Exam 3

when a person's expectancy is low, he/she believes

"I am not even sure what my goal is, so how can I achieve it" "I do not think anyone could do what is being asked of me"

when a person's expectancy is high, he/she believes

"I have the knowledge, skill, and abilities to get the job done" "the goal is reasonable, and, if I exert myself, I am sure I can succeed"

when instrumentality is high, the person believes

"my boss has always followed through on her promises before. I am sure she will this time as well" "if I sell 500, I get a $5000 bonus"

when is instrumentality is low, the person believes

"they tell us we can take vacation time after this project, but I dont believe it" "I dont count on any promises around here. Ive been burned before"

Research the parties you'll be negotiating with

-Reputation -Scarce resources -Interest in good relationship -Ongoing or one-time negotiation -Trust

Talk to other people who have information you need

-Seek other people who have had similar negotiations -Talk to your constituents -Talk in advance to other parties

the scorecard for an effective negotiation allows you to evaluate 3 desired outcomes

-all parties believe that they made a good deal -the relationship is maintained or even improved -each negotiators constituents are satisfied with the agreement

steps for stabilizing the situation are...

-greet the parties -indicate where each of them is to sit -identify yourself and each party by name -state the purpose of the mediation -confirm your neutrality -get the parties commitment to proceed -get their commitment that only one party will speak at a time -get their commitment to speak directly to you rather than confronting the other party directly

to lessons to learn about the leverage of legitimacy

-make it look non-negotiable -ask

stages of effectiveness in negotiations

-prepare -understand needs -list and discuss options -use process tactics -end negotiation -evaluate

leverage of timing offers several benefits

-set the time when the negotiation will continue -you can collect your thoughts and plan the next step -you can consult with others and collect more information -you can talk to other parties to see whether a better deal is possible -you can apply pressure if the other party is facing a deadline

The four major steps to the mediation process are...

-stabilize the setting -help the parties communicate -help the parties negotiate -clarify the agreements

organizational behavior modification takes a five step approach to increase motivation and performance

1. identify performance-related behaviors 2. measure the frequency of these behaviors 3. identify the contingencies supporting the current behaviors 4. develop and implement a behaviorally based intervention strategy 5. measure the resulting performance-related behavior

power exists only when there are at least

2 people and it is a property of the relationship between them

Motivation potential score(MPS)

=(variety + identity + significance/3) x autonomy x feedback

Three factors of Deci's Self Determination Theory

Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness

mixed motive situation

Employees are rewarded for competing aggressively but told they should work toward the department's overall outcome as a whole

intrinsic outcomes

Feelings of personal worth, the opportunity to use one's abilities, and a sense of personal accomplishment

performance=

Motivation x Ability x Opportunity

Integrating style (characterized by high concern for self and others)

Relies on open discussion, looks for mutually beneficial alternatives, encourages a free exchange of info, and considers interpersonal and position differences all to find a win-win solution

What desires, wants, and needs get people to take action?

This "what" question looks primarily at people and what may make one person more highly motivated than another

What roles does the environment play in motivation?

This "where or when" question focuses on the setting in which people are working and asks how that influences behavior

positive reinforcement occurs when

a behavior is linked with a consequence an employee considers pleasant; should be used whenever the goal is to increase the frequency of a desired behavior (pleasant consequence/consequence added)

bluffing

a common tactic that incurs two risks: heavy handed bluffing can strain relationships and if the bluff fails the negotiation may be over and you will have sacrificed a superior outcome

first in person business impression will be based on elements such as

a handshake, introductions, clothing, and speech

stalemate

a situation in which no agreement is reached

reward power

ability to provide others with rewards they desire in exchange for work you need accomplished

performance is the function of

ability(what you can do), motivation(what you will do), and opportunity(what you get to do)

motivation factors include

achievement, recognition, advancement, and growth

factors leading to satisfaction (motivation)

achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth

conformity

act of changing your behavior to match the responses or behavior of others; enables us to feel that we fit in or feel comfortable with other people

fear lost opportunity in much the same way they fear loss of

actual property

build reward power by

actually rewarding people

punishment

adding an unpleasant consequence as a response to a person's undesired behavior, with the goal of stopping the behavior from happening in the future - (aversive consequences/consequences added)

range of factors we consider in determining who is like us

age, race, gender, religion, politics, and even cigarette smoking habits

Consider your BATNA

an agreement better than your BATNA should be accepted -an agreement worse than your BATNA should not be accepted

ERG theory also acknowledges that if a higher order need is frustrated,

an individual may refocus on a lower order need that appears easier to satisfy

expert power

an individuals superior knowledge and skill that others require; most common way to build is through education

outrageous behavior

any form of socially unacceptable conduct intended to force the other side to make a move, i.e. throwing a fit

task centered disputes

are debates over competing ideas, proposals, interests, or resources

look for key info from the other party by...

asking probing questions like -why -how -what if -what would be wrong with -etc.

people who have power and use it effectively

attain desired jobs more quickly, make more money, and are promoted more quickly

negative reinforcement

attempt to increase the frequency of a desirable behavior, but by linking desired behavior with the removal of undesirable consequences, rather than the addition of positive ones - (aversive consequences/consequences removed)

vertically load jobs enhances

autonomy and task identity; gives workers increased authority for making job related decisions and is synonymous with employee empowerment

Existence needs

basic human survival (food, water, etc)

informational factors come into play when people have based their point of view on different sets of facts

bc each had a different piece of info, they reach vastly different conclusions Ex: parable of the blind men and the elephant

job crafting

bottom up approach, where employees modify their own jobs in a way that makes them more satisfying and engaging; focuses on the ways employees modify their own jobs to better fit their strengths and interests

Dual Concern Model of Handling Interpersonal Conflict

by considering a person's concerns for him/herself as well as that person's concern for other people , the styles are categorized

task conflict is good conflict bc

can make decision making and problem solving more effective and lead to greater accuracy, insight, and innovation

coercive power

capability to force someone to do something against his/her will; power of dictators, depots, and bullies

power

capacity to exert influence to control others or events, as well as the capacity to defend against the influence of others

appeal to authority relies on "snob appeal" which

capitalizes on people's desire to feel that they are somehow better than others

Punishment is most effective when it has the following four characteristics

clear expectations, consistency, timeliness, and powerful effect

Hackman and Oldham outlined a set of five interventions shown to influence the motivation potential score for a job

combine tasks, form natural work units, establish client relationships, vertically load jobs, and open feedback channels

______ is the most desirable of the influence outcomes

commitment

Factors leading to dissatisfaction (hygiene)

company policy, supervision, relationship with boss, work conditions, salary, relationship with peers

no amount of motivation can overcome ________, nor can great ability compensate for

complete lack of ability; a shortage of motivation, even with multiple opportunities

"what" questions are ______ approaches

content

"when or where" questions are _______ approaches

context

role factors

contribute to conflict when people's roles in an org are somehow in conflict or the "turf" associated with their position is being challenged

the job characteristics model proposes a link between

core job dimensions, critical psychological states, and personal and work outcomes

motivation

desire to act and move toward a goal

growth needs

desire to attain growth and personal development

hot seat

devised to enable specialists to spend a portion of their time off the phones and working on problems on their own without interruption

strong ties

direct relationships

personal factors can be emotional and have more overtones leading to

disagreements about what is factually correct can easily turn into arguments over who is morally right

political skills combine the most effect influence tactics resulting in

disarmingly charming and engaging manner that inspires confidence, trust, and sincerity

coercive power takes form in

disciplinary actions, demotions, and job loss; generally the threat of firing is considered the most extreme form

effective organizational functioning demands that people have a healthy _____ for their boss

disrespect

norms at work are frequently associated with

dress, language, internet use, the open expression of feelings, promptness, interruptions of or challenges to leaders, volunteering of your services, avoidance of conflict, and so on

Need for achievement

drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs suggests that

each need must be fulfilled before we can be motivated by a need on the next higher level, and that our lowest level of unfulfilled needs is our primary source of motivation

perceptual factors

each person selects the data that supports their pov and tend to devalue info that does not support it

a compromising style (moderate concern for both parties)

each side gives up something important to gain other advantages that are more important

norms of good manners enable you to conduct yourself with

ease, style, and confidence

expectancy x instrumentality x valence is congruent with

effort x performance x rewards

the goal is not to _____ all conflict but to manage it in a way that minimizes its harm to engagement and performance

eliminate

first method to job crafting is cognitive change

employees change the way they perceive their tasks ex: hospital janitor focusing on helping people to get better by providing a cleaner environment instead of on routine tasks such as sweeping the floor

affiliation motivated people want to

establish and maintain friendly relationships with others

Physiological needs are also known as

existence needs - food, water, and air

Safety/security needs are also known as

existence needs - shelter, personal security, health

Alderfers ERG Theory collapses Maslow's 5 levels into 3 -

existence, relatedness, and growth (ERG)

expectancy theory is based on three specific employee beliefs

expectancy, instrumentality, and valence

Examples of critical psychological states

experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of the actual results of the work activities

_________ is of utmost concern, and you may need to go to great lengths to show that you are _______________

fairness and impartial

open feedback channels enhances

feedback; feedback is important bc workers need to know how well or poorly they are performing their jobs if improvement is expected

its often very difficult to overcome a poor

first impression

people respond favorably to

flattery

autonomy

freedom to select how and when particular tasks are performed

____ and _____ between supervisor and subordinate increase each person's trust for the other

frequency; depth of effective communication

Cialdini Six Principles of Influence

friendship/liking commitment and consistency scarcity reciprocity social proof appeals to authority

need for affiliation

friendship; good relationships

appeals to authority are most powerful when they come from

genuine authorities who possess recognized knowledge and wisdom

people tend to give what they

get

political skills

gives us the ability to effectively understand others at work and to use such knowledge to influence them to act in ways that enhance our personal and or organizational objectives

Leverage of Legitimacy

giving the impression the issue is not negotiable

according to Latham, goals work for at least three reasons

goals direct behavior toward goal-relevant behavior and away from other behaviors; goals energize and increase persistence, and goals increase the incentive for a person to seek out and use new sources of info to obtain the standard

Extinction

gradual disappearance of a behavior that is followed by no consequence and is thus unlikely be repeated again (bc it did not bring about any gain for the person performing the behavior) - (pleasant consequences/consequences removed)

self actualization needs are also known as

growth needs - desire to become the most that one can be

examples of personal and work outcomes

high internal work motivation, high-quality work performance, high satisfaction with the work, and low absenteeism and turnover

soft tactics

highly effective in influencing others bc they evoke emotions that both establish a sense of urgency and help bring people together

inputs include

hours worked, work quality, education, and experience

relatedness needs

human desires to satisfy interpersonal and social relationships

the two types of factors in Herzberg's Two Factor Theory of Motivation are

hygiene and motivation

punishment challenges

if viewed as unfairly administered, it can have negative side effects such as encouraging people to rebel bc they feel they are being too tightly controlled; punishment can only specify what not to do - of which there may be an infinite number of variations; best avoided unless it is really necessary

silence

if you have made an offer and youre waiting for a response, just stand by: most people feel uncomfy when conversation ceases: dont make new suggestions, repeat your terms, and dont change your offer

norms

implicit or explicit codes describing what constitutes acceptable behavior

Suboptimization

in the pursuit of goals, people may ignore other important objectives and may do things outside the spirit of the goals, even engaging in unethical behavior, to achieve them

progressive discipline

increases in severity if the offense continues ex: first offense may be punished with a verbal warning, a second merits a written warning, and the third calls for firing

weak ties

indirect relationships with others

capacity

individual power can be developed regardless of a person's title or level within an org

resistance

influence target is opposed to carrying out the request and will resist accomplishing what is being requested

Rahim and colleagues suggests that people can adopt one of five conflict handling styles

integrating, dominating, avoiding, obliging, and compromising

mediation is frequently used in...

interpersonal agreements, school or university settings, in criminal cases, and in community disputes

the avoiding approach (low concern for both parties)

is a passive action that leaves the problem unaddressed: waiting may actually lead to a better solution than pressing ahead

dominating style (high concern for self, low concern for others)

is a win-lose approach: is making every attempt to win as much as possible with little regard for the other party

Bait and switch

is inherently dishonest and you should avoid it in negotiations

relationship conflict is bad conflict bc

it threatens productivity and interferes with the effort that people put into a task, bc they are preoccupied with retaliating, increasing their personal power, or attempting to repair the relationship rather than with working on the task

the goals of mediation in business settings are to...

keep some control of the process and settle disputes in a cost effective manner

dependence

leads people to do things they may not otherwise do

as a negotiation draws to a close

leave as many issues on the table as possible until the very end to give you the most options for putting together a final agreement

legitimate power is often sufficient to gain compliance behavior but

less effective in inducing engaged and committed action

the way to use appeals to authority effectively on the job is to

let people know your strengths and expertise without coming off as a braggart

we are influenced by people who

like us, are similar to us, and flatter us

people are particularly sensitive to perceived _____ more than they are to perceived _____ of the same magnitude

loss;gain

_______ conflict can stimulate more careful thinking and conscientious work

low to medium level

power etiquette and professional influence

make good first impression and introduce others, learn and use names, arrive early to work and meetings, actively build your network, regularly talk a little about yourself, be authentic, show appreciation, and be smart on social media

ineffective positive reinforcement is often a greater problem than administering punishment bc

managers are naturally inclined to assume that people know they are doing well and need only nonspecific feedback that has little motivating value ex: "you are great; I wish I had five more like you"

challenges to negative reinforcement

may work in short term, but has harmful side effects and is not considered an effective practice ex: "if your numbers dont improve you will be fired"; when numbers improve, the person is not fired and the threat is removed

high equity sensitivity

more outcome-oriented and want more than others for the same level of inputs

ERG theory demonstrates that

more than one need may motivate at the same time, and that a lower motivator does not have to be satisfied before other needs become motivating

goal setting

most effective and efficient way to both clearly convey expectations and motivate people to achieve them

When people are matched to a job that fits them,

most of the problems associated with unmotivated or lazy people disappear

power motivated individuals see

most work situations as an opportunity to influence other people or to take control

McCellands framework focuses on three basic needs

need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power

relatedness is a

need for belonging

if the benefit of a negotiated solution minus our BATNA is higher than the cost of negotiating

negotiating is a good option

power itself is

neutral

mediator

outside party who specializes in helping people in conflict reach an amicable agreement

low equity sensitivity

pay more attention to their inputs and are less sensitive to equity issues

outcomes include

pay, fringe, benefits, increased responsibility, and prestige

extrinsic outcomes

pay, status, fringe benefits

reinforcement theory

people are motivated to repeat behavior that gets rewarded

extinction is challenging bc

people hold expectations about what is likely to follow their actions, based on what they have observed in the past

ceiling effects in goal setting

people reach their goal and stop, even though they might be capable of considerably higher performance levels

McCelland's Learned Needs Theory proposes that

people should identify the predominant need in themselves and in others to find those roles and situations where success is most likely

referent power is highly associated with the

person not the position

instrumentality

person's belief that a given level of performance will lead to specific outcomes; perceptions can range from zero - "everyone gets the same pay no matter how hard they work and produce" - to certain - "every time I sell a unit, I get 7 percent commission"

committing to complete a task or course of action is often associated with

personal appeal, consultation, collaboration, and inspirational appeal

relationship conflict

personalized and therefore highly threatening and damaging for personal relationships, team functioning and problem solving

According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, the lowest to highest are

physiological needs, safety/security needs, social needs, esteem needs, self actualization needs

most important part of negotiation is...

planning and preparation

operant conditioning has four different operant conditioning strategies bc there are two actions (addition and removal) and two types of consequences (pleasant and aversive) - the four operant conditioning strategies are

positive reinforcement, extinction, punishment, and negative reinforcement

hypotheticals

possible solutions or alternatives that are presented but not agreed to at the time of being proposed

influence

power in action, serve as the means by which individuals gain and exercise power

legitimate power

power invested in a role or job position; stems from higher hierarchical level or legal mandate ex: politicians, police, and managers

referent power

power of charisma and fame and is commonly enjoyed by celebrities as well as others in highly visible roles

resistance is often associated with

pressure, ingratiation, and coalition

"how" questions are ______ approaches

process

Operant condidtioning

process of adding or removing pleasant or aversive consequences following voluntary behaviors

those with high levels of political stills are more likely to be rated as

promotable

the major contributions of Maslow and Alderfer were in shifting attention from _______ and toward _________

purely extrinsic rewards (money); intrinsic factors (sense of accomplishment)

skill variety is the

range in the number of skills used to complete the job tasks (conceptual, physical, technical, and people skills)

______ is essential to making good business decisions and it is effective in influencing others to complete tasks and perform on the job

rationality

When one person makes a concession and the other does not

reciprocity is not fulfilled and they will experience a sense of betrayal

esteem needs are also known as

relatedness and growth needs - respect, self esteem, status, recognition

social needs are also known as

relatedness needs - relationships with friends, family, etc

Through what psychological means do personal and environmental factors affect a person's motivation?

represents the "how" of motivation

influence tactics have one of three reactions

resistance, compliance, or commitment

five bases of power are

reward, legitimate, referent, expert, and coercive

Take it or leave it approach

seen as negotiating in bad faith and is not recommended

competence is the

sense of mastery we feel when we have effective interactions with our environment and are confident our tasks, although challenging, match our knowledge and skills

combine tasks enhances

skill variety, task identity, and task significance; combo of tasks leads to a more challenging and complex work assignment, bc it requires people to use a wider variety of skills

establish client relationships enhances

skill variety, task identity, autonomy, and feedback; an ongoing personal relationship between and employee and a customer can lead to success

The job characteristics model identifies five core job dimensions

skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback

leverage

small advantage or perceived advantage that one party can use to gain a much larger benefit

one of the most potent forms of political skill behavior is applying

social influence, or influencing others in situations where you dont have direct authority

Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham's evidence-based job characteristics model (JCM) provides a simple yet powerful explanation of why

some jobs are more motivating than others, and how the motivation potential of a job can be enriched

Win-lose negotiating

someone has to lose and odds are sometime it will be you

foot-in-the-door technique

someone makes a small request, the other person grants it, and a larger request follows

SMART goals are more likely to be accomplished; stands for

specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound

expectancy theory

starting point for diagnosing and framing motivational challenges and the structure for integrating a variety of other motivational models and concepts

second method to job crafting is to modify the tasks themselves

taking on more or less work, limiting or extending the scope of their tasks, or changing the way they complete their tasks ex: HR rep may try to automate the less enjoyable parts of her job such as record keeping, so that she can focus on matters that she truly cares about, such as employee development

commitment

target agrees with the request and strives to carry it out with energy and engagement, often doing more than requested

compliance

target is willing to do what the influencer asks but is not enthusiastic about it; will do what is requested and nothing more

form natural work units enhances

task identity and task significance

leverage of timing

telling the party you want to leave to think about the deal

scarcity

tends to lower the level of trust ppl have in one another, which in turn increases the likelihood of conflict

one of the challenges to positive reinforcement

that the rewards should have value to the employees; Richard Easterlin suggests that monetary rewards may not always be the most effective

the better you know and understand your boss,

the better your chances of influencing them

autonomy is

the degree of choice employees possess about when and how they perform their work

task identity

the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work

feedback

the degree to which individuals receive knowledge or their results from the job itself

task significance

the degree to which the job has a direct effect on the work or lives of other people

Edward L Deci's Self Determination Theory (SDT) focuses on

the growth needs of individuals, which, when satisfied, can help them realize their potential

ERG theory accounts for cultural differences better than Maslow's does bc

the order of needs can be different for different people

an effective mediator must convince

the parties to trust him/her, to trust the process itself, and finally to begin to trust each other

most negotiators naturally focus more on the content of a negotiation

the problem, there needs, the proposals, and the counter proposals

expectancy

the understanding of what performance is desired and the person's belief that effort will lead to a desired level of performance; does the person know what to do, and will he or she be able to do it

these perceptions of fairness are based on social comparison by which people compare what they are getting out of their job -

their outcomes to what they are putting into it - inputs

issues are not negotiable when

there is no way to create added value for yourself in a negation, you should not be negotiating in the first place

third method to job crafting is modifying the way in which they interact with others at work

they can create more meaningful connections ex: a grocer may decide to make each customer feel appreciated by asking him or her about his or her day instead of simply bagging groceries

need for power

to control others, to get desired things done

leading cause of business failure is ________ thus task conflict fosters alternative viewpoints and less complacency can be very useful

too much agreement

too little task conflict is bad, bc ppl are not being challendge and problems are not being addressed but

too much task conflict can also be problematic

task conflict was likely more beneficial for _____ than for ______

top management; non-top management teams

win-win negotiating

treat the conflict separately from the relationship and look to seek a mutually acceptable solution: not to win the fight but to solve the problem

an obliging style (low concern for self and high concern for other parties)

tries to keep the peace by satisfying the other party: obliging can build significant goodwill and improve the relationship for future negotiations

employee-manager relationships is the most important work relationship that needs to be built on

trust and reciprocity

to increase your referent power, you need to be

trusted and respected

Hygiene and motivation factors are independent, not just

two ends of one scale

authority

type of power a person possesses due to his or her position ex: mother to child

social proof is most influential under two conditions:

uncertainty and similarity

valence

value a person places on future outcomes; "whats in it for me?"

task conflict

ways to address tasks, ideas, and issues and is not related to people's evaluations of others' character

social proof is a phenomenon in which

we view actions as more acceptable if we see others performing them in the same or similar situations

best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA)

what we will be left with if we cannot reach a negotiated agreement; our current situation or what we have if we do not negotiate

valence starts the process of pulling together the ____ and ______ approaches to motivations

what; how

environmental factors

when an org is forced to operate on a shoestring budget, its members are more likely to experience conflict over scarce resoures

zero sum game

when one person succeeds, another fails

blowback effect

when your counterpart becomes angry and loses faith in the negotiation process

equity

workers' perceptions of the fairness of outcomes they receive on the job

hygiene factors include

working conditions, quality of supervision, salary, security, and interpersonal relationships

achievement motivated people thrive on

working more efficiently, solving problems, or mastering complex tasks

Leverage of Limited Authority

you can benefit by having your authority limited by a boss or some other entity

to increase reward power base,

you do need to control some rewards, and this may take a certain amount of creativity (feedback, compliments and so on)

by developing skills that are scarce,

you increase your value and potential influence

To calculate the benefits of negotiating, consider

your current BATNA, the likelihood of achieving a favorable negotiated outcome, the value of the potential favorable outcomes, the direct costs of negotiating, and the indirect and opportunity costs