Exam 1: chapter 1-17
What is the definition of science as given by Eldredge in 1982? List 2 concepts.
"If there is one rule, one criterion that makes an idea scientific, it is that it must invoke naturalistic explanations for phenomena, and those explanations must be testable solely by the criteria of our five senses." Science cannot be used to test the supernatural. Science has decided to accept only theories which do not imply or inquire any supernatural activity at any time in history.
What did Ewer say about mechanisms that produce behavior?
"Unless the mechanism which produce the behavior are explicable in term of natural selection working in the orthodox manner, we will be forced to postulate special creation or some unknown mystical-magical process."
What is the probability of getting zygotes with the genotype AA Aa and aa with random mating in a population where 60% of gametes carry allele A and 40% carry allele a . (See pp. 78-79 for how to calculate probability.)
(0.6) (0.6) = 0.36AA (0.6) (0.4) = 0.24Aa (0.4) (0.6) = 0.24Aa 0.48 Aa (0.4) (0.4) = 0.16aa
Use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate the expected genotype frequencies from the allele frequencies for this population if it was in equilibrium. How do the actual genotype frequencies on the island compare with the expected genotype frequencies under the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle? What does this tell you about the population of mice on the island?
(p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 where p = frequency of A1 and q = frequency of A2) A 1A1 0.64 A1 A2 0.32 A2 A2 0.04 Q2: The actual genotype frequencies have no heterozygotes whereas, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium states that there are heterozygotes. There are more homozygotes than heterozygotes. Q3: That the A1A1 allele is favored. This is because there is no equilibrium on the island
According to Freeman, what is it that saves populations from inexorable decline?
,
According to research on viruses, when does a higher proportion of new mutations prove to be beneficial?
,
Give two creationist explanations for why there is so much genetic variation in the majority of natural populations.
1. God created variations within animals based on their environmental needs 2. Form fits function
Restate Darwin's original four postulates and their outcome in light of the Modern Synthesis.
1. Individuals vary as a result of mutation awaking new alleles and segregation and independent assortment shuffling into new combinations. 2. Individuals pass their alleles on to offspring 3. Some organisms are more successful at surviving and reproducing than other 4. The individuals most successful at surviving and reproducing are those with allelic combination that best adapt to their environments.
List 4 types of mutations and describe or define each one.
1. Point Mutation - substitution of one base 2. Transition - Purine for purine / pyrimidine for pyrimidine 3. Transversion - Purine for pyrimidine 4. Silent Substitution - Substitution that did not alter the amino acid
What are the two conclusions of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle?
1. The allele frequencies in a population will not change, generation after generation 2. If the allele frequencies in a population are given by p and q, the genotype frequencies will be given p2, 2pq, q2
What are the four postulates upon which Darwin's Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection is based?
1. The individual with a population differ from one another 2. The differences are, at least in part, passed from offspring 3. Some individuals are more successful at surviving and reproducing than others 4. Successful individuals are not lucky, but because of their traits they have inherited
List 2 mechanisms of gene duplication.
1. Unequal crossing over 2. Retrodisposition
What 3 steps did Karl Popper propose for the scientific method?
1. We stumble over some problem. 2. We try to solve it by proposing some theory. 3. Learn from our mistakes, especially those brought home to us by other scientists' discussion and criticism of our experiments.
Now pretend that after each zygote from #3 becomes an adult, it makes 10 gametes to contribute to the gene pool of the next generation. (See p. 76) Calculate the frequency of allele A and the frequency of allele a in the new gene pool. (2 pts) How does this compare with the original allele frequencies shown in Figure 3 on p. 76? (1 pt) ,
6AA make 60 gametes 14 Aa make 140 gametes 5 aa make 50 gametes 60 carrying A and none carrying a 70 carrying A and 70 carrying a 50 carrying a and none carrying A (B) 0.54 for A and 0.45 for a (These values are very close to the original values of 0.6 for A and 0.4 for a.
If the population of mice is 800 and 200 mice migrate from the continent to the island, and all 200 migrant mice have the genotype A2A2, what are the new genotype frequencies on the island? Why are there no heterozygotes in this population? The new gene pool after migration will contain how many genes? The new gene pool after migration will contain how many allele A1? How many allele A2? After migration, what are the new allele frequencies?
A 1A1 0.8 A1 A2 0 A2 A2 0.2 No heterozygotes bc There is no breeding in this population. New gene pool after migration will contain 2000 genes. How many Allele A2: Allele A1 1600.......Allele A2 400. New Allele frequencies: Allele A1 0.8 Allele A2 0.2
Pretend that after each zygote from #14 becomes an adult, it makes 10 gametes to contribute to the gene pool of the next generation. Calculate the frequency of allele A and the frequency of allele a in the new gene pool. How does this compare with the original allele frequencies shown on p. 76?
A = 0.75 a = 0.25. It is close yet far off from the actual probability. This is due to the small population size.
What is a paradigm?
A broad, explanatory scientific theory that is a framework for interpreting evidence.
When mothers make a larger parental investment than fathers (when eggs are more expensive than sperm), describe a female's potential reproductive success and its limiting factors.
A female's potential reproductive success will be relatively small, and she realized reproductive success is likely to be limited more by the number eggs she can make or pregnancies she can carry than by the number of makes she can convince to mate with her.
What are two advantages of polyandry for female prairie dogs?
A females increases her chances of receiving enough viable sperm to fertilize all her eggs. The more genetically diverse a female's pups the less likely all will be killed by the same disease or parasite.
According to Freeman, what is the definition of a population?
A group of interbreeding individuals and their offspring
What did Charles Darwin say about the evolution of human morality?
A high standard of morality gives bit a slight or no advantage to each individual man and his children over the other men of the same tribe, a high frequency of moral individuals will "give an immense advantage to one tribe over another"
What is relatedness, r, in Hamilton's model?
A measure of genetic similarity between individuals.
What was science searching for in the development of the theory of sociobiology?
A more adequate evolutionary explanation for all forms of animal and human social behavior.
What is science?
A search for truth through repeated experimentation and observation.
Give an example of a trait that that may increase fitness in one way and decrease fitness in another way
A trait that may increase fitness in one way, but decreases fitness in another way is the male mosquito fish - it has a larger copulatory organ which attracts more females but slows it down.
What is methodological naturalism?
A type of philosophy that permits supernatural explanations in science.
Repeat the exercise you did on quiz 12 questions # 3 & 4. This time make only 3 zygotes. Write down how many had the genotypes AA, Aa, and aa. ,
AA = 2 Aa = 1 aa = 0
Do the simulation exercise described on p. 76 using the gene pool in Figure 3 on p. 76 to make 25 zygotes. Write down how many had the genotypes AA
Aa, and aa. , AA = 6 Aa = 14 Aa = 5
If there is no selection to oppose the effects of migration, how will the allele frequency on an island compare to the allele frequency on the continent as a result of continued migration?
Across groups of population, gene flow tends to homogenize allele frequencies, thus preventing the evolutionary divergence of population, unless it is balanced by opposing mechanism of evolution. If there were no selection to oppose the effects of migration, the allele frequencies would become homogeneous
Summarize at least 5 facts about genetic drift.
Alleles become fixed or lost Frequency of heterozygotes declines It does not lead to adaptation, but to changes in allele frequencies It is nothing more than the cumulative effect of random events The power of genetic drift, as an evolutionary mechanism, decreases as population size increases
What do you think about compulsory sterilization?
Although it makes sense, I believe that everyone should ultimately have the right to choose whether or not they want to take the risk of passing a genetic disease on to their offspring. The author states that the growing list of disease alleles is suspected or known to be maintained in populations by heterozygote superiority. I agree with him that it would be futile and possibly ill advised to try and reduce the frequency of such alleles by preventing affected individuals from reproducing.
Compare this viewpoint with what the Bible teaches about the origin of man (1 pt) and man's relationship to God.
Although we are created by God in His image, we will never become a god. By human nature we are sinful and cannot change on our own. The power of the Holy Spirit and Jesus Christ is the method we are saved with a changed heart.
What is spontaneous generation?
An idea from the Middle Ages that a living organism could arise from nonliving objects, like rags turning into mice.
What would Darwinian reasoning predict about unselfish actions?
An individual animal would compete to survive rather than act selflessly toward other individuals, especially if that act may put its own fitness into jeopardy,
What did George Steinmetz say about evolution?
Ancient secret doctrine within Masonic allegory/symbolism have taught evolution surely as Darwin ever did
In ideal populations following the rules of Mendelian genetics, do allele frequencies change? Why?
Any allele frequencies, because there is no selection mutation, will remain unchanged from one generation to the next.
Lists two different groups that practice eusociality.
Army any workers carrying larvae or honeybee queen with workers Naked molerats or termites
What causes the allelic diversity present in a population to decline?
As some alleles drift to fixation and others to loss, the allelic diversity in a population falls.
Why is altruism a central paradox of Darwinism.
Because an allele that results in behavior benefiting other individuals at the expense of the allele's bearer would seem destined for elimination by natural selection
Explain why evolution is not forward looking (does not plan for the future)
Because the offspring descended from the survivors of selection was imposed by environmental conditions that prevailed before the offspring were born.
According to positivism, what makes a theory valid science?
Being able to be verified or demonstrated to be true by scientific observation.
How can females maximize their inclusive fitness in this situation?
By acting as workers and investing in the production of sisters rather than acting as reproductive.
How can epigenetic marks influence phenotype?
By altering gene expression.
How could mutations influence phenotypes?
By altering the expression of proteins.
How would a scientist use "disproof" or falsification when testing a scientific theory?
By proving a theory to be wrong.
What is the definition of evolution from a population-genetics perspective?
Change across generations in the frequencies of alleles.
What is the definition of genetic drift?
Change in the frequencies of alleles in a population resulting from a sampling error in drawing gametes from the gene pool to make zygotes and from a change variation in the survival and/or reproductive success of individual
What are two potential benefits to choosy females in the process of mate selection? What is an alternative explanation?
Choosy females may get better genes for their offspring, natural selection acts on female preference not directly but indirectly via the production of high-fitness offspring. Alternative: Choosy females may benefit directly through the acquisition of resources, meaning the male provides for the female. Choosy females may have preexisting sensory biases, meaning that there is an optimal preference that confers on the female's maximal survival and fecundity.
Give 2 examples of directional selection.
Color evolution of peppered moths in London at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution from white to the color of tree bark. After the drought of 1976-1977, Finches had larger beaks.
List three examples of sexual selection by male—male competition.
Combat: Like with marine iguanas of the Galapogos Islands Sperm Competition: Like with damselfies the male uses special structures on his penis to scoop out sperm left by female's previous mates Infanticide: such as lions who kill other makes' cubs
State Freeman's summary of the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle regarding the evolution of populations. Please include 5 conditions and the 2 results that occur when all of the conditions are met.
Conditions: When a population has no selection, no mutation, no migration, an infinite number of individuals, and a random choice of mates by all. Results: the allele frequencies do not change from one generation to the next, and the genotype frequencies can be calculated by multiplying the allele frequencies.
Why is it difficult to prove things in science?
Confounding variables are constant possibilities that may exist without our knowledge.
According to Freeman, what is the definition of cooperation?
Cooperation is for behavior traits that are beneficial or even costly to the actor, beneficial to the recipient, an selected for at least in part because the recipient benefits
Explain how young, nonbreeding birds gain benefits for indirect fitness by helping their parents raise their siblings
Cooperative breeding evolves most readily in bird lineages in which potential helpers and beneficiaries tend to be more closely related to each other. The young, nonbreeding birds that stay to help raise their siblings learn skills such as how to build nests and defend them, and how to rear young, all before having to do it on their own, contributing to indirect fitness.
What might happen to genetically identical individuals who are reared in different environments if they have phenotypical plasticity?
Could be different in form, physiology, or behavior
Give an example of a religious belief that cannot be tested by science.
Creation.
Why does sexual dimorphism exist in so many species? Give a creationist answer and an evolutionary answer.
Creationist: God made it that way Evolutionist: The theory of evolution by natural selection can explain some cases. Divergent traits can be adaptive for two sexes for ecological reason
Give an example of an inducible defense described in Freeman.
D. pulex growth of armor as a response to disturbance.
What three serious problems with Darwin's theory had to be resolved in order for biologists to accept it?
Darwin knew nothing about mutualism and how variability was grounded in population Darwin knew nothing about genetics and had no idea how variations are passed to offspring. Time and the fact that radioactive isotopes changed everything. Narrow window times as well.
Why is Darwin's theory of evolution considered to be very successful as a good scientific theory?
Darwin's theory successfully predicts the outcome of experiments
What is interpretation?
Determining relationships between pieces of data.
Give an example of an organism that exhibits some greenbeard traits.
Dictypstilium discoideum
List 3 facts that need to be kept in mind when studying adaptations.
Differences among populations aren't always adaptive Not every trait of an organism is adaptive Now every adaptation is perfect
Describe genotype-by-environment interaction in terms of DNA and the environment.
Differences in individuals in their DNA that make them differ in environment influences.
Define sexual selection.
Differential reproductive successive due to variations among individuals in success at getting mates, is called sexual selection.
Inclusive fitness consists of what two components?
Direct fitness, which results from reproduction an individual achieves on its own, without help from related individuals. Indirect fitness, which results from additional reproduction by relatives that is made possible by the individual's actions
Why does environmental variation not provide raw material for evolution?
Environmental phenotypes aren't passed on.
List 2 characteristics of eusocial animals.
Eusocial animals have overlapping adult generations in which nonreproductive individuals participate in the cooperative care of the young Vary in the degree to which the traits are elaborated
What does an analysis of the evolutionary tree reveal about eusociality, which is found in just a few families of hymenopterans? List 2 concepts.
Eusociality evolved not just once, but several times independently Eusociality evolved only in group that build complex nets and that care for their larvae for extended periods
According to Freeman, what would happen to evolution without mutation?
Evolution would eventually grind to a halt because mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation
Describe environmental variation in terms of the function of genes and proteins.
External factors influencing how much protein is made from particular genes.
What is the evolutionary consequence of failing to mate?
Failing to obtain a mate, like dying young, can severely curtail an individual's genetic contributions.
What is data?
Feature that can be measured, weighed, and defined the same by anyone.
For the following questions, the value of the trait refers to a number, such as the beak size of finches (shown in mm). In directional selection, what happens to fitness relative to the value of the trait?
Fitness consistently increases or decreases with the value of a trait
What are the 4 steps of the scientific process?
Form a question from an idea Gather data about the issue Interpret the data to determine relationships between data Evaluate a hypothesis to form scientific laws
List 4 observations about how Lord Monboddo related to scripture
Genesis, revelation and truth. , 1. He believed in the Deistic concept of God and often quoted scripture. 2. He claimed that the Genesis story of creation and the fall of man was nothing more than an allegory. 3. A philosophical system of theism built upon revelation is not proper 4. The truth of revelation must have been founded upon natural religion and the belief of the existence of a God
List 3 major effects of inbreeding.
Genetic Drift Exposed to deleterious recessive alleles More homozygotes than heterozygotes alleles
What mechanism of evolution is totally random? Why?
Genetic drift because it is nothing more than a cumulative effect of random events, for example the blind choices of gametes to make zygotes
List three effects of genetic drift on small remnant populations that have little or no gene flow.
Genetic drift can rob small remnant populations of genetic diversity, resulting in inbreeding depression and greater risk of extinction.
What does mutation provide for evolution?
Genetic variation
If a population of mice on an island have only the A1 allele, what percentage of their offspring (the zygotes formed through sexual reproduction) will have the genotypes of A 1A1? A1 A2? A2 A2? What is the genotype frequency? (100% = 1, 50% = .5, etc)
Genotype Percentage (1/2 pt each) Genotype Frequency (1/2 pt each) A 1A1 A1 A2 A2 A2
How does this compare with the Biblical principle of self-sacrificing love?
God could have made us all pay the price of sin, but instead He died so that we can live in heaven for all eternity, which is the opposite idea.
How did the Christian concept of a consistent, law-giving God who can be trusted provide a foundation for European science?
God created the world rationally and intelligently, reflecting Himself. The universe is intelligible and open to our scientific investigation and nature exhibits uniforms processes and patterns. It is a foundation for our understanding of the universe.
How would a creationist explain eusociality?
God's creation was not designed to be selfish. It is possible that He wanted His other creations to work together and help each other like He wants humans to do.
What did Phillip Johnson conclude about naturalism?
He concluded that naturalism is a religion and that its weaknesses would become evident if challenged in open discussion.
What did John Ray say about the belief that both the universe and living things are unchanging?
He describes nature as the works created by God at first, and by Him, conserved to this day in the same state and condition in which they were first made. He goes on to say that everything was made for us.
What was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's view of evolution? Give an example
He proposed that species evolve through the inheritance of changes brought in individuals. Example: If you were to bulk up by lifting weights, it doesn't mean your offspring would have large muscle like you.
What did Compte de Buffon say about organisms changing?
He suggested that organisms have changed through the operations of a system of laws, without Divine action, to produce that great variety that we see today.
How did Harold Clark explain the order in the fossil record?
He theorized that a predicable sequence of fossils appear in the rocks, but instead of being a record of evolution, it is a record of pre-flood ecological zones being buried and preserved one after the other during a worldwide flood. He also believes that glaciation was more widespread.
What is the definition of heterozygote superiority or overdominance?
Heterozygotes have higher fitness than either homozygote. At equilibrium, the selective advantage enjoyed by the lethal allele when it is in heterozygotes exactly balances the obvious disadvantage it suffers when it is in homozygotes
What is the basic claim of sociobiology regarding human behavioral traits? List 3 concepts.
Human behavioral traits are not a result of special creation Human behavioral traits have developed through evolution from non-human ancestors Reproductive success is the dominant favor determining human behavioral tendencies
What do you think about the idea that if nature is a law-bound system of matter and motion then possibility of creation is ruled out?
I support the law-bound system (a very intelligent system), because God is a complex, creative Being. For me, I am skeptical that all the many wonders of our world came about randomly and function so well together.
Summarize the model of multilevel selection developed by David Sloan Wilson that shows how cooperation can evolve when it confers benefits on groups.
If cooperators provide sufficient benefit to their social groups, cooperation may increase in frequency in the population at large, even if it decreases in frequency within groups.
According to Kuhn, what is a crisis state for a paradigm?
If discovered anomalies persistently defy efforts to resolve them.
According to Brand, what concept could have retained belief in creation while recognizing the evidence for biological change?
If ideas like Limnaeus and a number of other biologists in the Darwin year had gotten more attention for their ideas that considerable change has occurred within the created groups of organisms, then a belief in creation while at the same time recognizing the evidence for biological change would have remained.
What is an untrue implication of the idea of "the god of the gaps"?
If we can understand how something works, God does not have any part in it. Also, if God is involved in some process, that process does not function through nature's laws.
Why does the population of water snakes on an island in Lake Erie where unbanded snakes have higher rates of survival than banded snakes (due to predation), still contain banded snakes?
In every generation, several banded snakes move from the mainland to the islands. The migrants bring with them copies of the allele for banded coloration. When the migrant snakes interbreed with the island snakes, they contribute these copies to the island gene pool.
What happens to variance in a population as a result of disruptive selection?
Increases
How does indirect fitness benefit an individual?
Indirect fitness results from additional reproduction by relatives that is made possible by the individual's actions. By benefitting their relatives through indirect fitness, the individual in turn receives a long-range benefit of helping their race, rather than immediate offspring.
What is phenotypic plasticity?
Individuals with the same genotype may have different phenotypes in another environment
What is "informed intervention" or "interventionism" as defined by Brand? List 4 concepts that are included in this viewpoint.
Interventionism is an understanding that God has intervened throughout history and is still intervening that regards the following: The important role of intelligent intervention in history and the original creation. Intervention in geological history. God's communication to us through the Scriptures. God's constant involvement in maintaining the universe.
Why might interventionist science ultimately be more successful than naturalism?
Interventionists believe that its basic tenets are closer to reality. If they believe their religion is truth and if it offers insights into earth's history, they would be missing something important if they did not use it for generating testable scientific hypotheses'. Also, being an interventionist can yield new insights that were not found by others who were not asking the same questions. It can also be an effective stimulus for research on evolutionary processes without assuming that major groups of organisms arose through the process of evolution.
Describe genetic variation in terms of the function of genes and proteins.
Involves differences among individuals that are encoded in their DNA.
What is the assumption of sociobiology regarding origins?
It assumes the naturalistic evolutionary origin of animals and develops hypothesis and explanations for behavioral change based on that assumption
How could creationism have a biasing influence in science?
It can be biased in that creationists believe that the Bible has special insights. Also, any we develop based on this book are automatically correct.
What does selection do to allele frequencies?
It can cause allele frequencies to change across generations
How does nonrandom mating influence genotype frequencies?
It increases the frequency of homozygotes compared to what is expected under Hardy-Weinberg assumptions.
What is the definition of an adaptation?
It is a trait that increases an organism's fitness relative to individuals lacking it.
What happens if the frequency of an allele becomes 1?
It is fixed
How would the theory of evolution by natural selection (without sexual selection) explain why male peacocks have a long train of feathers or why females are different and do not have long trains of feathers? Explain your answer.
It is less than immediately apparent how the theory of evolution by natural selection might explain why peacocks and peathens are different, and it is less than obvious why the birds' most striking trait, the elaborate trait exists at all. Because elaborate plumage requires considerable energy to grow, maintain and drag around, energy that could have been used on making offsprings.
What happens to the average value of the trait in the population with stabilizing selection?
It is not altered
Why has the haplodiploidy hypothesis been largely abandoned?
It is not necessary for the evolution of eusociality
What is one problem when using science to study the history of the earth?
It is not observable, testable, or repeatable.
Why is a theory not scientifically useful if it cannot be tested?
It is not useful when it cannot be proved or disproved using scientific methods, making it outside of the realm of science.
Explain the statement "Genetic drift does not lead to adaptation but it does lead to changes in allele frequencies?
It is nothing more than a cumulative effect of random events, genetic drift cannot produce adaptation. However, chance event can alter allele and genotype frequencies, which is how genetic drift can cause allele frequencies to change.
What is evolution under domestication? Give two examples.
It is the study of the method breeders use to modify their crops and livestock. Examples: The pigeon and Tomatoes
What is the effect of disruptive selection on the average value of the trait in the population? (1 pt)
It is unchanged
What does it mean when sexual selection is stronger for females than for males? (2 pts) Illustrate your answer with pipefish behavior.
It is when males invest more in each offspring, and this a limiting resource of females. Like in the pipefish, which has a brood patch or pouch where the female will lay her eggs. From that point on the male will provide all the parental care.
What is the effect of cheating on the actor (the individual who gives a favor)?
It leaves the individual who acts first vulnerable to a net loss in the short run
According to positivism, what was necessary for any religious or ethical knowledge to be considered real knowledge?
It needs to be independently verified by science.
What benefits could result from siblicide in blue-footed booby chicks?
It reduced competition which increased survival odds.
Is macroevolution testable? Explain your answer.
It was a main question till 1930s, when the random synthesis provided a mechanistic basis for Darwin's for Darwin's for postulates and unified macroevolution. Evolution is now considered the unifying the idea of biology.
How do you think a rebellion in society against religion and authoritarianism would affect the development of scientific theories about geology paleontology and biology?
It would really affect the development of scientific theories, but it would cause some things to go undiscovered.
What is a pseudogene?
Lacks regulatory sequences that causes it to be transcribed.
What is the effect of population size on genetic drift?
Larger populations lead to allele frequencies that are closer to the values predicted by the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle. Sampling error diminishes as sample size increases. Genetic drift is a powerful evolutionary mechanism in small populations, but its power declines in larger populations.
What are two different levels upon which selection can operate?
Level of organelles in cells The causative allele within individual's cells
How might life on earth today be different than when God first created it?
Life today would be all about survival, having as much children as possible, and the passing the best traits to your offspring.
According to this chapter, what two steps are used to test a hypothesis?
Making predictions Checking if the prediction is correct
Describe the male's potential reproductive success and limiting factors.
Male's potential reproductive success will be relatively large, his realized reproductive success is likely to be limited more by the number of ejaculations he can make with attracting more females.
What does Manly Hall say about man becoming god?
Man is being molded into a god on the potter's wheel, "Man is a God in the making ..."
According to Wilmshurst, after evolving through the lower kingdoms of nature to his present rational state, how does man complete his evolution?
Man will eventually become god-like and unify his consciousness with the omniscient.
What two predictions would we make when sexual selection is strong for one sex and weak for the other?
Members of the sex subject to strong sexual selection will be competitive. Members of the sex subject to weak sexual selection will choosy.
What could be the effect of migration on a small remnant population?
Migration can sometimes restore last genetic diversity, improving a populations chances for long-term survival.
What are the advantages of a greenbeard mechanism as compared with kinship selection for promoting altruistic behavior?
Most alleles favored by kin selection rise to high frequency by inducing altruism toward individuals likely to be carrying copies of the same allele. Greenbeard alleles would rise to high frequency by inducing altruism toward individuals certain to be carrying copies of the same allele
If human behavioral tendencies are controlled genetically, what would be the effect of mutations?
Mutations could alter that behavior
Explain how natural selection acts on phenotypes but evolution consists of changes in allele frequencies.
Natural selection is able to pick a certain phenotype because others have died off, but still some of the phenotypes can revert back to that old form. For evolution to occur you need to change the allele.
What is kin selection?
Natural selection leading to the spread of alleles that increase the indirect component of fitness.
Describe the differences between naturalistic science, methodological naturalism, and philosophical naturalism?
Naturalistic science only accepts hypotheses based on uninterrupted operation of natural laws that we understand to explain biological or geological events and processes. Methodological naturalism is also naturalism. The only difference is that it does not properly deny that God exists or that divine intervention could ever happen in some way—it does not use the scientific process to study such things. Philosophical naturalism is also naturalism but it includes the idea that divine intervention is not true.
Is nonrandom mating a mechanism of evolution? Why?
No, departure from random mating upsets the equilibrium distribution of genotypes in a population. Non-random mating can change the frequencies of genotypes which in turn can be selected for or against by nature.
In your opinion, is it appropriate for theism (a belief in God) to accept science, not the Bible, as the standard or authority for determining religious beliefs? Explain your answer.
No, if you accept God, then you must also accept the Bible as the standard. You cannot really be lukewarm and try to believe in both. You can believe in God and the Bible and still do well in science.
Is natural selection a random process? Why?
No, it is the nonorandomness of selection in sorting mutations that lead to adaptation.
Is natural selection is a random process? Is it a conscious process? Explain.
No, natural selection is the opposite of random process, it is nonrandom, "It is the non-random superiority at survival and reproduction of some variants over other. It is not a conscious process, it is free of conscious intent."
Are out-of date theories that have now been discarded actually unscientific theories? Why or why not?
No, the scientists in history often used research methods just like those in use today. Out-of-date theories were not necessarily unscientific, they just have simply been replaced by other scientific theories.
Is it appropriate to accept or reject religious beliefs or doctrines according to the findings of the physical sciences? Why or why not?
No, we are limited through time and space. We observe only tiny segment of human history and cannot go out and see God in heaven.
According to Popper, if a series of observations supports a statement, does that establish the truth of that statement? Why or why not?
No, we never know when new observations may demonstrate the statement, or part of it, to be false.
Why was Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's view of evolution theory wrong?
Offspring do not inherit phenotypic changes acquired by their parents.
Why did J.B.S. Haldane say that he would lay down his life for two brothers or eight cousins?
On average, brothers share half of their genes and first cousins share 1/8 of their genes. If Haldane died for one brother, his brother could only pass on half as many of his genes as he himself could have done. If he dies to save two brothers, however, he would come out even.
According to Freeman, what is a mutually beneficial interaction?
One in which both the actor and recipient enjoy increased reproductive success
What is a selfish interaction?
One in which the actor benefits at the expense of the recipient
What is an altruistic interaction?
One in which the actor makes a sacrifice on behalf of the recipient
What is a spiteful interaction?
One in which the actor suffers a loss in order to impose a penalty on the recipient.
How can actors ( individuals who give a favor) avoid being taken advantage of?
One way actors can avoid being taken advantage of is to offer aid only to individuals they know well
What is a uniformitarian explanation of geology?
One where the geological processes and natural laws are exactly the same as they were millions of years ago, meaning no global catastrophes.
According to Kuhn, what is a conformist?
One who accepts the theory and works out the details.
According to Kuhn, what is a maverick?
One who doubts a theory and tries to come up with new ideas.
How would your beliefs affect your interpretation of data?
One's beliefs hold a bias when interpreting data therefore, another person's data could be different than one's own finding due to contrasting opinions based upon the understanding each of these individuals hold.
What are 4 characteristics of a useful scientific theory or hypothesis?
Organizes and explains isolated facts Suggests new experiments and stimulates scientific process Testable Predicts the outcome of untried experiments
What did Sir Francis Bacon propose as a scientific method to find truth?
Our minds must be empty of all preconceived ideas (biases), ultimately allowing the data to lead us to truth.
List 2 ways that naturalism can have a powerful biasing influence in science?
Our research only answers the questions we are willing to ask. Naturalism allows only certain questions to be asked, steering scientific thinking. Furthermore, in many cases it decides what conclusions are to be reached.
How does parental investment affect fitness?
Parental investment increases the reproductive success of the offspring receiving it. But at the same time, it decreases the remaining reproductive success that the parent may achieve in the future by way of additional offsprings.
Define parental investment.
Parental investment is the energy and time expended constructing and caring for the offspring.
What is the definition of having the highest evolutionary fitness?
Producing the most reproductively successful offspring.
What happens to variation in the population due to stabilizing selection?
Reduced
According to sociobiology theory, what is the entire focus of life?
Reproductive success
According to sociobiology, what is the dominant factor determining human behavioral tendency?
Reproductive success
What 3 things happen if genetic drift is the only evolutionary mechanism at work in a population (there is no selection, mutation or migration)?
Sampling error causes allele frequencies to wander between 0 and 1 Eventually, alleles drift to fixation or loss The frequency of heterozygotes declines
According to positivism, what is the only route to understanding?
Science
Why is science not able to provide absolute answers?
Science is an endless field that involves research and discovery. Since there will always be more to learn about, we will never truly have all the necessary data to draw final conclusions. We must base our understandings of conclusions with the data we have and our prior knowledge, but we will never actually know if all the data needed for an idea is found.
What is a danger of basing your theology on current scientific thinking?
Science may move on, leaving theology without a foundation.
According to Kuhn, what is normal science?
Scientists do not generally try to disprove their theories. Each scientist typically accepts a particular scientific paradigm and works within that paradigm. They do not try to test it, but assumes it to be true and use it to guide their scientific work within the paradigm's domain.
How does education affect a scientific paradigm?
Scientists write textbooks and tell students that certain paradigms are true. This helps form unity in science, but also makes it difficult for a competing paradigm to gain a fair hearing.
What is an underlying assumption for those who promote evolution?
Scriptures are rejected as an authority.
How do evolutionists resolve the paradox of altruism?
Selection could favor traits that result in decreased direct fitness if they increase the survival and reproductive success of close relatives.
What is the definition of selection?
Selection happens when individuals with particular phenotypes survive to sexual maturity at higher rates than those with other phenotypes, or when phenotypes during reproduction
Explain why evolution can only act upon existing traits.
Selection itself generates no new genetic variation, adaptive or otherwise
Define sexual dimorphism.
Sexual dimorphism is the difference between the males and females of a species.
Why did research on Belding's ground squirrels conclude that whistles are selfish, but trills are altruistic? Give specific data
Sherman's data only showed that when squirrels spot an attacking hawk and whistle, the whistling squirrel is captured 2% of the time while non-whistling squirrels are captured 28% of the time. The squirrel raising the alarm reduced its own chances of dying perhaps by informing the hawk that the caller has seen it. At the same time, the caller sows panic and confusion among the other squirrels. Whistles, then, can be considered selfish. However, when squirrels spot a stalking mammal and trill, the trilling squirrel killed 8% of the time while non-trilling squirrels are killed 4% of the time. The squirrel raising the alarm increases its own peril to the benefit of other squirrels nearby. Trills, then, can be considered altruistic.
How did ignorance of the complexity of life and a lack of understanding of the complexity of the cell contribute to acceptance of the theory of evolution?
Since the theory was proposed at a time when genetics and molecular biology were still decades away, the idea of evolution seemed more probable. If the theory has been proposed in the late 20th century, the idea of evolution would not have been so readily accepted.
Why are social insects a special challenge to the theory of evolution by natural selection?
Social insects represent and epitome of altruism, and thus present a special challenge for evolutionary theory
Heritable behaviors that cause fitness loss for the actor should disappear from the population. What explanation does Freeman give for how spite is a type of altruism that can evolve?
Spite toward individuals less closely related to the actor than the average member of the population may increase the actor's inclusive fitness. On the other hand, inclusive fitness increases the more genetically similar the actor and recipient are.
What does sociobiology theory predict about squirrels giving alarm calls?
Squirrels should be more likely to give alarm calls when they are surrounded by many close relatives.
What is the definition of evolution according to the "Darwin's Finches" powerpoint?
That a change in frequency of an allele such as an allele for beak depth (The basic definition of evolution)
What does this tell you about the effects of genetic drift in a small population as compared to a large population?
That genetic drift is far more likely to happen in small populations than in larger ones. This is because even a minor mutation, drowned out in a larger population, would become a large percentage of the small population.
How did Edward Blyth view natural selection?
That natural selection was conserving instead of a creative force, maintaining kinds of animals by eliminating the weaker ones.
According to Brand, what conclusions can be drawn from the conviction that the Bible is a reliable communication from the Designer?
The Bible provides a logically consistent approach to a problem: the flood was a consequence of an unusual event, someone told us about it, and this knowledge gives us a trustworthy beginning point for developing specific hypotheses about the erosion processes. Also, the Bible is reliable in describing actual history of the world.
If we can perfect our own nature and become more god-like through spiritual evolution, what does this do to the Biblical teaching first found in Genesis 3 that God would provide a Savior to save us from our sins?
The Biblical teaching would become useless because we would no longer need a Savior to save us because we can save ourselves.
What happens if the frequency of an allele becomes 0?
The allele is lost forever unless it is reintroduced by mutation or migration
What is the theory of sociobiology?
The application of evolutionary theory to study of behavior
Describe a specific chemical modification of DNA that is known as an epigenetic mark.
The attachment of a methyl group on a cytosine nucleotide DNA.
According to Lakatos, what happens when potentially falsifying data appears?
The auxiliary hypotheses are modified or replaced.
How did Thomas Malthus's book on population growth influence Charles Darwin?
The book laid the foundation for Darwin's understanding of how many excess individual animals that are produced will not survive.
According to the development hypothesis of Lamarck, what causes changes in animals and plants as they interact with their environment?
The changes were caused by felt needs, use and disuse, and the inheritance of acquired characters. (i.e. Animals felt the need to reach higher for food, so either its reach or neck would lengthen).
According to Lakatos, what is the relationship between a core theory and a set of auxiliary hypotheses?
The core theory is central to the research program and is protected and is protected from falsification by the "protective belt" of auxiliary hypotheses in order to give the core sufficient opportunity to be fully developed.
How can going to school affect our objectivity?
The early ages of schooling for individuals is a very moldable time-period therefore, by going through education systems that are heavily influenced by a certain set of beliefs, these individuals will be more likely viewing the world through the symbolic glasses their previous educators equipped them with. Once individuals have reached the age of critical thinking, they have already placed a foundation of bias, whether it be positive or negative, upon the objectivity that is demanded upon them later in life.
According to Freeman, what is reciprocity?
The exchanged ˚f favors that ultimately benefit both participants
What was the second lie that the serpent told to Eve in the Garden of Eden?
The fruit will make Eden become more like God/ will be equal to God.
What are the two propositions upon which the Modern Synthesis or reformulation of the Theory of Evolution, is based?
The gradual evolution results from small genetic changes that rise and fall in frequency under natural selection. That the origin of species and higher taxa can be explained by natural selection acting individual.
A mechanism called the greenbeard effect has been described that could drive an allele for altruism to high frequency. List 3 characteristics of a "greenbeard" allele as described by Dawkins. (3 pts)
The green beard The ability to recognize it The discriminating altruism
What is the effect of cheating (failing to return the favor) on the recipient of a favor?
The individual can take an advantage in the short term and get away with it.
What is the definition of Darwinian fitness? List 2 concepts.
The individual's ability to survive and reproduce. Yellow-legged gulls. Snapdragons.
In disruptive selection, which individuals have the highest fitness?
The individuals with extreme values of a trait.
In stabilizing selection, which individuals have the highest fitness?
The individuals with intermediate values of a trait
How does migration from an island to the continent affect allele frequencies on the continent? Why does this occur?
The island population is tiny relative to the continental population, so any migration from the island to the continent will be inconsequential for the continent's allele and genotype frequencies
What is haploidiploidy in Hymenoptera? List 3 concepts.
The males are haploid while the females are diploid. Makes are developed from unfertilized eggs and females are developed from fertilized eggs. Bees, ants, wasps.
Give two definitions of migration from an evolutionary perspective.
The movement of alleles between populations Gene flow: the transfer of alleles from the gene pool of one population to the gene pool of another population
What is naturalism?
The philosophy that only considers hypotheses or theories that do not require any divine intervention in the functioning of the universe at any time in history.
What processes does sociobiology propose to explain the origin of altruism?
The processes of mutation and him selection and their effects inclusive fitness.
According to Popper, what is the source of scientific objectivity?
The source is group interaction. It "consists solely in the critical approach
What is the theory of evolution by sexual selection?
The theory of evolution by sexual selection is logically equivalent to the theory of evolution by natural selection: if there is a heritable variation in a trait that affects the ability to obtain mates, then variants conductive to success will becomes more common over time.
According to Brand, what is the ultimate result of natural selection?
The ultimate result of the rue natural selection is the competitive, vicious side of nature.
What happens to the average value of the trait in a population as a result of directional selection?
The value changes
What happens to variation as a result of directional selection?
The variation in the population is reduced
What did Darwin say about altruism?
The viewed its existence as a "special difficulty, which at first appeared to me inseparable, and actually fatal to my whole theory
What does sociobiology say about right and wrong behaviors?
There are no morally right or wrong behaviors. Our behavior is the result of the selection pressures that have created us.
What are the 5 assumptions which must not be violated in order for the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle to work?
There is no selection There is no mutation There is no migration There are no chance events Individuals choose their mates at random
What corollary of sociobiology theory does Brand describe?
There is no such thing as truly altruistic behavior.
What is the main theme of the Intelligent Design Movement?
There is scientific evidence for intelligent design in nature.
What did George McCready Price say about the order in the fossil record?
There really is no reliable order to the fossils, and science has invented the order to fit the evolution theory.
How was the traditional hypothesis about oxpeckers having a mutually advantageous association with large mammals shown to be false?
There was no clear pattern in the data and it wasn't statistically significant
Why does epigenetic variation not necessarily contribute much to long-term evolution?
They are short-lived. Epigenetic changes over several generations shows that these often do not last and therefore probably have limited effects on long-term evolution.
According to Brand, an interventionist scientist who subscribes to the paradigm of partial naturalism can work and think like a naturalistic scientist with one exception. What is that exception?
They do not rule out the possibility that an intelligent superior being has, on rare occasions, intervened in biological or geological history, particularly in connection with the origin of life forms. They also would acknowledge that such interventions could have involved the use of the laws of nature that are far beyond the outer limits of current human knowledge.
What is result of all 3 modes of selection on the mean fitness of the population?
They increase the male sample.
Why did people think that species were immutable (unchanging)?Is this a Biblical concept? Explain your answer.
They were created by God. No, it doesn't say in the Bible that God created us organism that will never change.
What will happen to heritable traits that are associated with failure to mate.
They will become less common over time
What will happen to heritable traits associated with mating success.
They will become more common over time
According to Wilmshurst, spiritual evolution means to perfect your own nature and transform it into a more god-like quality. How does this compare with what the Bible teaches?
Through Jesus and the Holy Spirit, God has the power to change our hearts and transform them.
Brand states that "acceptance of a literal biblical creation is not a denial of science." Why does he say that?
Through belief of Scripture, we find truths that others overlook. Science practiced under the biblical interventionist worldview explains a large deal and leads to the discovery of many things missed by others. It will eventually explain everything once new evidence is shown.
List two processes that can produce new traits.
Through mutation and recombination yield new suits of traits the differences in survival or reproduction occur only among variants that already exist. Natural selection can lead to the evolution of new functions for existing behavior, structures and genes.
What does Wilmshurst say was the sole purpose of all initiation (which would mean in the mystery religions and secret societies such as Freemasonry)?
To become more God-like.
Why would the theory of evolution not be viable without uniformitarian geology?
To explain the process of evolution, large spectrums of time are needed, and this largely allotted timeframe is found in uniformitarian geology. If a global catastrophe happened, then geology would be different and evolution would have had to occur in a very short time period.
Define an adaptation.
Trait that increases an individual's fitness
Explain how natural selection acts on individuals but its consequences occur in populations.
Traits cannot evolve by natural selection unless they increase the fitness of the genes responsible for the characteristics of the population change.
Why has the Darwinian view of life as a "competition between individuals with varying abilities to survive and reproduce" proven correct?
We are able to see that natural selection is or has been the main but not exclusive means of modification. We are more keenly aware of other processes that cause evolutionary change in addiction to natural selection because of our sinful world.
What two steps are needed in order to show that a trait is an adaptation?
What is a trait for? Individuals contribute to future generations
Define polyandry.
When a female has multiple mates, and the mate usually take care of the offspring
According to Kuhn, what is a scientific revolution?
When a new paradigm replaces the old one.
In a small population, how can chance events affect the outcomes on the gene pool of the population?
When a new population is founded by a small number of individuals, it is likely that chance alone will cause the allele frequencies in the new population to be different from those in the source population.
Define the founder effect.
When a new population is founded by a small number of individuals, it is likely that chance alone will cause the allele frequencies in the new population to be different from those in the source population. (Populations are often small when they have just been founded by a group of individuals that have moved, or been moved to a new location. The allele frequency in the new population is different from what they were, simply by chance.)
According to Hamilton's rule, when is altruism more likely to spread?
When benefit to the recipient are great, the cost to the actor is low, and the participants are closely related.
What happens to the allele frequencies when blind luck plays no role in choosing genes? Does the population evolve?
When blind luck plays no role in our model population, the allele frequencies do not change from one generation to the next.
How would you demonstrate that phenotypic plasticity is adaptive?
When it allows individuals to increase their fitness in the environments that they are found in.
What is the purpose of elaborate courtship displays?
When male reproductive success is limited by opportunities to mate, but males are unable to monopolize either females themselves or any resource vital to females, they do sexual selection by elaborate courtship displays.
What is phenotypic plasticity?
When populations harbor genetic variation for environmental sensitivity, populations can evolve greater or lesser plasticity.
When can selection lead to evolution?
When the phenotypes that exhibit difference in productive success are heritable - that is, when certain phenotypes are associated with certain genoypes.
Define mutation-selection balance.
When the rate at which copies of deleterious allele are being eliminated by selection is exactly equal to the rate at which new copies are being created by mutation, the frequency of the allele is at equilibrium
What is a "god-of-the-gaps"?
Whenever a phenomenon cannot be explained, scientists use God to fill in the gaps however, when they find an explanation for the phenomena, God is no longer needed as an explanation.
What is the claim of sociobiology regarding the control of human behavior?
Wilson recognizes that culture is an important component of human behavior, but he maintains that other important themes of promote behavior also present in humans by inheritance, or genetic control.
How can biases affect scientists?
With biases, one's data can lean towards one conclusion more than another based upon preconceived, personal beliefs. A bias can cause a scientist to interpret his or her data more optimistically or negatively.
Is Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection testable? Explain your answer
Yes, when Darwin was studying the different finches, this was able to show that evolution was testable and overall when the works of the modern synthesis provided a mechanism basis for Darwin's four postulates and unified micro and macroevolution, evolution by natural selection is the unifying idea of biology.
Does the theory correctly predict what actually happens with the squirrels that give alarm calls?
Yes.
List 2 observations that supported spontaneous generation.
a) A pile of rags in the corner would produce mice. b) Maggots would appear to materialize from meat.
Give an example from the book of a core theory and changeable auxiliary hypotheses.
a) Core theory: All life has arisen via evolution. b) Auxiliary hypotheses: Specific evolutionary mechanisms.
List two examples of an untestable hypothesis regarding origins.
a) God created life. b) God caused a global geological catastrophe.
List 2 recommendations from Brand on how to use the Biblical history of origins in research?
a) It can be used as a basis for defining hypotheses that lead to productive research b) Take it seriously and see what insights its concepts can give us in our research
What two concepts did Ray Newton and Boyle use to counter (go against) the common interpretation of ordinary events and processes as being supernatural?
a) Nature is a law bound system of matter and motion. b) Nature is a habitation created for the use of edification of intelligent beings by an omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent God.
List two examples of a testable hypothesis regarding origins.
a) Series of intermediate forms between the major groups of organisms have existed in the past. b) Most individual rock formations formed quite rapidly and catastrophically.
Charles Darwin concluded that Earth's organisms were not independently created. instead, they....
descended with modification from a single common ancestor or a few
in the fact that if you are biased in favor of your pet theory
some of your friends and colleagues...will be eager to criticize you, that is to say, to refute your pet theories if they can." It is this "friendly hostile cooperation of scientists that is their readiness for mutual criticism."
