Exp. Foods Exam 3

types of milled wheat flour

*Straight Flour*: -100% extraction flour used to make patent, clear, low grade flour -extraction rate: amount of flour after milling when bran and germ are removed leaving endosperm 100% wheat and pull out bran and germ and left w 70% of original product. That 70% is straight flour (and its 100% straight flour - the purest form) *Patent Flour* -purest, highest quality commercial wheat flour from center portion of endosperm -extra short/fancy, short, medium, long patent: 40-95% straight flour -short = less gluten -pull out of the straight center part of the endosperm; most starch; purest form w out any residual from bran or germ -used most in industry *Clear Flour* -by product of straight flour after patent flour is removed -pull out from patent and get clear flour and its dark bc its closer to bran

whole grain structure

*endosperm*: -70-80% of kernel -stores as much energy as starch (amylose, amylopectin) in a protein matrix -aleurone cell layer -starch granules *aleurone* -outermost layer of endosperm -followed by inner starchy endosperm -30% of kernel protein *bran*: -high fiber (cellulose) -outer layer of kernel (bran has many layers, outer is the hardest) -covers endosperm and germ -antioxidants, B vitamins, phytochemicals -50-80% of minerals (iron, copper, zinc, magnesium) -seed coat, nucellar tissue, tube cells, cross cells, hypodermis, epidermis *germ*: -embryo -2.5% of kernel -contains fat, protein, B vitamins, vit E, phytochemicals -plumule, scutellum, radicle

quality determination of fats

-*Chromatographic analysis*: relative amounts of key components of a fat -*Free Fatty Acid Content*: determined by titrating a fluid fat sample with a standard NaOH solution *Peroxide Value*: measures oxidation of potassium iodide in the presence of a fat, indicating deterioration due to oxidative rancidity -*Iodine number/value*: indicates weight of iodine held at points of unsaturation. -Coconut oil has lowest iodine number: coconut oil does not have a high level of unsaturation bc iodine attaches to double bonds -Olive and Palm: one double bond, higher number -Soybean and sunflower: pick up more iodine and adhere to double bonds -Linseed oil has highest iodine number

parenchyma cell structure

-*Vacuole*: largest structure holds sugars, enzymes, acids, flavonoid pigments, phenolic compounds (inner portion); makes up mouth feel, taste, smell -*Tonoplast*: thin membrane separating protoplasm from interior of cell; protects vacuole -*Plastids*: organelles in cytoplasm that form/store pigments and starch; holds pigments

functional properties of starch

-*gelatinization*: heat starch in water and the starch granules swell and break H bonds w/ the migration of some amylose into the cooking water -*dextrinization*: hydrolytic chem breakdown of starch by intense dry heat w formation of dextrin molecules -*pasting*: changes in gelatinized starch if heating continues; loss of amylose; implosion of granules -*gelation*: starch mixtures that form gels as the mixture cools -*retrogradation*: gel changing w time as H bonds holding amylose network break and form H bonds w other amylose molecules in gel; form gritty texture -*syneresis*: retrogradation occurs over time; water molecules release from re-ordered amylose network

gluten complex parts

-*gliadin*: sticky, fluid, elliptical,; high in glutamine and proline; isoelectric point pH 6.1-6.7; strong intramolecular disulfide bonding -*glutenin*: elastic, fibrous; greater molecular wt; isoelectric point pH 5.2-5.6 glutenin + gliadin + water = gluten complex

fat properties: chemical degradation (odors and off flavors)

-*rancidity*: chemical deterioration of fat quality by either oxidative or hydrolytic chemical reactions

altering gluten complex

-*temp*: heating gluten inc the molecular size of the glutenin aggregates -*sugar*: reduces hydration bc its hygroscopic; retards gluten dev; sugar competes w gluten -*fat*: inhibits gluten dev by coating surface of gluten and inhibiting hydration -*fluid*: excess fluid = diluted proteins = reduced clinging of strands

factors affecting pastes and gels

-*water*: sufficient amount to accommodate 3 fold volume inc -*temp*: gelatinization and thickening between 140-158F -*starch granules size*: larger granules absorb more water than small and lower gelantinization temps so they cook faster -*duration of cooking*: longer cooking = greater leaching out of amylose/amylopectin in water = pasty texture -*rate of cooling*: both rapid and slow cooling causes recrystallization/retrogradation and weeping of starch gel (syneresis) -*shear*: vigorous stirring after gelatinization breaks granules texture -*acidity*: pH < 4 = hydrolysis of amylose -> reduced viscosity, thinning -*sugars*: type of sugar inc gelatinization temp

Wheat flour of the shelf

-*whole wheat*: contains bran, germ, endosperm of wheat berries -*enriched flour*: white flour with Iron and B vits added (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid) -*all purpose flour*: white flour produced from blend of wheat varieties; self rising w leavening agent and salt -*bread flour*: long patent flour from blended hard wheat varieties; contains more protein (12%)

US per capita fat and oil consumptions

-1909: butter, lard -Increased all food products from 35.5 to 83.8 -1920-1940: steady butter, steady lard, little margarine -1950: margarin inc, butter decrease (start talking cholesterol) -80s: cutting back on trans and satuated fats -2012: dec butter (picked up more these days bc moving away from trans fats), high fat oils *Lard: pig fat Tallow: cow fat

cereal grains

-22-25 whole grains in the world -~80% of protein and over 50% of cals consumed by human

Origins of Fruits

-Apple: Caucasus; originated in southeast china; grew wildly and it was brought into the states by colonists -Avocado: Central America; 10,000 years old; grew wild *-Banana: India -Grapefruit: Indonesia -Lemon: India -Lime: India* -Tomato: South America; grew wild in the Andes; brought into Europe

Global Fruit Production

-Banana: India, Chad, Uganda -Grapes: China, US, Italy -Oranges: Brazil, US, China -Apple: China, US, Turkey

changes post harvest

-Bulbs, roots, tubers, seeds become dormant depending on temperature -Starch synthesis may continue if storage is room temperature or slightly warmer (legumes, potatoes and carrots) -Many vegetables considered more palatable when they retain a reasonable sugar level, vs. synthesizing starch -For vegetables in which some sweetness is desired, refrigerator storage is recommended -Warm temp: continue to break down and produce more starch, gets tough -Refrigerate: slows the process, can hold onto sweetness

Origins of Vegetables

-Carrot: Central Asia/Afghanistan -Corn: Central America -Potato: South America; used for feed, brought into Europe -Sweet Potato: South America -Yam: Africa; 90% of Yams grown in Africa -Zucchini: Europe

worldwide grain production

-Corn, Rice, Wheat is the largest contributor to food supply -50,000 edible plants worldwide -40% of all grain is fed to animals

Produce Food Safety

-FDA oversees -Good Agricultural Practices (1990s): reduces microbial contamination -Produce Safety rule (Food Safety Modernization Act, 2016): minimum standards for safe growing, harvesting, packing, holding of produce -FDA is NOT AUTHORIZED to approve, certify, license or sanction ind. food importers, products, labels, shipments -Food Safety Prevention Law (2011): FDA has authority to order a recall (used to rely on manufacturer/supplier for this) -started enforcing in sping 2019

fat properties: crystallization

-Fats in solid form (refrigerator/room temperatures) = mixture of crystals in oil -Crystal structure important for shortenings, margarines and fat products -Each crystalline form presents unique properties: plasticity, texture, solubility and aeration. Four Forms of Fat Crystals 1. alpha 2. beta prime 3. intermediate 4. beta

fruit vs vegetable

-Fruit: has a seed, flower; "the ripened ovary of a flowering plant that contains the seeds" -Vegetables: "part of a plant that s grown primarily for food"

amylose

-Linear fraction—characterized by 1,4-α-glucosidic linkages and molecular weight = 150,000 -starches differ in relative content of amylose (root/tuber starches contain somewhat less than cereal starches (corn, rice)) -Comprises 15%- 30% of starch, but can comprise 75% of starch (special species of corn and peas)

amylopectin

-Nonlinear molecule and dense with molecular weight = 65 to 500 million (bigger than amylose) -1,6-α-glucosidic and 1,4-a-glucosidic linkages result in different spatial arrangements -Molecules linear for a span of ~10-25+ glucose units, then dendritic (branching) due to direction shifts at the 1,6-a-glucosidic linkages -Far more abundant in starches, usual range in starch is 70-85%. Cereal starches are ~75% amylopectin

stearidonic acid (SDA) enriched oil

-Omega-3 fatty acids found in fish (EPA, DHA) and certain plant oils (a-linolenic acid, ALA, 18:3). -For the body to convert ALA to EPA and DHA, it must first convert ALA to stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4). -SDA-enriched soy oil more efficiently converted by body to EPA than current plant sources (ALA) because it bypasses ALA conversion process. -Inefficient production of delta 6 so we cant get as much omega 3 when we eat the product - come out w a small amount of omega 3 -Enriched: bypass ALA conversion so its more effective ALA from plants -> SDA w/out delta 6 enzyme so theres not a lot of SDA to convert to omega 3 so SDA -> EPA -> DHA (still hard w/out delta 6) Consuming products w SDA enriched soy -> body skips ALA conversion step -> more SDA -> more EPA

parenchyma cells

-Principal cell in fruits/vegetables, abundant in ground tissue -Dominates what happens to fruit or veggie properties -Have intracellular air space -Primary cell wall composed of complex carbohydrates: cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectic substances, noncellulosic polysaccharides -Polyhedral cells: number of faces specific per fruit/vegetable - determines tightness of fit between these cells; faces can be configured in diff cells from 8-20 diff faces -Potatoes: 1% of volume = intercellular air space (dense) -Apples: 25% of volume = intercellular air space (softer, floats in water)

10 acres of cultivated land feeds for 1 year....

-Rice crop: ~24 people -Wheat crop: ~10 people -Animal production: 1 person

thickening ability

-Root starches are somewhat more effective than cereal starches -Waxy starches more than their standard counterparts; they contain higher percentage of amylopection amount needed to achieve viscosity of starch paste from least amount to most: potato -> waxy corn -> waxy rice -> tapioca -> arrowroot -> sorghum -> corn -> waxy rice flour -> rice -> rice flour -> wheat -> wheat flour

short/med rice vs long grain rice

-Short and Med grain: less amylose, more amylopectin; sticky (more complex CHO and less protein) -Long: more amylose, less amylopectin; fluffy (amylose doesnt gelatinize)

smoke point

-Smoke point: determined by double bonds, heat, quality of the fat (how many free FA does it have, how refined is it), how much light in the area, how much O2 is flowing in that are -Why is smoke point important?: higher temp = more free FA = more free radicals = carcinogenic -Safflower, soybean, corn, palm, peanut, sunflower, sesame, grapeseed: used a lot in US; more refined; more volatile - don't last as long -Olive: lower smoke point; more good stuff in it -trace minerals, vitamins; can raise smoke point by getting light olive oil (more refined, pulled out more FA) -Lard, shortenings, butter: more saturated, lower smoke point

gelation ability

-Starches low in amylose do notform gels in concentrations normally used in food -Cross-linking of amylose, intra and inter-molecular bonding -high amylopectin = pasty strength of starch gels least to greatest: waxy corn, waxy rize, waxy rice flour, potato, tapioca, cross linked waxy cornstarch (0) > rice flour > wheat flour > rice > cornstarch > wheat > thin boiling wheat

chemical and physical modifications of fats and oils

-Technologies that decrease and/or eliminate trans and saturated fatty acids through production of blends -Methods that alter physical properties of fats/oils: melting points, enhance plasticity and spread ability -Techniques used to develop a wide variety of fats/oils for use: fully hydrogenated, fractionation, interesterification and blending

FDA regulations for enrichment

-Thiamin: 2.9mg -Riboflavin: 1.8mg -Niacin: 24mg -Folic Acid: 0.7mg -Iron: 20mg

starch properties

-Thickening agent, form pastes and gels with hot water -Not readily soluble in cold water -Type of starch influences characteristics of starch paste viscosity and gel strength

Fatty Acid Interesterification

-Triacylglycerol molecule (POL): palmitic (P), oleic (O), linoleic (L) FAs occupy Sn1, 2, 3. -Following IE: LPO (linoleic-palmitic-oleic), OLP (oleic-linoleic-palmitic) and PLO (palmitic-linoleic-oleic) can line up in various configurations. -Since natural oils and fats are made up of a variety of triacylglycerol molecules, interesterification results in large number of new triacylglycerol molecules. -end up w 3 diff TGs

ancient grains

-Wheat family: einkorn, emmer/farro, Kamut, spelt -Heirloom varieties: black barley, red and black rice, blue corn, teff, quinoa, amaranth, sorgum; seeds handed down thru generations; thers a movement to keep these seeds the same ancient grains: less allergies, not been processed

composition of wheat flours

-Whole Wheat (hard wheat): has germ and bran; 71% CHO, 13.3% Pro, 12% water, 2% fat, 1.7% ash (most Pro, least CHO) -Cake: (less pro, more CHO/starch/endosperm) 79.4% CHO, 7.5% Pro, 12% water, 0.8 fat, 0.31% ash (most CHO, least pro) -all flours have 12% water -ash is everything else (vitamins, minerals)

corn/maize

-a domesticated variant of teosinte -originated in South America -2500 BC: maize spread to north -> US, New Mexico and Arizona

rice

-asian: 12,000 years ago in China -most import grain for humans -provides over 20% of cals worldwide -40,000 varieties (20 are grown in the US) -3 basic categories of rice: small, medium, long -good for growth in aries w limited space and lots of moisture -seeds planted in water: natural pesticide and herbicide

fats and oils in the marketplace

-canola: mostly monounsat (lowest sat fat of the fats we havent changed at all) -lard: mostly sat -palm: mostly sat (why its so stable and so good to use in so many manufactured products) -high oleic sunflower: mostly monounsat -olive oil: mostly monounsat -beef: mostly sat -butter: mostly sat

Modified starches

-changes to starch molecules by physical/chemical means create "special" starches with unique characteristics -easier to dissolve -binds ingredients, thickener -fat substitute for low fat foods -emulsifier/stabilizer (keeps oils from separating) -forms hard shell on candies -longer shelf life -pre gelatinized, cross linked, thin boiling, high amylose

fat properties: effects of heat

-continued heating causes removal of two water molecules from the glycerol and formation of an unusual aldehyde—*acrolein* -Acrolein is almost immediately vaporized, causing the fat to "smoke" -glycerol + heat + loss of h2o -> acrolein (aldehyde) -don't want to produce acrolein; deterioration of glycerol molecule in the oil or fat bc its separated from TG so thers more FFA and more glycerol so its very reactive to form acrolein -as fat is used at high temp for a long time the smoke point will drop -this continues until flavor and appearance of foods fried in it are unacceptable -fats with monoglycerides are altered quickly so the smoke point is too low for acceptable fried products -monoglycerides alter more quickly

main staple cereal grain crops world wide

-corn (maize) -wheat -rice -barley -sorghum -oats -rye -millet

3 top produced/consumed grains worldwide

-corn: US, China, Brazil -wheat: EU, China, India -rice: Asian (China, India)

how to prevent oxidative rancidity

-do no expose to O2 -darker color bottle to cut down on light -storage place and time -tight lid -put olive oil in fridge bc it cuts down on oxidation Several synthetic antioxidants are used as additivesto help retard oxidative rancidity in fats and oils -EDTA, citric acid, phosphates: you get residuals of trace minerals (iron, copper) even though they've been replied; these antioxidants can pull this out or slow down oxidation -BHA to propyl gallate: added to frying foods; stable in high temps -Tocopherol-honey (vit E): more natural -rosemary, thyme, oregano, dried plums, honey

Domestication of cereal grains

-domestication: cultivating wild products for use -20,000 varieties of wheat globally -development of agri started 12,000 years ago -development of wheat and barley: 12,000 -rice: 9000 -maize: 9000 -millets: 8000 -sorghum: 8000 -rye: 7000 -oats: 5000

modifying wheat flour

-freshly milled flour is bad for cooking/baking -started in WWII *Bleaching* -fresh milled flour is yellow bc of xanthophylls (carotenoids) -use gaseous chlorine, nitrosyl chloride and chlorine, peroxides *Aging/Maturing*: -baking performance of wheat flours improves during aging -accelerated by adding maturing agents: oxidizing agents -aging alters physical behavior of proteins: modifies sulfhydryl groups in gluten to disulfide linkages making it more elastic *Enrichment* -replenish nutrients lost during processing and refining -fed regulations require enrichment of wheat/grains -thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, iron -Ca can also be added (min of 960mg per pound if Ca is in label)

produce aging

-increase content of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin as they mature -plant cell walls show rigid, fibrous strands of cellulose intertwined with less rigid forms of fiber -as cell wall loses its moisture, wall structure begins to collapse -a mushy, soft texture allows intercellular fluid to easily escape -inc content of hemicellulose

sat & unsat

-long chain sat fats stack = solid at room temp -mono and polyunsat dont stack = liquid at room temp -short chain sat fats: liquid at room temp

Hydrolytic rancidity

-occurs when fat (triglyceride) is broken up into free fatty acids and glycerol by the presence of water (lipolysis) -the presence of the enzyme lipoprotein lipase (LPL) quickens this process -the unfavorable odor and flavor are the results of tasting individual short chain fatty acids instead of the whole triglyceride. -bitter acidic taste

High Oleic FA oils

-one double bond, very stable so its desirable for baking -oleic acid is naturally abundant in highly flavorful vegetable oils (olive and peanut) -but the intense flavor profiles and high prices limit their use in commercial baking so they try to reconfigure the oil -oilseed breeders increased oleic acid profile of bland-flavored oilseeds (soy, canola, sunflower), more accessible/affordable. -when you change the breed you get a higher concentration of oleic acid -Desired neutral flavor -Improved fat profile -Source of monounsaturated fatty acid -Improved shelf life -Extended fry life -high fry items, oxidative in nature based on how oil deteriorates -Oxidative stability index: (OSI) how resistant oils are to oxidation; values for high oleic oils are greater. -Olive: high in omega 9s; stability is 9 -Soy: not high, but used for oil breeding -Canola, sunflower: original oils before doing anything -Modified rapseed is way more stable w longer shelf life and better for frying at high heats than regular rapseed -High oleic modified sunflower is better than regular sunflower

Most commonly consumed fruits in US

-oranges (orange juice) -apples -bananas -grapes

edible plant oils and fat

-palm: most widely produced; used in biofules, many industries -soybean: half of worlds edible oil production -rapeseed: cooking -sunflower seed: cooking, biodiesel -peanut: cooking -cottonseed: industrial food processing -palm kernel: from seed of African palm tree -coconut: soaps, cooking -olive: cooking, cosmetics, soaps, fuel for oil lampds

starch

-predominant form of stored energy for plants -formed in aggregate structures or granules - crystalline pattern -complex CHO (polysaccs): granules w 2 polymers - amylose and amylopectin

gluten complex

-proteins must be in water -twice as much water is needed -hard wheat flours bind more water than soft - gluten develops more slowly and can be manipulated for longer times w out protein breakage -hard wheat = more gluten complex -more gluten = longer to develope -proteins in dry flour occur in aggregates w starch in in endosperm cells and in wedges of the protein matrix in which starch is embedded in the endosperm -hydrated proteins break the intermolecular secondary bonds and form new bonds w/ mixing -development recorded in *farinographs* (mixograms): ascending - gluten is developing; descending - breaking down

Ripening

-starch/polysaccharides in fruit degrade to sugars (fruit gets sweeter) -cell wall structure changes; flesh softer, texture diff -pectin content is lost as enzymes change the cell walls (pectin -> pectic acid) -some fruit/veg stop ripening when picked and sugars combine to make more complex starches -veggie stalks grown for too long become woody as more complex cellulose strands form

wheat

-started in the "cradle of civilization" (near Iraq) -1/3 of world pop relies on wheat: 20% of cals -grown on more land areas than any other food -adapts to harsh environments -more foods made w wheat globally than any other grain -helped civilizations bc it was easy to grow

Oxidative Rancidity

-uptake of oxygen at a double bonds in an unsat FA = free radicals -o2 uptake at bonds cleaves the double bond so you have free FA hanging out which can also become free radicals -facilitated by presence of certain metals and by light and/or warm temps -the process is autocatalytic = self perpetuation (happens on its own, doesn't need another chemical added) -depends on light and heat and how refined the oil is

effect of temp on starch paste thickening

-waxy corn has lower max viscosity than corn -waxy rice holds viscosity better than rice (but not waxy rice flour - waxy rice is more stable as temp inc -wheat holds viscosity way longer than wheat flour

Most commonly consumed vegetables in the US

1. Potatoes 2. Tomatoes 3. Onions 4. Head Lettuce

5 most widely grown vegetables

1. Tomato 2. Onions 3. Cucumbers 4. Cabbage 5. Eggplants

starch granules cooking

1. granules made of amylose and amylopectin 2. adding water breaks up amylose crystals and disrupts helices - granules swell 3. adding more heat and water = swelling 4. amylose begins to diffuse out of granules 5. granules now contain mostly amylopectin 6. granules collapse and are held in a matrix of amylose forming a gel

6 major types and varieties of corn

6 major types of corn -dent: field con, dent in top of kernel, used for animal feed -flint: multi colored; ornimental; popcorn -pod: husk over each kernel; feed; furry -popcorn: head shell; lots of endosperm CHO complex -flour -sweet: what we eat Varieties: yellow, white, red, blue, pink, black, striped

Most Abundant Fruit in Tons/Top 4 Fruits Produced

Bananas Apples Grapes Oranges US production to people ratio is higher than china bc US does a lot of exports

global vegetable production

China: 51% of all veggie production globally Ratio wise: US is more efficient in production, we have evolved our production more; high ratio of output for the land we use

pasting & starch viscosity

Comparison of viscosity of starch pastes during heating, holding, cooling -140-160F: starch starts to gelatinize -203F or higher for several minutes: granules reach max volume then begin to implode causing a dec in viscosity -Potato starch reaches a much higher viscosity than tapioca before it starts to implode -corn increases viscosity longer than wheat (more continuous) -waxy corn also has continuous inc in viscosity but at a much lower level

crystalline nature of solid fats

Crystal size influences the texture of breads made with lard baked with crystals of varying size

structure determines solid/liquid fats

Difference in physical state due to... -ratio of FAs -FA length -degree of saturation/unsaturation -Lower melting point for the longer chains w more double bonds (more unsat) -Stearic: 18C, 0 double bonds; 70C melting point -a linolenic: 18C, 3 double bonds; -11C melting point -Butyric: 4C, 0 double bonds; -8C melting point

Growth vs. Post Harvest

One process takes in the energy, one uses the energy -*photosynthesis*: creates sugars to store solar energy; Co2 + h2o -> CHO -*respiration*: (mitochondria) releases stored CHO energy for growth and metabolism of plant "feeding the plant"; CHO -> co2, h2o -post harvest fresh produce can't replace CHO or water -post harvest: Synthesis stops, Respiration/cont. -respiration uses stored starches and stops when reserves are out then aging/decay/senescence starts

Rate of respiration (non climacteric vs climacteric)

Rate of respiration directly related to perishable character of fruits/vegetables *Non climacteric*: -Sugar and acids do not increase further - best ripened before harvesting (picked when ripe) -citrus, grapes, cherries, raspberries, strawberries, pineapple, melon *Climacteric*: -Increases respiratory rate and continues ripening -respiratory climacteric + best harvested when mature, but before ripening -can be picked early -apple, avocado, peaches, pears, plums, bananas, papaya, mango, passion fruit

Structural Components of fruit and veg (soluble fiber vs insoluble)

Soluble Fiber -*Gums*: hydrophilic polysaccharides, attract/bind water; more fluid = more gum -*Pectin substances*: structural "cement"-holds it together; alter ripening process; changes as it ripens/ages protopectin (in unripe fruits) -> pectin (gel) - pectic acid (loses gel capability) Insoluble Fiber -*Cellulose*: holds veg/fruit together -*Hemicellulose* -*Lignin*

Ground Tissue properties

Three classes based on nature of the cell walls. -*Parenchyma cells*: principal cell type in fruits/vegetables; most abundant in ground tissue; Parenchyma forms *"filler" tissue* - fleshy part in soft parts of plants; larger; hold more water; least fibrous and least structural of the ground tissue cells -*Collenchyma cells*: aggregates of elongated cells, provides extra structural support, notably vegetables. -*Sclerenchyma cells*: provides the main structural support to a plant; *fibres* and *sclereids*; stringy; celery, asparagus (out to in): epidermis -> collenchyma -> parenchyma -> sclerenchyma (w xylem and phloem)

fruit and vegetable tissue systems

Tissues in fruit and vegetable plants designated in three different systems: -*Dermal tissue* (skin or rind): protective covering of each portion of the plant -*Vascular system*: two parts—the xylem and the phloem; very inner part -*Ground system*: the remainder; constitutes much of the edible portion; pulpy part that we actually eat

what is the protein found in corn

Zein protein

Modification: Blending fats

another method used to avoid the use of trans fats -combining fully hydrogenated soybean oil w/ non hydrogenated oil -results in final product that is trans fat free and low in sat fat

US grown wheat

based on climate Winter Wheat 75%, Summer 25% -hard red winter wheat = flour variety; central US -hard red spring wheat: high protein value = bread; north -soft red winter wheat = cakes, cookies, cracker; mid east -hard and soft white wheat = noodle, crackers, cereals, white crusted breads; north west -durum = pasta; south west -Hard = higher protein (breads) -Soft = less protein; more CHO (cookies, cakes, crackers, noodles) -deals w how its grown -protein in wheat = gluten

Modification: Interesterification

changes FA composition of fats/oils by hydrolysis of FA from the glycerol backbone, followed by re-esterification -Physical state of oils determined by types of FAs and position on glycerol backbone -high sat fats combined w liquid oils -excess glycerol added to a mixture plus a catalyst and high heat -results in redistribution of FAs on glycerol -If you change the position of the FA on a TG you get a completely diff molecule; the product is reesterfied into a new product -Goes thru oil purification process and get a whole new oil

Modification: Fully Hydrogenated (fully sat)

complete conversion of liquid oil into solid fat at room temperature - saturated fats and no trans fats. -high heat + metal catalyst (nickle, zinc, copper) + hydrogen gas -metals react w hydrogen gas which bubbles up through mixture -metals catalyze hydrogen + carbon atoms, convert FAs by flipping one of the attached H and rotating it half the diameter of the carbon chain -Problem: it doesn't do all the things that the partially hydrogenated fats do; When you cook with a fully hydrogenated product as opposed to a partially hydrogenated - fully hydrogenated will be more dense and compact -partial hydrogenation: the molecule goes to a trans configuration, if you do fully saturated it doesn't become trans

Native starches

depending on the plant part used, food starches classified as: -Cereal/grain starches: wheat, rice, corn, oats, sorgum, barley, rye -Root starches: potato, cassava/tapioca, arrowroot -Tree starches: Sago palm

functional properties of fats and oils

determined by chemical and physical structure -contribute richness of flavor and color -influence textural characteristics: flakiness, fine cakes, soft crumbs and crust, crispness in fried foods -tenderize baked products: shortening power -emulsifying agents -cooking mediums

starch granules

distinctive shapes that influence functionality -Potato granules: 100 microns (more paste like) -Cornstarch (polygonal) and Tapioca (round) granules: 12-25 microns -Wheat has two basic forms of granules, small spheres (10 microns) and larger disks (35 microns) -Rice starch granules: smallest of the starches, 3-8 microns

Modification: Fractionation

hardening liquid oils by separating saturated FAs from mono and polyunsaturated FAs -separates oil into fractions using controlled temps to crystallize FA w high melting points and separate them from oils w lower melting points -Palm oil, palm kernel oil and coconut oil contain ~50% saturated fatty acids and are good sources for this process. -Taking the oil and hardening it -Trying to replicate partial hydrogenated fat w/out trans -Crystallizing individual Fatty Acids -Separated from saturated and unsaturated - get a little more solid/sat product but also some unsat -Coconut oil used in cosmetics bc its v stable - doesn't have the volatility that free FAs do, decreases rancidity, longer shelf life

milled patent wheat fluor

less mill stream = less protein bread from hard wheat w higher protein and mill stream -Cake: fancy short; 40-70% mill stream, 7.5% protein, soft wheat -Bread: long; 95% mill stream, 11.8% protein, hard wheat

plastids

organelles in cytoplasm that form/store pigments and starch -Chloroplasts (chlorophyll), Chromoplasts (carotenoid) -Leucoplasts (amyloplasts) store starch granules

Four Forms of Fat Crystals: Polymorphic Transitions

polymorphic deals w temp and time *alpha crystals*: -fine, unstable -formed when solid fats are heated and chilled rapidly then recrystallize into the more stable beta prime form -most unstable so it can make more changes; very fine; not good for shelf products *beta prime crystals*: -more stable -formed when fats heat and more chill slowly then recrystallize into larger coarser *intermediate* form *intermediate* -grainy texture to the fat *beta crystals* -form from intermediate crystals if cooling is slow and no agitation (coarsest most stable crystalline form) -you want the most stable form for baking alpha > beta prime > intermediate > beta crystals

increasing gelatinization sugars

sucrose > glucose > fructose

hard white wheat

the newest class of U.S. wheat -used for Asian noodles, pan breads and flat breads -hard winter red came from Turkey to Kansas and that's when we first started large domestication of the wheat product we know today