- low topography more susceptible to smog -- valleys trap pollution variability in these conditions: difference in primary pollutant sources (amount and type), time of day (i.e. morning traffic causes peak), weather (rain washes ozone, clouds), topography (low elevation more susceptible to smog)

geoengineering

cooling the climate by removing CO2 from the air or reflecting sunlight away from earth

soil degradation, irrigation, land use, spread of fungal diseases

current issues in our agricultural systems

what are the two categories of geoengineering?

definition: geoengineering, climate engineering, climate intervention; *deliberate large-scale manipulation of climate systems with intent to counteract anthropogenic global warming*. two categories: 1. solar radiation management 2. carbon engineering

what are the effects of irrigation? How does it impact areas outside the immediate agricultural area?

direct: locally increased groundwater levels, decreased waterflow, increased evaporation, increased precipitation, down airflow indirect: waterlogged soils, salinization, ecological damage downstream from reduced waterflow, less water in the ocean effects also include food-sending and food-receiving systems. food supply. agriculture disrupts water usage.

eutrophication

excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.

groundwater pollution sources

groundwater pollution sources: - septic systems: major source of contamination. 1/4 of homes in US use them. you can contaminate water with sitting pollutants underground. sensitive! can't handle oils, chemicals, etc. - improper disposal of hazardous waste: oils, chemicals, industrial chemicals - spills from chemicals and petroleum products (holding underground, etc.) - landfills (liners are different so leaching occurs, how you build them matters) - surface impoundments: shallow ponds used to store, treat waste - drainage wells - injection wells - improperly constructed wells - improperly abandoned wells - drinking water supply wells EX: lake erie. in the 1970s, it was point source pollution. now, it is non-point source pollution. eutrophication happening from excess nutrients!

describe the difference between industrial and photochemical smog

industrial smog: - prior to 1950's to into the 1950's - burning coal smoke + fog = smog - industrial revolution started this - use of cleaner fuels has reduced this - London smog day Photochemical smog: - over cities - aerosols form by mixing - brown Industrial smog occurs in foggy cool weather, typical of that in London. Photochemical smog develops in hot dry climates such as Los Angeles and Mexico City. Sulfurous smog, also known as "London smog," is caused by a high concentration of sulphur oxides in the air, which is caused by the use of sulfur-containing fossil fuels, particularly coal. Photochemical smog, also known as "Los Angeles smog," is most prevalent in urban areas with a high concentration of automobiles. Industrial smog typically exists in urban areas where factories burn fossil fuels such as coal, which creates smoke and sulfur dioxide that mix with fog droplets to create a thick blanket of haze close to the ground. Photochemical smog occurs in drier, sunny areas and forms because of increased usage of all fossil fuels, including gasoline, and the burning of trees and organic waste difference: chemistry + composition= photochemical smog forms when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds react to sunlight, creating a haze common over cities. Los angeles. from increased usage of all fossil fuels (particularly gasoline). Industrial smog forms when sulfur dioxide and particulates mix. Particulates are usually dust and soot from burning coal for heat and fuel. combine with water to form acid rain. thus there is fog. London. *For example, when the burning of coal reacts with water vapor, the secondary pollutant sulfur dioxide is created.*

sanitary landfill (municipal landfill) diagram

layer: trash (household trash) on top of earthen layer, earth cover, then sand, then clay, then sand, then top soil. plastic cover and plastic liner. gas vent. groundwater monitoring well

SOIL OM (organic matter) DECLINE, COMPACTION, EROSION, CONTAMINATION, SALINIZATION

major concerns in soil degradation

what are the causes and variation in acid precipitation

natural and human causes. natural: volcanoes, decaying vegetation human: electricity, emissions (gases originate in urban areas, can be carried to rural areas) -- combustion pollution from factories/industry goes into atmosphere. mixes with water vapor in clouds. condenses as precipitation (H2SO4, HNO3) and is VERY acidic! acid deposition: sulfuric rain on east coast from coal mining, nitrogen rain midwest/east bc of population density

pros and cons of solid waste disposal methods

open air dumps = pros: long established method, minimum effort, minimum expense cons: smelly, unsightly, unsanitary, attracts pests, fire hazard sanitary landfills = major share of waste ends up here in the US! pros: more sightly than open air dumps, can be repurposed for other uses (Mt. Trashmore in Evanston (recreation), turn landfills into parks, parking lots, golf courses) cons: newer method (method used since early 20th century), more expensive (varied), requires more maintenance (such as on plastic liner), cannot excavate areas, decomposition of trash may cause settling (so no buildings can be built on top), pollutants escape these facilities, gases (methane) from decomposition, leachate can escape, requires lots of land! (1 acre per 10,000 people) incineration = pros: gets rid of solid waste, excess heat can turn into electricity (fuel turbines), more widely accepted waste removal (although oil energy still dominates in USA) cons: releases chlorine, hydrochloric acid in the atmosphere, individual elements are not destroyed, some things can't burn or be separated for incineration ocean dumping - dredge spoils= pros: waste is dumped away from human settlement in the deep ocean cons: high turbidity -> decrease photoproductivity, disrupt primary productivity, toxic chemicals in the ocean, chemicals can be activated from difference between freshwater and saltwater ocean dumping - ship waste= pros: blend food waste and human waste, different rules for dumping (fairly unregulated), further away from coasts cons: no regulations on how much you can dump (just how far from shore), unknown how plume disperses

what are the pros and cons to geoengineering?

pros: easily? implemented (more than just cutting emissions), sustainable solution cons: weaponizing tool, unethical in a lot of senses, the wealthy can choose what climate mitigation techniques, decline in biodiversity, regional weather patterns, many techniques do not address problem of climate change (which is carbon emissions), competing methods: sulfur injection vs ocean fertilization, competing timescales, effects felt among different nations. UN placed moratorium on geoengineering techniques. can't invest in them until more research. well-intention could have consequences. crowd-sourcing. essentially geoengineering is a bandaid on problem. geoengineering is an exciting technology to help us mitigate the effects of climate change while we decarbonize the global economy. several different techniques could be utilized, money and scale is what is holding us up at the moment. well intentioned but environmental and political consequences that the research community is wary of. would still need to focus on GHG emissions reduction in addition to using geoengineering.

pros and cons of dams

pros: generate electricity, control flooding, human irrigation for agriculture, drinking water, flood management cons: displaces local species, prevents water flow, alters ecosystems and water

secure landfill (toxic landfill) diagram

regular landfill but with more safeguards. may not be 100%, but it is secure. overtime leaking can occur.

groundwater problem in the US

responsible usage important and a problem today! - drawing too much water = subsidence, land drawdown - overpumping coastal aquifers creates salination - run out of water in aquifer - Because of changes in aquifer we are seeing lower crop yields. - Ogalalla aquifer is depleted! no laws to protect groundwater. not a ton of communication about aquifers too. - running out of drinking water - 1/3 of US drinking water comes from groundwater sources - Phoenix, AZ stopped granting permission to build houses that rely on groundwater - not all is lost! - infrastructure bill (not much going on federal gov't taking stance on ground water) - usage restrictions: Arizona - we are aware of the problem, so we can start mitigating the problem PROBLEM stems from limited legislation regarding groundwater resources!!!!!

how landfills work, compare and contrast municipal vs secure landfills (diagrams)

secure landfills are very similar to municipal landfills, but have more security measures. they have monitoring undergrains, bedrock, clay, and methane removal gas pipe.

carbon engineering

targets the source of global warming rather than focusing on mitigation - use negative emissions technology to extract CO2 from the atmosphere

What are the perceptions of urban soils vs what is actually seen?

urban soils are soil material that have a non-agricultural, man-made layer >50cm thick. The term urban soil refers to soils in areas of high population density in the largely built environment. These soils can be significantly changed human-transported materials, human-altered materials, or minimally altered or intact "native" soils Perceptions of Urban soils: assumptions of urban soils is that they are too disturbed and can't fit into taxonomy, not true! - disturbed transport - low fertility contaminated - intensive use - managed What is actually seen: - nutrient levels are supported! species richness may be higher in urban settings than rural because of landscaping, naturalization of introduced species - lots of decompositions and nutrient cycling - variable levels of water infiltration and storage - highly impacted soils have hydrophobic surface, surface crusts - can also have irrigated soils with abrupt textural and structural interfaces - surface drainage features to concentrate water flows (differences in soils)

photochemical, industrial

we see more ______ smog than ______ smog