EVS Exam 2

Basic Human Rights

"Safe drinking water and sanitation are recognized as basic human rights, as they are indispensable to sustaining healthy livelihoods and fundamental in maintaining the dignity of all human beings. International human rights law obliges states to work towards achieving universal access to water and sanitation for all, without discrimination, while prioritizing those most in need." àservices must be available, physically accessible, equitably affordable, safe and culturally acceptable.

Synergistic

(combined) effects can occur when there is exposure to multiple threats at once

Pollution Prevention

- Education - You are the Solution to Pollution! - Efficiency - Increase resource use efficiency to reduce pollution (LED lightbulbs instead of incandescent; bamboo paper or cloth instead of tree pulp paper and cotton) - Precautionary Principle - Operate under the Precautionary Principle to avoid releasing pollution into the environment• Source reduction• Waste minimization

Corrosive

- dissolve steel or burns skin (ex: battery acid, rust remover)

Reactive

- unstable under normal conditions and will violently react with other substances like water (ex: bleach)

Water Availability

-Depends on amount of water physically available and how it is stores, managed, and allocated to users -Includes aspects related to management of surface water, groundwater, and water recycling and reuse

WHO Estimates

-person needs 5 gallons of clean (potable) water. Day to meet the needs of sanitation, cooking, hydration, and bathing -women and children in developing countries walk an avg. of 4 miles a day to get water that might not be fit for these uses

Cuyahoga River, Ohio

100 mile stream that meets Lake Eerie 1967: Nearly 2 million people live and work in the river basin River used for transport, water supply, and as a sewer 35 treatment plants dump their waste into the stream, much of which is classes as inadequately treated Industries downstream have to clean the water before using because it is so bad Man-made channel disturbed the natural flow of the lake, causing it to move slowly May take water from 8-30 days to move to through the river to the lake Industry, federal, state, and local gov. all have a stake and a say-so in whether or not the stream is cleaned

Homesteaders Act

1862 Allowed anyone over 21 yrs old or the head of a household to apply for 160 acres of free federal land with several stipulations: Must be a US citizen or legally declare the intent to become one Did not fight against the US or aid enemies of the US Had to live on the land, build a home, make improvements, and farm to get the land Nearly four million homesteaders settled 270 million acres (10% of the area of US) Impacted 30 states Over 123 years- remained in effect until 1976, with provisions for homesteading in Alaska until 1986

Pollution Prevention Act (P2 Act)

1990 Implemented by EPA Established a source reduction program that collects and disseminates info and provides financial assistance to states Source reduction is any practice which: Reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering a waste stream or the environment prior to recycling, treatment, or disposal Reduces the hazards associated with that waste to public and environmental health P2 Act establishes: Pollution should be prevented or reduces at the source or whenever feasible Pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmental manner whenever feasible Pollution that cannot be prevented or recycled should be treated in an environmentally safe manner whenever feasible Disposal or release into the environment should be employed only as a last resort and should be conducted in an environmentally safe manner

Clean Water

2.3 Billion people, 3 out of 10, lack access to safe drinking water• 4.6 billion, 6 out of 10, don't have safely managed sanitation services à1 out of 9 (844 million) have no access to toilets.

Water Use USA

44% thermoelectric power 37% Irrigation 3 12% Public Supply 1% domestic

Water Use

70% freshwater used for agriculture (thermowater) 22% industry 8% cities and households

The Stockholm Convention

A global treaty that entered into force May 2004 to eliminate 12 of the most widespread and insidious POPs Highlight: the move to the "precautionary principle": Prevents and eliminates POPs at their source and allows regulatory or banning action to be taken before there is conclusive scientific proof of damaging effects

Acid Rain Program:

A market-based cap and trade approach to emissions reduction Cap and trade programs, begun in 1990, set max amounts for pollutants, but let facilities facing costly cleanups pay others with lower costs to reduce emissions on their behalf Has worked well with sulfur dioxide, but no set limits on NOx However, it permits local hot spots where high polluters continue to pollute, because they are paying someone somewhere else to reduce pollution

Mercury

A teratogen that interferes with neurological development Accumulates in aquatic food chain Biomagnifies: Increased concentration of a contaminate with increasing trophic level Bioaccumulates: Concentration in muscle and tissues increases with increasing body size, age, trophic level Mercury poisoning: Low doses can cause brain damage, nervous system damage, fetal development issues, and cognitive impairment Natural sources: Volcanic eruptions, weathering of rocks, undersea or geothermal vents Anthropogenic sources: Gold production, non-ferrous metal production, incinerators, cement production, coal burning Pre-industrial revolution concentrations were 3 to 4-fold lower and in some places 11-fold lower

Toxins

Acute toxicity: Occurrence of serious symptoms immediately after single exposure to a substance Single exposure can maim or kill Chronic toxicity: Delayed presentation of symptoms that occur once accumulation reaches a critical threshold after repeat exposure (bioaccumulation)

Teratogenic

Affects the fetus Causes birth defects or spontaneous abortions or otherwise damage the fetus

Recoverable materials

Aluminium, Paper, Cardboard, Glass, Iron Steel, Tires, Plastic, Used Oil

Water Footprint

An indicator of freshwater use that takes into account both direct and indirect use of consumer and producer US uses ~2.5x more water per capita than China, but China's population gives them a larger footprint than US Chinas population is 4x the US What about NPO, best practices(reduce water waste) ,

Common Water Pollution

Animal, human waste Most common water pollution in our county: Pet waste

Air Pollution

Any substance present in or released into the atmosphere that adversely affects environmental or human health Sources of air pollution: Natural vs anthropogenic Primary vs secondary Criteria pollutants

Bioaccumulation vs Biomagnification

Bioaccumulation takes place in a single organism over the span of its life, resulting in a higher concentration in older individuals. Biomagnification takes place as chemicals transfer from lower trophic levels to higher trophic levels within a food web, resulting in a higher concentration in apex predators

Carbon Monoxide

CO Colorless, odorless, toxic gas Deadly to humans Inhibits respiration by binding irreversibly to hemoglobin in the blood Natural: Rock and minerals, living organisms Anthropogenic: Produced by incomplete fuel combustion Largest proportion produced by vehicles Also biomass burning, industrial processes C in the air from CO is increasing due to global increasing demand of fossil fuels for growing transportation fleets

Eutrophication

Caused primarily by fertilizer runoff from agriculture industry Eutrophication: excess nutrients Algae love fertilizer, too --> algal blooms Decomposition of dead algae by bacteria draws down oxygen level to create hypoxic conditions

Carcinogenic

Causes cancer in humans and animals

Mutagenic

Causes genetic changes or mutations, which may appear in future generations

Clean Air legislation

Clean Air Act 1963: First national air pollution control Clean Air Act 1970: Identified critical pollutants Established ambient air quality standards Amendments addressed acid rain, urban air pollution, toxic emissions, ozone depletion Source review in 1977 allowed old plants to be grandfathered in but required new equipment to meet air pollution standards Result was that companies kept old facilities operating in order to avoid pollution controls 30 yrs later, these old plants continue to be among biggest contributors to smog/acid rain Despite disputes, has been successful in saving money and lives

Renewable Energy

Comes directly or indirectly from sun, has little to no GHG emissions, is a divestment from fossil fuels Political benefits: improves national security by reducing dependency on OPEC nations Economic benefits: Decentralizes our energy economy and reduces our financial debt to oil-exporting countries Creates new jobs and a new economy around renewable energy and its science, innovation, sales, technology, and marketing strategies Reliable and increasingly more affordable

Municipal Solid Waste

Common solid waste, materials generated by households, businesses and institutions, is referred to as municipal solid waste (MSW)

CERCLA

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act known as "superfund" Provides a federal "superfund" to clean up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites as well as accidents, spills, and other emergency releases of pollutants and contaminants into the environment Enacted in 1980 Managed by EPA National Priorities List designation to clean up hazardous sited

How to Reduce Carbon:

Conserve energy (education and behavior) Increase energy efficiency (technology) Transition from fossil fuels to alternate energies (sustainable resource use) Carbon capture and storage (waste management and regulations) Cap and trade (economics and regulations) Carbon tax (economics)

Infectious

Contain disease-causing organisms

Criteria Pollutants

Criteria Pollutants Secondary: chemical reaction that pollutes air

Dams

Dams stops the flow of water to create reservoirs for municipal water sources, recreation and tourism, flood control, irrigation, and hydroelectric power generation Cons: Cause large land disturbance with forced rem\]]ovals of humans and wildlife Add carbon dioxide emissions in shallow zones due to increased decomp rates Stop fish migration to spawning grounds Can only be installed in specific areas

Decomposers

Decomposers biodegrade organic matter through aerobic or anaerobic decomposition Aerobic: presence of oxygen, 1 year Anaerobic: absence of oxygen, methane

Obsolescence

Do not be a victim of perceived obsolescence: Just because Apple came out with a new iPhone does not mean you have to get rid of your old one and get the new one

Indoor air pollution

EPA found concentrations of toxic air is often higher indoors than outside People generally spend more time indoors, so exposure to toxins is increasing Formaldehyde, chloroform, benzene, and other chemicals used in carpeting, paints, varnishes, cleaners, and furniture in homes can be found at concentrations illegal in the workplace

Four Processes Affect Air Pollution Levels

Emissions: Sources can be both natural and human-made Chemistry: Chemical reactions create and destroy pollutants Transport: Advection winds transport pollutants Deposition Receptor sites Dry or wet (acid precipitation)

Climate Change:

Everything releases carbon and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere while decomposing Landfills release large amounts of methane during anaerobic decomposition 3rd largest source of methane in the US Incinerating waste releases CO2, N2O, NOX, NH3, heavy metals, PFAS, and dioxin

Global Demand

Expected to continue to increase 20-30% above the current level of water use by 2050 Mainly due to rising demand in industrial and domestic sectors Over 2 billion people live in countries experiencing water stress and ~4 billion experience severe water scarcity during at least one month of the year Stress levels will continue to increase as demand for water grows and the effects of climate change intensify Whiskeys for drinking, waters for fighting

Non-attainment:

Failing to meet EPA air quality standards NAAQ standards

Gas

From animals and decomp of organics (trash or manure) converted to a mixture of ~50% methane and 50% CO2 2021: 548 landfills recover methane (LFG) produced by decomp of organic waste US farms convert waste from cattle, hogs, and chickens to biogas to produce electricity Cattle feedlots and chicken farms are huge potential fuel source- waste has more energy than all the nation's farmers use Haubenschild dairy farm in MN: manure from 850 cows to generate all their electricity, sells excess back to grid In Jan 2001, farm saved 35 tons of coal, 1200 gals of propane, and made $4,380 selling electricity back to power company

Dark snow:

From the Arctic to the Himalayas, the phenomenon that is accelerating glacier melting Dark deposits on icefields in Greenland, which absorb more sunlight and lead to faster glacial melting Albedo: Reflectivity

Geothermal Energy

Geothermal heat pumps: Uses difference in temp between surface and subsurface Great for heating buildings Expensive installation Currently only 0.8% of renewable energy electricity globally Iceland uses geothermal for ~65% of all energy (heating homes and generating electricity US produces more geothermal electricity than any nation Pros: High efficiency, low cost, low impact Cons: Few sites, depleted easily, not 'renewable' Associated air pollution with typically high sulfur content of geothermal vents

Fast Facts (Waste)

Global production of MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) increased ~300% from 1970-2020 30-40% of all food ends up as waste globally MDC: most loss is in retail, food service, home waste LDC: loss is due to insufficient cold storage The per person average MSW generation per day is 4.9 pounds per person

Who controls or owns the water supply?

Government: Municipalities, cities, states Private: Personal, companies, venture capital, etc.

HAAs

Hormonally active agents Environmental contaminates that act as endocrine disruptors Often chemically similar to hormones such as estrogen and testosterone

Water accessibility

How water is physically delivered or obtained Usually through piped networks, wells, or community water supply systems( ex. water delivery through venders or water trucks)

Permeability:

How well connected the pore space is The more connections, the more permeable the surface and more water can get through

Aral Sea Diversion

In 1960, the Aral Sea in Central Asia was the fourth largest inland body of water in surface area in the world Now about 20% of its former size in surface area 15% its volume Salinity has increased 10-fold Caused by draining the lake for large-scale irrigation and crop production (cotton, rice, melons, cereal grains) This exposed salts, minerals, heavy metals, and other toxins in the dried up soils Public Health Issues in Region (diarrhea, vaccine preventable diseases etc.) Weather patterns changed in the region without the lake Dust storms frequently move these elements across the region

Pollution Prevention and Reduction Solutions

Individual action to reduce use of materials and conserve or prolong the lifespan of our belongings • 5 Rs education •Do not be victim of perceived obsolescence - just because Apple came out with a new iPhone does not mean that your iPhone is no good --- use 'em 'til they die! And then 'recycle' or sell them to a refurbishing group. • Free-cycle unwanted stuff through Facebook Marketplace, Curbside, Craig's list, NextDoor, etc. • Donate to Habitat for Humanity, Salvation Army, missionary groups clothing the homeless or victims of natural and economic disasters, etc.

Pollution Prevention and Reduction Solutions

Individual action to reduce use of materials and conserve or prolong the lifespan of our belongings 5 Rs education Free-cycle unwanted things through online selling platforms Donate to second hand stores More and better legislation South Korea recently banned sending food to landfills- increasing food recycling from 2 to 95% Food waste used for livestock and pet-food trade Municipal composting Forced recycling: The chief advantage of curbside collection programs is that they usually increase the number of residents participating in a recycling effort Force the practice by making people pay by weight for garbage but offer free recycling Incentives for manufacturers, producers, and consumers True cost pricing: Will slow down consumerism if we price items to reflect their environmental impact

municipal solid waste

MWP municipal solid waste

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NAAQS Established by Clean Air Act 1970, amended in 1990 Enforced by EPA Primary standards put limits on pollutants in order to protect public health Secondary standards have limits that protect public welfare Protection against decreased visibility, damage to crops and vegetation, etc. Ranks air quality based on standards for 6 criteria pollutants: Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Carbon monoxide Ozone ( 3 oxygens) Lead Particulates

Water Governance

NEPA: National Environmental Policy Act, created framework for EPA, mandate policies Signed Jan 1, 1970 EPA: Environmental Protection Agency, enact these polices and enforce it 1970 CWA: Clean Water Act Signed 1972 Protects water from point-source pollution

Nitrogen Oxides

Nitrogen Oxides: NO2 Natural: formed at high temps during lightening strikes, or when N compounds are oxidized by bacteria Anthropogenic: Combustion of fossil fuels, motor vehicles, agriculture/fertilizers, wastewater management, industry NO is further oxidized to create nitrogen oxide, the reddish brown gas in smog NO is an important greenhouse gas NOx combines with water to make the nitric acid found in acid precipitation (along with sulfuric acid) Humans are responsible for 60% of NOx emissions

Ozone

O3 Layer in the stratosphere that shields the biosphere by absorbing incoming UV radiation UV-C is most dangerous Natural: Plants and soil, stratospheric ozone Anthropogenic: It is not directly emitted from any one source, it's a secondary pollutant In the troposphere, it is a pollutant A photochemical oxidant (product of secondary reactions driven by solar energy Product of reaction of sunlight with VOC hydrocarbons and NOx emitted by vehicles, gasoline vapors, fossil fuel power plants, refineries, and other industries Has acrid, biting odor Aka photochemical smog Damages vegetation and buildings Intense irritant and dangerous health threat Damages eyes, nose, throat, and lungs Respiratory problems Aggravate lung disease and asthma Constant exposure may lead to aging of the lungs and long-term effects Greatest risk populations: Asthmatics, children, older adults, people who are active/work outdoors, people with reduced intake of certain nutrients Children are at greatest risk: lungs still developing, more likely to be outdoors when ozone levels are high, more likely than adults to have asthma

Temperature inversion:

Occur when a stable layer of warm air lies above cooler air, stopping air circulation at the ground level Normally air temp drops as altitude increases and convection currents disperse pollutants into the upper atmosphere During an inversion, troposphere's temp increases with altitude/height instead of decreases and pollution gets trapped at ground level Coastal, valley, and basin communities experience natural inversions daily or seasonally, in times of rapid cooling

Wind Energy

Old practice with a reliable energy source Off-shore wind is strong and uniform Clean and efficient, cost competitive with non-renewables, increasingly affordable for consumers More advantages and less disadvantages than any other energy source Wind is generated by uneven heating of the earth's surface Dept of Energy: five Great Plains states could produce enough energy from wind to meet more than the nation's electricity needs Worldwide wind capacity: ~8 million megawatts 5x the current total global electricity generating capacity Wind farms are made up of individual turbines: farms avg. 50 turbines in US Until late 2016, all US wind capacity was on land First US offshore wind project: Block Island Wind Farm, began commercial operation off Rhode Island in December 2016 Pros of wind energy: High net energy Moderate cost to build, cheap electricity, short planning and construction time Low pollution, no fuel costs or emissions Generates income for farmers who rent land for turbines or sell electricity Cons: Need steady wind and backup system for no wind, not enough wind everywhere Large land use, noise, bird mortality

Lead

Older apartment in paints Natural: Natural element, trace amounts in plants, animals, air, water, dust, soil Anthropogenic: Fossil fuels (especially coal), industrial facilities, used for pipes, jewelry, toys, tableware, pigments, batteries Lead makes up 2/3 of all metallic air pollution Neurotoxin bioaccumulates permanently in bone Banning lead from gasoline (1995) was one of the most successful pollution controls in American history Since ban, children's average blood levels have dropped 90% and average IQ has risen 3 points 2022: banned globally from gasoline Last leaded gasoline was used in Algeria in July 2021

Precautionary Principle

Operate under the precautionary principle to avoid releasing pollution into the environment Source reduction Waste minimization Risk assessment to decide ethically if something is safe to proceed with in the absence of scientific understanding Argues that in the absence of scientific understanding of a new technology, substance, innovation, etc., people should pause and wait for review before adopting or advancing the new item, practice, etc.

Particulate Matter

Particulate Matter Aerosol Solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere Atmospheric aerosols are called particulate material (PM) Measured in micrometers Primary aerosols: Dust, soot, ash smoke, lint, pollen, spores, etc. Secondary aerosols: Form by condensation of industrial vapors Course particulate matter: PM10 2.6 to 10 micrometers in diameter Produced from crush or grind operations, dust stirred up by vehicles on roads EPA regulation: Emissions of particles 10 micrometers to 2.6 micrometers in diameter cannot exceed 150 ug/ m3 in 24 hours Fine particulate matter: PM2.5 2.5 micrometers in diameter or smaller and can only been seen with an electron microscope Produced from all types of combustion, including motor vehicles, power plants, residential wood burning, fires, agricultural burning, and some industrial burning EPA regulation: Emissions of particles 2.5um (or smaller) cannot exceed 35 ug/ m3 in 24 hours

Absolute scarcity

Per capita freshwater supply is below 500 cubic meters (Kenya, Singapore, Bahamas, Egypt)

Severe water stress or water scarcity

Per capita freshwater supply is blow 1000 cubic meters

Water Stress

Per capita water supply is below 1700 cubic meters

Biomass

Plant and animal material burned to provide heat or electricity and/or is converted into gaseous or liquid biofuels Most abundant source of worldwide renewable energy and 11% of all energy sources worldwide Biomass exists in 3 physical states: solid, gas, liquids Solid: Burn wood or manure for heat/cooking Biomass plantations, crop residues, animal manure, forest 'debris', urban 'waste' (construction debris) Flex-fuel boilers that burn a mixture of coal and biomass

Pollution Involvement

Plastic Ocean Project UNCW, The Ocean Clean Up, 4ocean

Point Source Pollution:

Point Source Pollution: single identifiable source of pollution. Source doesn't move- Drainpipe, Smokestack Non- Point Pollution (NPS) Runoff itself is not pollution just the water Large or dispersed discharge of pollution (Surburban development, cropland, city street...) BUT if we have data where its coming from NPS to Point Source pollution

Point Source

Point Source: Emitted from stationary sources Ex. Industrial smokestacks Non-point Source: Moving sources Ex. Motor vehicles Non-attainment: Failing to meet EPA air quality standards NAAQ standards

Sources and Receptors

Pollutant sources: Can be hundreds of miles away from where advective winds transport the pollution Advective winds = prevailing winds Receptor site: Location of where pollution ends up Example: Pollution from LA in the Grand Canyon Non-point pollutants are traced with chemical fingerprints Long-range transport: New Delhi, India: Most polluted metropolis in the world and covered in thick toxic clouds daily Worse in the colder fall and winter months Causes 2 million deaths/ year Long-range transport

Waste

Pollution is waste and waste is pollution Waste is a human construct: it is what a person has no use for -Municipal solid waste -Agricultural and animal waste -Medical waste -Radioactive waste -Hazardous waste -Industrial non-hazardous waste -Construction and demolition debris -Extraction and mining waste -Oil and gas production waste -Fossil fuel and combustion waste -Sewage sludge

Primary VS Secondary

Primary Pollutants: Emitted directly into the atmosphere Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds Secondary Pollutants: Not directly emitted into atmosphere Results of chemical reactions in the atmosphere from primary pollutants Primary pollutants react with one another, water vapor, fine aerosol particles, or with VOCs to create secondary pollutants Sulfur dioxide is oxidized into sulfuric acid, which then forms an "acidic aerosol" on aerosol particles SMOG is formed in the presence of light when PM reacts with the product of NOx and VOCs reaction (O3)

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's)

Primary: natural component that pollutes air

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC's)

Primary: natural component that pollutes air Primary pollutant, not a criteria pollutant Natural and anthropogenic compounds Natural: plants and fires 400 million tons of methane produced by natural wetlands and rice paddies Anthropogenic: Human-made solvents and compounds, fossil fuel combustion, industrial activity : Benzene, formaldehyde, solvents, gasoline, adhesives Common ground water contaminate Made up of hydrocarbons and other organic (carbon-based) chemicals Transportation huge impact of criteria Pollutants! Construction only particulate materials (excludes transportation of material etc.)

Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS)

Process where CO2 is separated from the emission stream and contained in an underground storage location Being implemented in: Bioenergy Coal-to-liquids Production: cement, chemical, ethanol, fertilizer, hydrogen, iron and steel, methanol, synthetic natural gas Industrial application Natural gas processing Oil refining Power generation Waste incineration Also being called CCUS: carbon capture, utilization, and storage

Carbon Offsets

Purchasing offsets reduces C emissions elsewhere, to compensate for the company's emissions Ex: forest-based carbon offset projects fight climate change by sequestering CO2 emissions from the atmosphere in trees and soil and have many co-benefits for community and local wildlife Creates jobs, maintains and expands wildlife habitats, protects biodiversity, improves local environmental quality Pros: Good off-sets can be a win-win, helps reduce carbon Cons: Avoids dealing with the real problems: damage caused in the first place Hard to quantify actual benefits May not reduce CO2 right away- ex. forests need to grow, might be felled down again Can displace or harm people

5 R's

Reduce Reuse Recycle Repurpose Refuse

Aesthetic degredation:

Reduce quality of life by increasing stress and disrupting sleep Noise, odor, heat, light pollution Prevents us from seeing stars- serious problem for astronomers and maritime travelers Can confuse wildlife- mostly birds and sea turtles

Air Pollution Control

Reducing Production Conservation: reducing electricity consumption, insulating buildings, and providing energy-saving public transportation Particulate removal: Remove particles physically by trapping them in a porous mesh which allows air to pass through but holds back solids Electrostatic precipitators: Fly ash particles pick up electrostatic charge as they pass between large electrodes in waste stream, and accumulate on collecting plate Sulfur removal: Switch from soft coal with a high sulfur content to low sulfur coal Change to another fuel (natural gas) Nitrogen Oxides: Best method is to prevent creation Staged burners, selective catalysts Hydrocarbon control: Use closed systems to prevent escape of fugitive emissions

Ground subsidence:

Reduction in fluid pressure in the pores and cracks of aquifers allows overlying rocks to compact the sediments, lowering the land surface

Cap and Trade

Regulator establishes a 'cap' limiting C emissions, which is lowered over time to further reduce emissions 'trade' creates a market for carbon allowances/permits, encouraging companies to innovate in order to meet their allocated limit Emissions are divided into individual permits (ex 1 ton of carbon) Companies are permitted to emit up to capped amount Each company needs a certain amount of permits to operate their business Companies buy and sell permits to continue operating: If they can't buy more permits to operate under 'business-as-usual' conditions, they need to retrofit, increase efficiency, or downsize production This is the 'trade' part of cap and trade Key concepts: Biggest potential benefit is that it sets a mandatory cap on emissions while providing flexibility in how polluters meet the emissions target Trade markets are called Emissions Trade Schemes or Systems (ETS) Government-mandated, market-based approach Companies that cut pollution faster can sell allowances/credits to companies who need them or 'bank' them for future use

RCRA

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Enacted in 1976 Established legal definition for hazardous waste Set guidelines for managing, storing, and disposing of them in an environmentally sound manner EPA determines "cradle-to-grave" regulation Defines hazardous waste, must meet one of the following categories: Ignitable, corrosive, reactive, toxic

Reduce (5 R's)

Resource Recovery part of Reduce REUSE: item is used over and over until it can no longer be used for intended purpose RECYCLE: collection, processing, and marketing of waste material for use in new products. Using raw materials is way more energy intensive than recycling any product. REPURPOSE: finding new purpose for an item beyond its intended use COMPOST: organic & food waste is mixed and aged into a nutrient rich soil amendment

Sulfur Dioxide

SO2 Natural: Evaporation from sea spray, volcanic fumes, and decomposition of organic compounds by soil bacteria Anthropogenic: Fossil fuel combustion (mostly coal), oil refining, and smelting of sulfide ores (metals) 2/3 of total sulfur influx is anthropogenic Power SO2 - corrosive gas reacts with water vapor creating acid precipitation Emitted from aerosols Only criteria pollutant that is not emitted from transportation sector

landfills

Sanitary: Municipal refuse and nonhazardous industrial wastes (EPA regulations) are dumped in landfill cells with a non-permeable liner at the base and sides to prevent leachate from entering soil or water resources Secure: Hazardous waste facilities Specially engineered to prevent escape of leachate into surrounding environment Lined with non-permeable materials to prevent leachate from entering soil or water resources Waste is seperated by type and stored in separate compartments to prevent chemical reactions Requires detailed record keeping of what and how much waste is accepted and stored

Saltwater intrusion:

Seawater naturally extends under land at greater depths than freshwater because it is denser During pumping, water level is changed at the upper surface of the aquifer and at the lower saltwater/freshwater boundary Excessive pumping can lead to saltwater in the well

Grasshopper effect

Soil erosion causes dust/sandstorms that put PM into the air Wildfires put PM and other pollutants into the air Grasshopper Transport: Hazardous air pollutants (or any form of pollution that can be transported) degrade slowly and remain volatile as they travel distances to settle in the poles in a multi-deposition journey They jump like grasshoppers Are emitted in warmer regions where people and industry are and reach the poles through repeated processes of evaporation and deposition, where they condense and accumulate in cold water or ice Contaminants bioaccumulate in food webs This is why we see dangerously high levels of HAPs in whales, polar bears, and deep-water polar

Solar Energy

Solar energy: Harnessed for: Heat (passive or active) Electricity generation (active)- heat that is captured is used to generate electricity directly in the PV panel Passive solar heating system: Absorbs and stores heat from the sun directly in your building without mechanical devices (no moving parts) Orientation must be toward the sun- think greenhouse Active solar heating system: Absorbs energy by pumping a heat-absorbing fluid (water) through roof-mounted collectors Concentrated solar power (aka Solar Thermal Systems) are active systems Pros of solar: Non polluting once made, low environmental impact Systems last 20-40 years Uses existing grid- no pipelines Cons of solar: Expensive initial investment, maintenance costs Need light approx. 60% of time Requires use of plastics, glass, and other materials- mining impacts

Hazardous Waste

Solid or liquid wastes that can adversely affect human health or the environment Ignitable, corrosive, reactive, toxic/poison

Aerosol

Solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in the atmosphere Atmospheric aerosols are called particulate material (PM) Measured in micrometers Primary aerosols: Dust, soot, ash smoke, lint, pollen, spores, etc. Secondary aerosols: Form by condensation of industrial vapors

groundwater aquifers

Subsurface water that is collected in a porous layer of bedrock • Zone of aeration - zone near surface that fills with air and water; plant roots obtain water from here• Zone of saturation - deeper layer where pores have no air • Water table - boundary between zones of aeration and saturation; when ground water is saturated, water table rises and flooding occurs• Porosity - a measure of the pore space between soil particles; high porosity means large pores and lots of water storage potential• Permeability - how well connected pore space is; the more connections, the more permeable the surface and more water can permeate through

Synergistic Effects:

Synergistic (combined) effects can occur when there is exposure to multiple threats at once Example: SO2 + O3 At low concentrations, White Pine seedlings are not affected by either sulfur dioxide or ground-level ozone, but together they interact and cause visible leaf damage Damaged leaves reduce photosynthetic ability which can starve the tree Over extended periods of exposure, deposition on soil alters soil chemistry, leading to root damage and degraded nutrient uptake Both types of damage can kill the trees

Human Health Effects of Hazardous Waste

TOXINS May occur weeks, months, or years after initial exposure Lead is chronically toxic Longer exposure = greater health risks, especially to children Risks include behavioral disorders, hearing problems, brain damage, and death

Carbon Tax

Taxes goods and services to more accurately reflect the full-cost pricing An example of correcting a negative externality by putting a price on C emissions First carbon tax in US was in Boulder, CO: Passed 11/7/2006, first municipal gov to impose an energy tax on its residents to directly combat climate change Citizens of Boulder voted to impose tax on themselves Pigouvian Tax: In the presence of negative externalities, the social cost of a market activity is not covered by the private cost of the activity In this case, the market outcome is not efficient and may lead to over consumption of the product Pros: Allows for more centralized handling of acquired gains; gov can use money to create other benefits Less complex, expensive, and time-consuming to implement Reduced risk of cheating, though under both trading and taxes, emissions must be verified Worth of carbon is stabilized by gov regulation rather than market fluctuations; poor market conditions and weak investor interest have a lessened impact on taxation as opposed to carbon trading

Temperatures and Water Supply

Temps increase - more storms - more rain - floods and soil erosion Or temps increase - droughts - drying out rivers, lakes, and freshwater sources Depends on location

Virtual water

This indirect use of water is called the virtual water content of a product (a commodity, good, or service) and is defined as the volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured at the place where the product was actually produced.

TSCA

Toxic Substances Control Act 1976 Regulates production, distribution, and use of chemical substances that may present an unreasonable risk of injury to human health or the environment EPA determines and has the authority to take regulatory action to control new, potentially risky chemicals

Persistent Organic Pollutants

Toxic chemicals that adversely affect human health and the environment Persistent = forever chemicals Organic means in contains carbon-hydrogen bonds Synthetic compounds that are highly toxic, very stable, and soluble in fats and oils Easily dispersed Have long-lasting and far-spread environmental impacts even if released at extremely low levels Short-term exposure to high levels of POPs can be fatal (acute toxicity) or result in serious injury or illness, including damage to the liver or nervous system Chronic exposure to lower doses can be very harmful (carcinogenic, teratogenic, etc.) Examples: DDT, PCB, dioxins

Landfills Limitation

Two types of landfills: Sanitary: Municipal refuse and nonhazardous industrial wastes (EPA regulations) are dumped in landfill cells with a non-permeable liner at the base and sides to prevent leachate from entering soil or water resources Secure: Hazardous waste facilities Specially engineered to prevent escape of leachate into surrounding environment Lined with non-permeable materials to prevent leachate from entering soil or water resources Waste is seperated by type and stored in separate compartments to prevent chemical reactions Requires detailed record keeping of what and how much waste is accepted and stored Cons of landfills: takes up space and can leak toxic material or heavy metals into waterways and soil Produces methane in large quantities Cost of shipping waste to fills and associated fossil fuel use to transport Decomposers: Decomposers biodegrade organic matter through aerobic or anaerobic decomposition Aerobic: presence of oxygen, 1 year Anaerobic: absence of oxygen, methane Landfill Gas (LFG): A natural byproduct of decomposition 50% methane (primary component of natural gas), 50% carbon dioxide, and a small amount of non-methane organic compounds Methane is a potent greenhouse gas 28-36x more effective than CO2 at trapping heat in the atmosphere over a 100-year period

US MSW trends

US recycling levels are currently 21.4% When US recycling levels reach 75%: It will be the environmental and CO2 equivalent of removing 55 million cars from US roads each year It will generate 1.5 million new jobs in the US MSW All solid waste originating from homes, industries, demolitions, land clearing, and construction 332,520,900+ people in US x 4.9 pounds each day = 1.63 billion pounds of waste per day 2018: 2.4 pounds per day is landfilled Roughly 3% of the US solid waste stream is MSW

Smog

Urban air pollution characterized by: Heavy concentrations of 1° and 2 pollutants and PM 1905 Dr. Harold Antoine des Voeux coined the term by joining the words 'smokey fog' The Great Smog: U-9, 1952 Temp inversion and deadly fog caused 4,000 initial deaths due to smoke, sulfurous particles, and soot Eventually led to over 12,000 deaths Two types of smog: Industrial smog: Results from a reaction with the sun + industrial emissions ( SOx and P) to form SO2 and O3 Greyish in color and more frequent in Northeast US and Northern Europe Photochemical smog Results from a reaction with the sun + car emissions (unburned hydrocarbons and NOx) to form ground-level ozone (O3) and NO2 NOx causes the light red-brown color in the sky, which reduces visibility, damages plants, irritates eyes, causes respiratory distress Car exhaust contains the following key ingredients of smog: Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Carbon monoxide (CO) Unburned reactive hydrocarbons (RH)

Natural Sources

Volcanoes: Ash and acidic components Sea spray: Sulfur compounds, wave crashing creates mist ( sea spray) contain sulfate compounds Vegetation: Volatile organic compounds Dust storms: Particulate matter, small compounds and carry a lot of pollutants Bacterial metabolism: Responsible for 2/3 of atmospheric methane, e.g dead sea

Effects of Air Pollution on Humans

WHO estimates 5-6 million people die prematurely annually from air pollution related illnesses Likelihood of suffering ill health is related to intensity and duration of exposure Example: Life expectancy in the worst parts of LA and Fresno, CA is 5-10 years less than US avg. (78.7 yrs) Solutions: Voluntary actions Mandated regulations TRI: Toxic Release Inventory EPA 1986 Covers 188 chemicals and requires industry to report how much of each toxin they release to air, water, land, sewers, and injection wells Technological advances to replace harmful compounds with better alternatives

Waste Management

Waste management options 3 main option Manage it: Burn (Incineration) or Bury it(Landfill), Deep Well Injection, Ocean Dumbing Recover it: Reuse, Recyclpe, Repurpose Prevent it : Reduce, Refuse

Incineration

Waste-to-Energy municipal incinerators: to produce electricity Cons: can release possibly harmful or toxic fumes and heavy metals into the air and soil if emissions are not captured and diverted Homeowner burning has risk of fire getting out of control

Measuring Water Use

Water Stress: Per capita water supply is below 1700 cubic meters Severe water stress or water scarcity: Per capita freshwater supply is blow 1000 cubic meters Absolute scarcity: Per capita freshwater supply is below 500 cubic meters

Water and Diamond Paradox

Water, which we can't live without, has no value in trade, while diamonds, which have no practical use, have very high value

Acid deposition:

Wet solutions or dry acidic particles deposited on land and water from the air H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) and HNO3 (nitric acid) deposition Industrial coal use: SO2 emission Automobile emissions: NOx emission Deposition occurs within 4-14 days downwind from source Rain water vs acid precipitation: Pure water pH = 7 Precipitation pH = 5-7 range Acid precipitation pH = less than 5 Areas most sensitive to acid Places with low pH soils Areas that have reduced buffering potential because of years of acid rain Soils that contain calcium carbonate (CaCO3) have good buffering capacity Calcium carbonate: tums

water withdrawal vs water consumption

Withdrawal: Aka water use Total amount of water used from its source to be used, but then returned to its source CFPUA withdrawals are an example Consumption: The portion of water not returned o the original source it was withdrawn from Loss of water due to evaporation, absorption (plants or soil), or contamination No longer available for immediate reuse from that source

Toxic

contains heavy metal, pesticides or other compounds above maximum concentrations

Ignitable -

easily combustible/flammable during routine handling (ex: paint, gasoline)

AQI (Air Quality Index)

index for reporting daily air quality that tells you how clean or polluted your air is, and what associated health effects might be a concern for you.

Resource Recovery

is a reduction measure Taking useful materials or energy out of waste stream at any stage before disposal -Recoverable -Reuse -Repurposing (upcycling) -Composting -Recycling

Conservation

is the care and protection of these resources so that they can persist for future generations. It includes maintaining diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems, as well as functions of the environment, such as nutrient cycling

Porosity:

measure of the pore space between soil particles High porosity means large pores and lots of water storage potentials

MSW

municipal solid waste

clean water

potable

Potable

water is considered impaired when it can no longer be used for its intended purpose

Water Treatment Facilities

• Water withdrawn from freshwater surface sources need to be reclaimed (treated/cleaned) before use or consumption