Exam 3
when a person's expectancy is low, he/she believes
"I am not even sure what my goal is, so how can I achieve it" "I do not think anyone could do what is being asked of me"
when a person's expectancy is high, he/she believes
"I have the knowledge, skill, and abilities to get the job done" "the goal is reasonable, and, if I exert myself, I am sure I can succeed"
when instrumentality is high, the person believes
"my boss has always followed through on her promises before. I am sure she will this time as well" "if I sell 500, I get a $5000 bonus"
when is instrumentality is low, the person believes
"they tell us we can take vacation time after this project, but I dont believe it" "I dont count on any promises around here. Ive been burned before"
Research the parties you'll be negotiating with
-Reputation -Scarce resources -Interest in good relationship -Ongoing or one-time negotiation -Trust
Talk to other people who have information you need
-Seek other people who have had similar negotiations -Talk to your constituents -Talk in advance to other parties
the scorecard for an effective negotiation allows you to evaluate 3 desired outcomes
-all parties believe that they made a good deal -the relationship is maintained or even improved -each negotiators constituents are satisfied with the agreement
steps for stabilizing the situation are...
-greet the parties -indicate where each of them is to sit -identify yourself and each party by name -state the purpose of the mediation -confirm your neutrality -get the parties commitment to proceed -get their commitment that only one party will speak at a time -get their commitment to speak directly to you rather than confronting the other party directly
to lessons to learn about the leverage of legitimacy
-make it look non-negotiable -ask
stages of effectiveness in negotiations
-prepare -understand needs -list and discuss options -use process tactics -end negotiation -evaluate
leverage of timing offers several benefits
-set the time when the negotiation will continue -you can collect your thoughts and plan the next step -you can consult with others and collect more information -you can talk to other parties to see whether a better deal is possible -you can apply pressure if the other party is facing a deadline
The four major steps to the mediation process are...
-stabilize the setting -help the parties communicate -help the parties negotiate -clarify the agreements
organizational behavior modification takes a five step approach to increase motivation and performance
1. identify performance-related behaviors 2. measure the frequency of these behaviors 3. identify the contingencies supporting the current behaviors 4. develop and implement a behaviorally based intervention strategy 5. measure the resulting performance-related behavior
power exists only when there are at least
2 people and it is a property of the relationship between them
Motivation potential score(MPS)
=(variety + identity + significance/3) x autonomy x feedback
Three factors of Deci's Self Determination Theory
Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness
mixed motive situation
Employees are rewarded for competing aggressively but told they should work toward the department's overall outcome as a whole
intrinsic outcomes
Feelings of personal worth, the opportunity to use one's abilities, and a sense of personal accomplishment
performance=
Motivation x Ability x Opportunity
Integrating style (characterized by high concern for self and others)
Relies on open discussion, looks for mutually beneficial alternatives, encourages a free exchange of info, and considers interpersonal and position differences all to find a win-win solution
What desires, wants, and needs get people to take action?
This "what" question looks primarily at people and what may make one person more highly motivated than another
What roles does the environment play in motivation?
This "where or when" question focuses on the setting in which people are working and asks how that influences behavior
positive reinforcement occurs when
a behavior is linked with a consequence an employee considers pleasant; should be used whenever the goal is to increase the frequency of a desired behavior (pleasant consequence/consequence added)
bluffing
a common tactic that incurs two risks: heavy handed bluffing can strain relationships and if the bluff fails the negotiation may be over and you will have sacrificed a superior outcome
first in person business impression will be based on elements such as
a handshake, introductions, clothing, and speech
stalemate
a situation in which no agreement is reached
reward power
ability to provide others with rewards they desire in exchange for work you need accomplished
performance is the function of
ability(what you can do), motivation(what you will do), and opportunity(what you get to do)
motivation factors include
achievement, recognition, advancement, and growth
factors leading to satisfaction (motivation)
achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth
conformity
act of changing your behavior to match the responses or behavior of others; enables us to feel that we fit in or feel comfortable with other people
fear lost opportunity in much the same way they fear loss of
actual property
build reward power by
actually rewarding people
punishment
adding an unpleasant consequence as a response to a person's undesired behavior, with the goal of stopping the behavior from happening in the future - (aversive consequences/consequences added)
range of factors we consider in determining who is like us
age, race, gender, religion, politics, and even cigarette smoking habits
Consider your BATNA
an agreement better than your BATNA should be accepted -an agreement worse than your BATNA should not be accepted
ERG theory also acknowledges that if a higher order need is frustrated,
an individual may refocus on a lower order need that appears easier to satisfy
expert power
an individuals superior knowledge and skill that others require; most common way to build is through education
outrageous behavior
any form of socially unacceptable conduct intended to force the other side to make a move, i.e. throwing a fit
task centered disputes
are debates over competing ideas, proposals, interests, or resources
look for key info from the other party by...
asking probing questions like -why -how -what if -what would be wrong with -etc.
people who have power and use it effectively
attain desired jobs more quickly, make more money, and are promoted more quickly
negative reinforcement
attempt to increase the frequency of a desirable behavior, but by linking desired behavior with the removal of undesirable consequences, rather than the addition of positive ones - (aversive consequences/consequences removed)
vertically load jobs enhances
autonomy and task identity; gives workers increased authority for making job related decisions and is synonymous with employee empowerment
Existence needs
basic human survival (food, water, etc)
informational factors come into play when people have based their point of view on different sets of facts
bc each had a different piece of info, they reach vastly different conclusions Ex: parable of the blind men and the elephant
job crafting
bottom up approach, where employees modify their own jobs in a way that makes them more satisfying and engaging; focuses on the ways employees modify their own jobs to better fit their strengths and interests
Dual Concern Model of Handling Interpersonal Conflict
by considering a person's concerns for him/herself as well as that person's concern for other people , the styles are categorized
task conflict is good conflict bc
can make decision making and problem solving more effective and lead to greater accuracy, insight, and innovation
coercive power
capability to force someone to do something against his/her will; power of dictators, depots, and bullies
power
capacity to exert influence to control others or events, as well as the capacity to defend against the influence of others
appeal to authority relies on "snob appeal" which
capitalizes on people's desire to feel that they are somehow better than others
Punishment is most effective when it has the following four characteristics
clear expectations, consistency, timeliness, and powerful effect
Hackman and Oldham outlined a set of five interventions shown to influence the motivation potential score for a job
combine tasks, form natural work units, establish client relationships, vertically load jobs, and open feedback channels
______ is the most desirable of the influence outcomes
commitment
Factors leading to dissatisfaction (hygiene)
company policy, supervision, relationship with boss, work conditions, salary, relationship with peers
no amount of motivation can overcome ________, nor can great ability compensate for
complete lack of ability; a shortage of motivation, even with multiple opportunities
"what" questions are ______ approaches
content
"when or where" questions are _______ approaches
context
role factors
contribute to conflict when people's roles in an org are somehow in conflict or the "turf" associated with their position is being challenged
the job characteristics model proposes a link between
core job dimensions, critical psychological states, and personal and work outcomes
motivation
desire to act and move toward a goal
growth needs
desire to attain growth and personal development
hot seat
devised to enable specialists to spend a portion of their time off the phones and working on problems on their own without interruption
strong ties
direct relationships
personal factors can be emotional and have more overtones leading to
disagreements about what is factually correct can easily turn into arguments over who is morally right
political skills combine the most effect influence tactics resulting in
disarmingly charming and engaging manner that inspires confidence, trust, and sincerity
coercive power takes form in
disciplinary actions, demotions, and job loss; generally the threat of firing is considered the most extreme form
effective organizational functioning demands that people have a healthy _____ for their boss
disrespect
norms at work are frequently associated with
dress, language, internet use, the open expression of feelings, promptness, interruptions of or challenges to leaders, volunteering of your services, avoidance of conflict, and so on
Need for achievement
drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs suggests that
each need must be fulfilled before we can be motivated by a need on the next higher level, and that our lowest level of unfulfilled needs is our primary source of motivation
perceptual factors
each person selects the data that supports their pov and tend to devalue info that does not support it
a compromising style (moderate concern for both parties)
each side gives up something important to gain other advantages that are more important
norms of good manners enable you to conduct yourself with
ease, style, and confidence
expectancy x instrumentality x valence is congruent with
effort x performance x rewards
the goal is not to _____ all conflict but to manage it in a way that minimizes its harm to engagement and performance
eliminate
first method to job crafting is cognitive change
employees change the way they perceive their tasks ex: hospital janitor focusing on helping people to get better by providing a cleaner environment instead of on routine tasks such as sweeping the floor
affiliation motivated people want to
establish and maintain friendly relationships with others
Physiological needs are also known as
existence needs - food, water, and air
Safety/security needs are also known as
existence needs - shelter, personal security, health
Alderfers ERG Theory collapses Maslow's 5 levels into 3 -
existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG)
expectancy theory is based on three specific employee beliefs
expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
Examples of critical psychological states
experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results of the work activities
_________ is of utmost concern, and you may need to go to great lengths to show that you are _______________
fairness and impartial
open feedback channels enhances
feedback; feedback is important bc workers need to know how well or poorly they are performing their jobs if improvement is expected
its often very difficult to overcome a poor
first impression
people respond favorably to
flattery
autonomy
freedom to select how and when particular tasks are performed
____ and _____ between supervisor and subordinate increase each person's trust for the other
frequency; depth of effective communication
Cialdini Six Principles of Influence
friendship/liking commitment and consistency scarcity reciprocity social proof appeals to authority
need for affiliation
friendship; good relationships
appeals to authority are most powerful when they come from
genuine authorities who possess recognized knowledge and wisdom
people tend to give what they
get
political skills
gives us the ability to effectively understand others at work and to use such knowledge to influence them to act in ways that enhance our personal and or organizational objectives
Leverage of Legitimacy
giving the impression the issue is not negotiable
according to Latham, goals work for at least three reasons
goals direct behavior toward goal-relevant behavior and away from other behaviors; goals energize and increase persistence, and goals increase the incentive for a person to seek out and use new sources of info to obtain the standard
Extinction
gradual disappearance of a behavior that is followed by no consequence and is thus unlikely be repeated again (bc it did not bring about any gain for the person performing the behavior) - (pleasant consequences/consequences removed)
self actualization needs are also known as
growth needs - desire to become the most that one can be
examples of personal and work outcomes
high internal work motivation, high-quality work performance, high satisfaction with the work, and low absenteeism and turnover
soft tactics
highly effective in influencing others bc they evoke emotions that both establish a sense of urgency and help bring people together
inputs include
hours worked, work quality, education, and experience
relatedness needs
human desires to satisfy interpersonal and social relationships
the two types of factors in Herzberg's Two Factor Theory of Motivation are
hygiene and motivation
punishment challenges
if viewed as unfairly administered, it can have negative side effects such as encouraging people to rebel bc they feel they are being too tightly controlled; punishment can only specify what not to do - of which there may be an infinite number of variations; best avoided unless it is really necessary
silence
if you have made an offer and youre waiting for a response, just stand by: most people feel uncomfy when conversation ceases: dont make new suggestions, repeat your terms, and dont change your offer
norms
implicit or explicit codes describing what constitutes acceptable behavior
Suboptimization
in the pursuit of goals, people may ignore other important objectives and may do things outside the spirit of the goals, even engaging in unethical behavior, to achieve them
progressive discipline
increases in severity if the offense continues ex: first offense may be punished with a verbal warning, a second merits a written warning, and the third calls for firing
weak ties
indirect relationships with others
capacity
individual power can be developed regardless of a person's title or level within an org
resistance
influence target is opposed to carrying out the request and will resist accomplishing what is being requested
Rahim and colleagues suggests that people can adopt one of five conflict handling styles
integrating, dominating, avoiding, obliging, and compromising
mediation is frequently used in...
interpersonal agreements, school or university settings, in criminal cases, and in community disputes
the avoiding approach (low concern for both parties)
is a passive action that leaves the problem unaddressed: waiting may actually lead to a better solution than pressing ahead
dominating style (high concern for self, low concern for others)
is a win-lose approach: is making every attempt to win as much as possible with little regard for the other party
Bait and switch
is inherently dishonest and you should avoid it in negotiations
relationship conflict is bad conflict bc
it threatens productivity and interferes with the effort that people put into a task, bc they are preoccupied with retaliating, increasing their personal power, or attempting to repair the relationship rather than with working on the task
the goals of mediation in business settings are to...
keep some control of the process and settle disputes in a cost effective manner
dependence
leads people to do things they may not otherwise do
as a negotiation draws to a close
leave as many issues on the table as possible until the very end to give you the most options for putting together a final agreement
legitimate power is often sufficient to gain compliance behavior but
less effective in inducing engaged and committed action
the way to use appeals to authority effectively on the job is to
let people know your strengths and expertise without coming off as a braggart
we are influenced by people who
like us, are similar to us, and flatter us
people are particularly sensitive to perceived _____ more than they are to perceived _____ of the same magnitude
loss;gain
_______ conflict can stimulate more careful thinking and conscientious work
low to medium level
power etiquette and professional influence
make good first impression and introduce others, learn and use names, arrive early to work and meetings, actively build your network, regularly talk a little about yourself, be authentic, show appreciation, and be smart on social media
ineffective positive reinforcement is often a greater problem than administering punishment bc
managers are naturally inclined to assume that people know they are doing well and need only nonspecific feedback that has little motivating value ex: "you are great; I wish I had five more like you"
challenges to negative reinforcement
may work in short term, but has harmful side effects and is not considered an effective practice ex: "if your numbers dont improve you will be fired"; when numbers improve, the person is not fired and the threat is removed
high equity sensitivity
more outcome-oriented and want more than others for the same level of inputs
ERG theory demonstrates that
more than one need may motivate at the same time, and that a lower motivator does not have to be satisfied before other needs become motivating
goal setting
most effective and efficient way to both clearly convey expectations and motivate people to achieve them
When people are matched to a job that fits them,
most of the problems associated with unmotivated or lazy people disappear
power motivated individuals see
most work situations as an opportunity to influence other people or to take control
McCellands framework focuses on three basic needs
need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power
relatedness is a
need for belonging
if the benefit of a negotiated solution minus our BATNA is higher than the cost of negotiating
negotiating is a good option
power itself is
neutral
mediator
outside party who specializes in helping people in conflict reach an amicable agreement
low equity sensitivity
pay more attention to their inputs and are less sensitive to equity issues
outcomes include
pay, fringe, benefits, increased responsibility, and prestige
extrinsic outcomes
pay, status, fringe benefits
reinforcement theory
people are motivated to repeat behavior that gets rewarded
extinction is challenging bc
people hold expectations about what is likely to follow their actions, based on what they have observed in the past
ceiling effects in goal setting
people reach their goal and stop, even though they might be capable of considerably higher performance levels
McCelland's Learned Needs Theory proposes that
people should identify the predominant need in themselves and in others to find those roles and situations where success is most likely
referent power is highly associated with the
person not the position
instrumentality
person's belief that a given level of performance will lead to specific outcomes; perceptions can range from zero - "everyone gets the same pay no matter how hard they work and produce" - to certain - "every time I sell a unit, I get 7 percent commission"
committing to complete a task or course of action is often associated with
personal appeal, consultation, collaboration, and inspirational appeal
relationship conflict
personalized and therefore highly threatening and damaging for personal relationships, team functioning and problem solving
According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, the lowest to highest are
physiological needs, safety/security needs, social needs, esteem needs, self actualization needs
most important part of negotiation is...
planning and preparation
operant conditioning has four different operant conditioning strategies bc there are two actions (addition and removal) and two types of consequences (pleasant and aversive) - the four operant conditioning strategies are
positive reinforcement, extinction, punishment, and negative reinforcement
hypotheticals
possible solutions or alternatives that are presented but not agreed to at the time of being proposed
influence
power in action, serve as the means by which individuals gain and exercise power
legitimate power
power invested in a role or job position; stems from higher hierarchical level or legal mandate ex: politicians, police, and managers
referent power
power of charisma and fame and is commonly enjoyed by celebrities as well as others in highly visible roles
resistance is often associated with
pressure, ingratiation, and coalition
"how" questions are ______ approaches
process
Operant condidtioning
process of adding or removing pleasant or aversive consequences following voluntary behaviors
those with high levels of political stills are more likely to be rated as
promotable
the major contributions of Maslow and Alderfer were in shifting attention from _______ and toward _________
purely extrinsic rewards (money); intrinsic factors (sense of accomplishment)
skill variety is the
range in the number of skills used to complete the job tasks (conceptual, physical, technical, and people skills)
______ is essential to making good business decisions and it is effective in influencing others to complete tasks and perform on the job
rationality
When one person makes a concession and the other does not
reciprocity is not fulfilled and they will experience a sense of betrayal
esteem needs are also known as
relatedness and growth needs - respect, self esteem, status, recognition
social needs are also known as
relatedness needs - relationships with friends, family, etc
Through what psychological means do personal and environmental factors affect a person's motivation?
represents the "how" of motivation
influence tactics have one of three reactions
resistance, compliance, or commitment
five bases of power are
reward, legitimate, referent, expert, and coercive
Take it or leave it approach
seen as negotiating in bad faith and is not recommended
competence is the
sense of mastery we feel when we have effective interactions with our environment and are confident our tasks, although challenging, match our knowledge and skills
combine tasks enhances
skill variety, task identity, and task significance; combo of tasks leads to a more challenging and complex work assignment, bc it requires people to use a wider variety of skills
establish client relationships enhances
skill variety, task identity, autonomy, and feedback; an ongoing personal relationship between and employee and a customer can lead to success
The job characteristics model identifies five core job dimensions
skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback
leverage
small advantage or perceived advantage that one party can use to gain a much larger benefit
one of the most potent forms of political skill behavior is applying
social influence, or influencing others in situations where you dont have direct authority
Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham's evidence-based job characteristics model (JCM) provides a simple yet powerful explanation of why
some jobs are more motivating than others, and how the motivation potential of a job can be enriched
Win-lose negotiating
someone has to lose and odds are sometime it will be you
foot-in-the-door technique
someone makes a small request, the other person grants it, and a larger request follows
SMART goals are more likely to be accomplished; stands for
specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound
expectancy theory
starting point for diagnosing and framing motivational challenges and the structure for integrating a variety of other motivational models and concepts
second method to job crafting is to modify the tasks themselves
taking on more or less work, limiting or extending the scope of their tasks, or changing the way they complete their tasks ex: HR rep may try to automate the less enjoyable parts of her job such as record keeping, so that she can focus on matters that she truly cares about, such as employee development
commitment
target agrees with the request and strives to carry it out with energy and engagement, often doing more than requested
compliance
target is willing to do what the influencer asks but is not enthusiastic about it; will do what is requested and nothing more
form natural work units enhances
task identity and task significance
leverage of timing
telling the party you want to leave to think about the deal
scarcity
tends to lower the level of trust ppl have in one another, which in turn increases the likelihood of conflict
one of the challenges to positive reinforcement
that the rewards should have value to the employees; Richard Easterlin suggests that monetary rewards may not always be the most effective
the better you know and understand your boss,
the better your chances of influencing them
autonomy is
the degree of choice employees possess about when and how they perform their work
task identity
the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work
feedback
the degree to which individuals receive knowledge or their results from the job itself
task significance
the degree to which the job has a direct effect on the work or lives of other people
Edward L Deci's Self Determination Theory (SDT) focuses on
the growth needs of individuals, which, when satisfied, can help them realize their potential
ERG theory accounts for cultural differences better than Maslow's does bc
the order of needs can be different for different people
an effective mediator must convince
the parties to trust him/her, to trust the process itself, and finally to begin to trust each other
most negotiators naturally focus more on the content of a negotiation
the problem, there needs, the proposals, and the counter proposals
expectancy
the understanding of what performance is desired and the person's belief that effort will lead to a desired level of performance; does the person know what to do, and will he or she be able to do it
these perceptions of fairness are based on social comparison by which people compare what they are getting out of their job -
their outcomes to what they are putting into it - inputs
issues are not negotiable when
there is no way to create added value for yourself in a negation, you should not be negotiating in the first place
third method to job crafting is modifying the way in which they interact with others at work
they can create more meaningful connections ex: a grocer may decide to make each customer feel appreciated by asking him or her about his or her day instead of simply bagging groceries
need for power
to control others, to get desired things done
leading cause of business failure is ________ thus task conflict fosters alternative viewpoints and less complacency can be very useful
too much agreement
too little task conflict is bad, bc ppl are not being challendge and problems are not being addressed but
too much task conflict can also be problematic
task conflict was likely more beneficial for _____ than for ______
top management; non-top management teams
win-win negotiating
treat the conflict separately from the relationship and look to seek a mutually acceptable solution: not to win the fight but to solve the problem
an obliging style (low concern for self and high concern for other parties)
tries to keep the peace by satisfying the other party: obliging can build significant goodwill and improve the relationship for future negotiations
employee-manager relationships is the most important work relationship that needs to be built on
trust and reciprocity
to increase your referent power, you need to be
trusted and respected
Hygiene and motivation factors are independent, not just
two ends of one scale
authority
type of power a person possesses due to his or her position ex: mother to child
social proof is most influential under two conditions:
uncertainty and similarity
valence
value a person places on future outcomes; "whats in it for me?"
task conflict
ways to address tasks, ideas, and issues and is not related to people's evaluations of others' character
social proof is a phenomenon in which
we view actions as more acceptable if we see others performing them in the same or similar situations
best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA)
what we will be left with if we cannot reach a negotiated agreement; our current situation or what we have if we do not negotiate
valence starts the process of pulling together the ____ and ______ approaches to motivations
what; how
environmental factors
when an org is forced to operate on a shoestring budget, its members are more likely to experience conflict over scarce resoures
zero sum game
when one person succeeds, another fails
blowback effect
when your counterpart becomes angry and loses faith in the negotiation process
equity
workers' perceptions of the fairness of outcomes they receive on the job
hygiene factors include
working conditions, quality of supervision, salary, security, and interpersonal relationships
achievement motivated people thrive on
working more efficiently, solving problems, or mastering complex tasks
Leverage of Limited Authority
you can benefit by having your authority limited by a boss or some other entity
to increase reward power base,
you do need to control some rewards, and this may take a certain amount of creativity (feedback, compliments and so on)
by developing skills that are scarce,
you increase your value and potential influence
To calculate the benefits of negotiating, consider
your current BATNA, the likelihood of achieving a favorable negotiated outcome, the value of the potential favorable outcomes, the direct costs of negotiating, and the indirect and opportunity costs
