Experience Human Development Chapter 5

Literacy

(1) Ability to read and write. (2) In an adult, ability to use printed and written information to function in society, achieve goals, and develop knowledge and potential.

classical conditioning; operant conditioning

(1) Learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. vs (2) Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences, based on reinforcement or punishment

Imitation

-- becomes increasingly valuable late in the first year of life as babies try new skills. It is an intensely social process that helps babies learn new skills.

Information-Processing Researchers

--- analyze the separate parts of a complex task to figure out what abilities are necessary for each part of the task and at what age these abilities develop. They also measure, and draw inferences from, what infants pay attention to and for how long.

Classical conditioning

--- enables infants to anticipate an event before it happens.

Neurological maturation; brain growth spurts

--- is a major factor in cognitive development; ---- are periods of rapid growth and development which coincide with changes in cognitive behavior

visible imitation; invisible imitation (at 9 months)

--- —imitation that uses body parts such as hands or feet that babies can see—develops first and is then followed by --- —imitation that involves parts of the body that babies cannot see. Whether or not newborns can imitate is a controversial subject. Initially, studies seemed to indicate that newborns could imitate adults by opening their mouths and sticking out their tongues. But the apparent imitation disappeared in recent longitudinal research.

parental sensitivity, responsivity, and warmth

---- (3) are positively associated with language development, and this association is stronger in disadvantaged and diverse families and over time

Liking to look at new things and habituating to them quickly; predictors of intelligence

---- and ---- correlates with later signs of cognitive development, such as a preference for complexity, rapid exploration of the environment, sophisticated play, quick problem solving, and the ability to match pictures. In fact, as we will see, speed of habituation and other information-processing abilities show promise as predictors of ---

violation-of-expectations studies and other recent information-processing research with infants; reasoning abilities; intuitive core knowledge of basic physical principles

---- and ---- raise the possibility that at least rudimentary forms of categorization, causal reasoning, naïve physics, and number sense may be present in the early months of life. One proposal is that infants are born with ---— innate learning mechanisms that help them make sense of the information they encounter—or that they acquire these abilities very early. Some investigators go further, suggesting that infants at birth may already have ---- in the form of specialized brain modules that help infants organize their perceptions and experience

CDS

---- helps infants learn their native language or at least pick it up faster by exaggerating and directing attention to the distinguishing features of speech sounds. Moreover, infants are "captured" attentionally by the sound and find it highly engaging, resulting in more rapid learning

Speed of processing; scan objects more efficiently and thus shift attention more rapidly; better memory for it later and have better executive control in early childhood; looking time plateaus or increases, especially for more complex stimuli

---- is generally assessed by how quickly infants habituate to a new stimulus and how well they remember previously encountered stimuli. From birth to about 2 months, the amount of time infants typically gaze at a new sight increases. Between about 4 to 8 months, looking time shortens, with the fastest decline seen at 4 to 6 months. Presumably, this is because infants learn to --- and thus---. Indeed, those infants who look for less time at novel stimuli show --- and have ---. Later in the 1st year and into the 2nd, when sustaining attention becomes more voluntary and task-oriented, ----, especially for ---

Imitation; accidentally imitate language sounds; imitate sounds without understanding them

---- is key to early language development. First, infants accidentally ------. Generally, they are reinforced by their parents' positive responses and thus encouraged to produce such sounds more and more over time. Then, at about 9 to 10 months, infants deliberately -----. Once they have a repertoire of sounds, they string them together in prelinguistic speech patterns that sound like language but seem to have no meaning. Finally, after infants become familiar with the sounds of words and phrases, they begin to attach meanings to them

inborn language capacity; brain maturation

---- may underlie the acquisition of both spoken and signed language and that advances in both kinds of language are tied to -------

exposure to a native language

------- commits the brain's neural networks to further learning of the patterns of the infant's native language and constrains future learning of nonnative language patterns. This exposure can either occur prenatally or postnatally

Operant conditioning techniques

-------- can help us "ask" babies what they remember. Babies 2 to 6 months old who are conditioned to kick to activate a mobile remember this skill even if the mobile is removed for up to 2 weeks. When the mobile is returned, the baby starts kicking as soon as he sees it.

Babbling

-----—repeating consonant-vowel strings, such as "ma-ma-ma-ma"—occurs between ages 6 and 10 months and is often mistaken for a baby's first word. Until about 9 months, it is language-general, meaning babies across different cultures do this in roughly the same way. although initially nonsensical, becomes more wordlike over time.

Joint attentional processes; eye gaze; mouth

----are important in early vocalization. Babies who monitor and attend to an interaction partner's ---- at 12 months show better expressive and receptive language development at 24 months. Notably, this relationship is only true when babies are interacting with someone speaking their native language. When interacting with a nonnative speaker, infants attend more carefully to their partner's ---

Picture books

---support children's acquisition of information about the world. However, research suggests that the ability to learn from books is influenced by cultural experiences.

Brain Development, Social Interaction and the Linguistic Environment, Child-Directed Speech

3 INFLUENCES ON EARLY LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

dishabituation

A baby who has been sucking typically stops or sucks less vigorously when a stimulus is first presented in order to pay attention to the stimulus. After the stimulus loses its novelty, the infant generally resumes sucking vigorously. This indicates that habituation has occurred. If a new sight or sound is presented, the baby's attention is generally captured once again, and the baby will reorient toward the interesting stimulus and once again sucking slows. This response to a new stimulus is called ----.

joint attention; language comprehension and production

A shared attentional focus, typically initiated with eye gaze or pointing; develops between 10 and 12 months, when babies follow an adults' gaze by looking or pointing in the same direction the use of pointing by children to capture the attention of adults around them has strong positive effects on children's ----

Cross-modal transfer

Ability to use information gained by one sense to guide another eg as when a person negotiates a dark room by feeling for the location of familiar objects

Passive Learners

Absorbing and auto reacting to stimuli

symbolically represent objects

According to Piaget, object permanence develops gradually during the sensorimotor stage as children develop the ability to --

18 months; visual preference paradigms using behaviorally based looking measures; first 6 months of life; Experience

According to Piaget, the ability to group things into categories does not appear until around ---. However, --- have been able to assess infants at earlier ages. Brain imaging has found that basic components of the neural structures needed to support categorization are functional within the first ----. --- matters too. After being presented with a variety of photographs of pets, 4-month-old infants with pets at home were better at recognizing individual cats and forming categories representing cats than infants without pets at home

dual Representation Hypothesis

According to this hypothesis, it is difficult for toddlers to simultaneously mentally represent both the actual object and the symbolic nature of what it stands for. In other words, they can either focus on the particular chair they are faced with ("This is a miniature chair") or the symbol and what it represents ("Chairs are for sitting in"), and so they may confuse the two

later academic achievement

Additionally, social constructionist approaches to early childhood education may have positive effects on other variables important for -----. For example, when compared to children enrolled in a child-centered preschool and kindergarten, children in a highly academic program did significantly worse on a number of motivational measures. The children in the academically oriented programs rated their own abilities as lower, expected less success in academics, were more dependent on adults, were less proud of their accomplishments, and found school more worrisome

Describer

Adult focuses on describing events in story, invites child to do so.

Guided participation

Adult's participation in a child's activity that helps to structure it and bring the child's understanding of it closer to the adult's; Mutual interactions with adults that help structure children's activities and bridge gap between childs understanding and an adults.

Prelinguistic period

Adults repeat sounds baby makes

Developmental tests

Although it is virtually impossible to measure infants' intelligence, we can test their functioning with----. These tests assess infants' behavior on tasks and compare their performance with norms established on the basis of what large numbers of infants and toddlers can do at particular ages. So, for example, if a child is unable to perform a task that the "average baby" can do by a particular age, that child may be delayed in that area. By contrast, a baby can also be ahead of the curve by performing better than their same-age peers.

optional behavior rating scale (Bailey-III); developmental quotients (DQs)

An --- can be completed by the examiner, in part on the basis of information from the child's caregiver. Separate scores, called ----, are calculated for each Bayley scale. These are most commonly used for early detection of emotional disturbances and sensory, neurological, and environmental deficits, and can help parents and professionals plan for a child's needs.

dual representation hypothesis

Another explanation for scale errors. This is the proposal that children under age 3 have difficulty grasping spatial relationships because of the need to keep more than one mental representation in mind at the same time

Object permanence

Aspect of object concept, and is Piaget's term for the understanding that a person or object still exists when out of sight.

Amir was overgeneralizing, or overextending the meaning of a word.

At 14 months, Amir jumped in excitement at the sight of a gray-haired man on the television screen and shouted, "Gampa!" He thought that because his grandfather had gray hair, all gray-haired men could be called "Gampa."

HABITUATION

At about 6 weeks, Stefan lies peacefully in his crib near a window, sucking a pacifier. It is a cloudy day, but suddenly the sun breaks through, and an angular shaft of light appears on the end of the crib. Stefan stops sucking for a few moments, staring at the pattern of light and shade. Then he looks away and starts sucking again

CLASSIC THEORY OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION accg to Skinner; imitation; imitate the sounds they hear adults make and, again, are reinforced for doing so

At first, babies utter sounds at random. Caregivers reinforce the sounds that happen to resemble adult speech. Infants then repeat these reinforced sounds, and language is gradually shaped. Social learning theorists extended this early model to account for ---. According to social learning theory, babies ----.

Object permanence; 18 to 24 months (fully achieved)

At first, infants appear to have no such concept. If you hide an interesting toy, babies will not show any obvious sign they understand it still exists. However, by --, almost all babies appear to understand that objects have independent existences and will reliably search for hidden objects.

babbling stage

At the ----, adults can help an infant advance toward true speech by repeating the sounds the baby makes and rewarding their efforts.

Symbol minded

Attentive to symbols and relationship to what they represent

Attentional Preference

Auditory discrimination studies are also usually based on---. This ability may emerge prenatally. In one study, fetuses were played recordings of various adults reading a story in either their parents' native language or a novel language. Heart rate data indicated the fetuses paid increased attention to both their mother's voice and stories read in a novel language. Newborn infants also have the ability to remember some sounds. Brain imaging research mirrors that finding, as right frontal regions of the brain active in adults during word recognition tasks are similarly activated in infants, particularly for vowel sounds. However, these memory traces, at least initially, are brief and subject to interference and forgetting

visual recognition memory

Babies can be shown a stimulus and be allowed to habituate to it. Then they can be concurrently presented with the familiar stimulus, as well as an additional novel stimulus, and their visual preference can be measured. If the baby spends longer looking at the novel stimulus, that suggests that the baby recognizes the familiar stimulus. In other words, because the novel stimulus is new and babies like new things, it is more interesting and thus warrants a better look than the previously seen, more boring, stimulus. This demonstrates ----

substage 3: secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)

Babies intentionally repeat an action not merely for its own sake, but to get rewarding results beyond the infant's own body. For example, a baby this age might repeatedly shake a rattle to hear the noise or coo when a friendly face appears so that it stays longer. Their actions are intentional but not goal-directed.

secondary circular reactions; intentional but not goal-directed

Babies intentionally repeat an action to get rewarding results beyond the infant's own body. These are known as --. Their actions are -- but not --.

True

Babies understand many words before they can use them. T/F?

infants' scores on developmental tests such as the Bayley scales and their later IQ; better recognition memory and stronger novelty preference; better at tasks utilizing executive functioning; reading achievement.

Because of weak correlations between -- and --, many psychologists assumed that the cognitive functioning of infants had little in common with that of older children and adults. However, there are individual differences in the speed with which infants form and refer to mental images, some aspects of which appear to have continuity with later cognitive functioning. For example, when shown two sights at the same time, infants who quickly shift attention from one to another tend to have --- and --- than infants who take longer looks at a single sight. As toddlers, such infants are also ----, such as playing Simon says or holding a goldfish cracker on their tongues without eating it. Executive functioning, in turn, is then associated with ---

Gesture; talk

Before babies can speak, they ------; through this, babies show an understanding that symbols refer to specific objects, events, desires, and conditions. The use of these seems to help babies learn to ---

intelligent behavior

Behavior that Goal oriented and adaptive to circumstances and conditions of life.

20 and 30 months; 3

Between ----, children show increasing competence in syntax. At this age, children also become more comfortable with articles (a, the), prepositions (in, on), conjunctions (and, but), plurals, verb forms, and forms of the verb to be (am, are, is). They also become increasingly aware of the communicative purpose of speech and of whether their words are being understood (Dunham et al., 2000)—a sign of growing sensitivity to the mental lives of others. By age ---, speech is fluent, longer, and more complex

phonological rules of their language; later vocabulary growth

Between 6 and 12 months, babies begin to become aware of the ------, and research suggests they have a mechanism for discerning abstract rules of sentence structure. Moreover, as they learn the intonation patterns and syntactical rules of language, they use their emerging knowledge to help them learn new words. Babies also begin to recognize sound patterns they hear frequently, such as their name. They also notice pronunciation, stress placed on syllables, and changes in pitch. This early auditory learning lays the foundation for -----

cooing

Between 6 weeks and 3 months, babies start --- when they are happy—squealing, gurgling, and making vowel sounds like "ahhh."

left temporal and parietal lobes; scattered

Brain activation tends to focus on the --- and --- in toddlers with large vocabularies, whereas in toddlers with smaller vocabularies, brain activation is more ----. Cortical regions associated with language continue to develop until at least the late preschool years or beyond—some, even until adulthood.

toddlers show preferences about whom they imitate from and what they imitate; show a bias toward imitating older models; both peers and adults but will imitate the adults more carefully even when their actions seem irrelevant to the task; who are the same gender they are or who are familiar or known to them; imitate conventional actions than unconventional actions

By 14 months of age, ---. For example, they are more likely to imitate from people who speak the same language they do At 15 months, they ---, such as an older sibling or an adult, over peers, such as a child their same age. At 2 to 3 years, children will imitate --- but will -- At 4 years of age, they are more likely to imitate those --- or ---. Additionally, toddlers are also more likely to imitate --- (e.g., cuddling a teddy bear) than --- (e.g., cuddling a photograph of a teddy bear)

simple events even when they cannot see the actual moment of contact between the two objects

By 8 months of age, infants make causal attributions for ----.

language learning, like other learning, is based on experience and learned associations. According to classic learning theory, children learn language through the processes of operant conditioning.

CLASSIC THEORY OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION accg to Skinner

language acquisition

CROSS-MODAL TRANSFER and the ability to utilize information across multiple senses is fundamental to cognitive development. For example, it is believed to be important for ---. This is because for most nouns, the sound of a word must be mapped to visual information, such as when the word dog is associated with the referent animal.

Over extending word meaning

Calling all old men grandpa

Infant memory (Nelson)

Can't remember events until they can talk about them

visual stimuli; language

Categorization is not limited to ---- There is evidence that 3-month-old babies categorize words differently than tones and can even categorize musical chords into dissonant versus consonant and major versus minor dimensions. Furthermore, in the 2nd year, ---- becomes a factor in categorization. For example, when a noun is applied towards two similar objects, children pay more attention to their commonalities and are more likely to treat those objects as members of the same category. However, when different nouns are applied to those objects, children are more likely to attend to the differences between them and categorize them as distinct from each other

Code switching; linguistic competence

Changing one's speech to match the situation, as in people who are bilingual; ability to shift from one language to another; associated with -------

use words in too narrow of a category

Children also make categorical mistakes by either underextending or overextending word meaning. When they underextend word meanings, they ----.

language acquisition device (LAD)

Chomsky's terminology, an inborn mechanism that enables children to infer linguistic rules from the language they hear

Nativism

Chomsky's view; Theory that human beings have an inborn capacity for language acquisition

extinct or fade; it is not reinforced by repeated association

Classically conditioned learning will become----, if ----. Thus, if Ava frequently saw the camera without the flash, she eventually would stop blinking at the sight of the camera alone

raised in a language-rich environment; hand-babbling (start at 7-10 mos)

Deaf babies seem to learn sign language in much the same fashion and in the same sequence as hearing infants learn speech, providing they are ----. Just as hearing babies of hearing parents imitate vocal utterances, deaf babies of deaf parents seem to imitate the sign language they see their parents using, first stringing together meaningless motions and then repeating them over and over in what has been called --------. As parents reinforce these gestures, the babies attach meaning to them

Adult reading styles

Describer, comprehender, performance oriented, dialogic

Categorization

Dividing the world into meaningful categories is vital to thinking about objects or concepts and their relationships. It is the foundation of language, reasoning, problem solving, and memory

Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage: 6 substages

During--, infants develop the abilities to think and remember. They also develop knowledge about aspects of the physical world, such as objects and spatial relationships

immature linguistic and motor skills; more cognitively competent than Piaget imagined; motor experience; perceptions

EVALUATING PIAGET'S SENSORIMOTOR STAGE limitations Piaget saw in infants' early cognitive abilities, such as object permanence, may instead have reflected ---- In terms of describing what children do under certain circumstances and the basic progression of skills, Piaget was correct. However, infants and toddlers are --- As Piaget observed, immature forms of cognition precede more mature forms. However, Piaget may have been mistaken in his emphasis on --- as the primary engine of cognitive growth. Infants' --- are far ahead of their motor abilities.

Ava's blinking at the sight of the camera; make a reflex, or involuntary, response; stimulus that originally did not bring about the response

Eager to capture Ava's memorable moments, her father took pictures of her smiling, crawling, and showing off her other achievements. Whenever the flash went off, Ava blinked. One evening Ava saw her father hold the camera up to his eye—and she blinked before the flash. She had learned to associate the camera with the bright light, so that the sight of the camera alone activated her blinking reflex. ------ is an example of classical conditioning, in which a person learns to------- (in this case, blinking) to a ---- (the camera).

Infant Memory (Piaget 1969)

Early events are not retained because the brain is not fully developed to store

Telegraphic speech/Two-word stage (18-24 mos)

Early form of sentence use consisting of only a few essential words. This is not closely tied to chronological age.

-simplification and of use telegraphic speech to say just enough to get their meaning across ("No drink milk!") -understand grammatical relationships they cannot yet express -overregularization -categorical mistakes by either underextending or overextending word meaning

Early speech characteristics (4)

oversimplification, underextending and overextending word meanings, and overregularizing rules

Early speech is characterized by --- (3)

causality

Eight-month-old Aviva accidentally squeezes her toy duck and it quacks. Startled, she drops it, and then, staring at it intently, she squeezes it again. Aviva is beginning to understand ---—the principle that one event (squeezing) causes another (quacking).

sensory information; motor skills

Essentially, children who, from the start, are efficient at attending to, taking in, and interpreting --- score well on later intelligence tests. However, other items, such as performance on ---, do not relate well to later IQ.

Social-contextual approach; environmental influences, particularly parents and other caregivers

Examines the effects environment aspects of the learning process, particularly the role of Parent and caregivers Approach to the study of cognitive development that focuses on ----

cultural influences little affected by culture

Explicit memory involves a conscious and deliberative process and thus is subject to ----. Implicit memory, however, is more automatic and early appearing, and seems to be ----

facts, names, events, or other things that can be stated or declared; Delayed imitation of complex behaviors; Delayed imitation; symbolic representation

Explicit memory, also called declarative memory, is conscious or intentional recollection, usually of -----. ----- is evidence that declarative memory has developed. This is because ---- requires a representation of a behavior to be stored in memory. While infants cannot yet speak, and thus the memory cannot be technically be "declared," this is nonetheless a demonstration of ---

CLASSIC LEARNING THEORY + SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

For example, Lila, while babbling to herself, inadvertently says "da." Her parents hear her and provide her with smiles, attention, and praise for this sound. Lila is thus reinforced and continues to say "da." Eventually, her parents no longer provide as much reinforcement for the sound. But then Lila happens to say "dada," perhaps by imitating her parents. Now her parents once again reward her lavishly. Again, their praise eventually tapers off, and now the word is only reinforced when her father is present. Over time, her parents' selective reinforcement of closer and closer approximations to speech in the right context results in the shaping of language.

underextend word meanings/use words in too narrow of a category

For example, Lisa knows their family pet is a "doggy." However, she shakes her head no when her mother points out other dogs outside their home. To her, her dog, and only her dog, is a "doggy." Lisa is underextending the word doggy by restricting it to only her pet.

pictorial competence

For example, consider how suns are represented in children's books. Generally, they are drawn as yellow circles with radiating spires. A child who understands that this graphic stands in for the ball of light in the sky has attained some degree of ---

visual preference as a tool OF INFANT RESEARCH

For example, if babies given a choice between looking at a curved or straight line spend more time focused on the curved line, the implication is that babies like curved lines more than straight lines. With this technique, researchers have determined that babies less than 2 days old prefer curved lines to straight lines, complex patterns to simple patterns, three-dimensional objects to two-dimensional objects, pictures of faces or facelike configurations, and moving objects to stationary objects

In this experiment, 3½-month-olds were first habituated to a tall and short carrot passing in front of a screen. Then, in the test event, the carrot passed behind the screen. Babies looked longer at the impossible event than at the possible event, suggesting that they were surprised that the tall carrot did not reappear in the notch.

For example, in one experiment, infants as young as 3½ months were first shown an animation of a carrot moving back and forth behind a screen. The center of the screen was notched, and a tall carrot should have shown momentarily as it moved in front of the notch, as shown in Figure 2. In the "possible" event, the carrot could be seen as it passed in front of the notch. In the "impossible" event, the carrot would appear at one side, never show in the middle, and then emerge out the opposite side. Infants showed surprise by looking longer at the "impossible" event, indicating that the "impossible" event violated their expectations. This procedure was important to the study of object permanence because for babies to be surprised by the carrot's failure to show, they needed to be able to remember that the carrot continued to exist.

Prelinguistic speech

Forerunner of linguistic speech; utterance of sounds that are not words. Includes crying, cooing, babbling, and accidental and deliberate imitation of sounds without understanding their meaning.

Child-Directed Speech/parentese or motherese/baby talk

Form of speech often used in talking to babies or toddlers; includes slow, simplified speech, a high-pitched tone, exaggerated vowel sounds, short words and sentences, and much repetition. -When babies hear this, their heart rate slows, a physiological state that is consistent with orienting toward and absorbing information

Provide sensory stimulation but avoid overstimulation and distracting noises

Fostering competence #1 to help babies develop cognitive competence: In the early months, provide -- but avoid --

Read to babies in a warm, caring atmosphere from an early age; preliteracy skills

Fostering competence #10 to help babies develop cognitive competence: --. Reading aloud and talking about the stories develops --.

Create an environment that fosters learning (toys, books, and place to play).

Fostering competence #2 to help babies develop cognitive competence: As babies grow older, --

establishes a sense of trust and gives babies a sense of control over their lives

Fostering competence #3 to help babies develop cognitive competence: Respond to baby signals. This -- and --

Give baby the power to effect changes

Fostering competence #4 to help babies develop cognitive competence: Give --- (Help a baby discover that turning a doorknob opens a door, flicking a light switch turns on a light, and opening a faucet produces water)

Give babies Freedom to explore

Fostering competence #5 to help babies develop cognitive competence: Give --. Do not confine them regularly in a crib or jump seat and only for short periods in a playpen.

Talk to babies (Language learning)

Fostering competence #6 to help babies develop cognitive competence: ---- ; they need interaction with adults

enter into whatever they are interested in at the moment

Fostering competence #7 to help babies develop cognitive competence: In talking to or playing with babies, --- instead of trying to redirect their attention to something else

Arrange opportunities to learn basic skills

Fostering competence #8 to help babies develop cognitive competence: --- such as labeling, comparing, and sorting objects (say, by size or color), putting items in sequence, and observing the consequences of actions

Applaud new skills and help babies practice and expand them.

Fostering competence #9 to help babies develop cognitive competence: --. Stay nearby but do not hover.

attention, processing speed, memory, and representational competence (as indexed by cross-modal and the ability to anticipate future events).

Four core cognitive domains appear to be associated with later IQ:

Higher IQ's

Frequent parental responsiveness results in

receptive vocabulary/passive vocab (understood); expressive or spoken vocab

Generally, infants have a far greater --- vocab than an ---- vocabulary

Vygotsky's view of learning as a collaborative process; shared play and in ordinary, everyday activities in which children informally learn

Guided participation concept was inspired by -----. Guided participation often occurs in --- and in ---- the skills, knowledge, and values important in their culture

measures of cognitive development; language and early literacy skills in preschool; numeracy skills in the third year of preschool; school readiness, verbal ability, and spatial ability scores; language development; kindergarten achievement scores, language competence, and motor and social development

HOME scores are significantly correlated with ---, and have a stronger influence than the daycare a child attends or the neighborhood they live in. For example, home quality for toddlers is associated with -- and --, and home quality in the first year of preschool predicts --. Children's --(3) at 3 and 5 years of age are associated with their home quality scores, and when parents change their home behavior as their children prepare to enter school, those children improve in their ---. Other important variables that have been identified with the HOME inventory include the number of books in the home, the presence of playthings that encourage the development of concepts, and parents' involvement in children's play, all of which have been consistently associated with --(3).

repeated or continuous exposure to a stimulus; reduces attention to that stimulus; rate of habituation

Habituation is a type of learning in which --- (such as a shaft of light) ---- (such as looking away). It can be compared to boredom, and the ---- (how quickly infants look away) can be used to ask infants how interesting they think various objects are.

cognitive neuroscience approach; links brain processes with cognitive ones

Hardware of nervous system. seeks to identify what brain structures are involved in specific aspects of Cognition. Approach to the study of cognitive development that ----

culture; formal educational system; guided participation

How children are expected to learn about their world also varies with ----. In many cultures, children learn in regimented ways within a ------. By contrast, some cultures use ---- which refers to mutual interactions with adults that help structure children's activities and bridge the gap between a child's understanding and an adult's.

-infants mentally compute the relative frequency of particular phonetic sequences in their language and learn to ignore sequences they infrequently hear -early language experience modifies neural structures, facilitating detection of word patterns in the native language while suppressing attention to nonnative patterns that would slow native language learning.

How does sound discrimination change occur? 2 hypotheses

parents' selective reinforcement of closer and closer approximations to speech in the right context results in the shaping of language

How is language shaped according to Skinner's classic learning theory and social learning theory?

foster contingent social interaction and establish presence of a peer when learning language

How to enhance language learning? (2)

begin earlier than Piaget thought as early as 6-month-old;

However, deferred imitation of novel or complex events seems to ---. The ability to hold material in memory over a longer time span increases with age, as does the ability to remember a sequence of steps in order. For example, at 6 months, most infants can remember a sequence of two steps, such as dropping a toy car down a chute and then pushing it with a rod to make it roll down a ramp, but only for about a day. At 9 months, they can remember the sequence for a month. By the time infants are 20 months old, they can remember the sequence for up to a year.

perceive subtle differences between sounds; sound discrimination

Imitation of language sounds requires the ability to -----.

Habits & Skills (Procedural Memory)

Implicit memory refers to remembering that occurs without effort or even conscious awareness; for example, knowing how to tie your shoe or throw a ball. It most commonly pertains to --- and ---. Implicit memory seems to develop early and is demonstrated by such actions as an infant's kicking on seeing a familiar mobile

rules for how they fit together

In addition to learning what the phonemes in their language are, babies also learn the ----. For example, in English, the sound combination in "kib" is acceptable, although "kib" is not a word. However, the nonsense word "bnik" breaks the phonological rules in English as a "b" and an "n" are not typically found next to each other within the same word.

memories are relatively fleeting; hippocampus; cortical structures coordinated by the hippocampal formation; first two years of life; 9 to 11 years of age

In early infancy, when the structures responsible for memory storage are not fully formed, ------. The rapid growth of the ----, a structure deep in the temporal lobes along with the development of ---- make longer-lasting memories possible. Growth is most rapid in the ---- but continues until approximately ---

same schedule as children who hear only one language;

In households in which more than one language is spoken, babies achieve similar milestones in each language on the ----.

Dishabituation

Increased responsiveness after presentation of a new stimulus. New = exciting.

perceptual features, such as shape, color, and pattern; conceptual, based on real-world knowledge, particularly of function

Infants at first seem to categorize on the basis of ----, but by 12 to 14 months, their categories become --- . In one series of experiments, 10- and 11-month-olds recognized that chairs with zebra-striped upholstery belong in the category of furniture, not animals. As time goes on, these broad concepts become more specific. For example, 2-year-olds recognize particular categories, such as "car" and "airplane," within the overall category of "vehicles".

self-locomotion; goal of other people's intentional failed actions

Infants' ability to identify self-propelled motion is linked to the development of ----, which gives them new ways of understanding objects in their world. This has also been linked to infants' ability to predict the ---- (such as trying, but failing, to reach an object).

Sound discrimination

Infants' brains seem to be preset to discriminate basic linguistic units, perceive linguistic patterns, and categorize them as similar or different; Infants can discriminate sounds in any language but overtime lose the sensitivity/ability, esp for nonnative language patterns;

peekaboo; 3-month-old; 5 to 7 months; a year of age

Infants' growing understanding that objects can be hidden and reappear may be why games like -- are common across many cultural groups. -- infants enjoy their mothers' looming faces. At --, they show anticipatory looking and smiling in the direction where they expect their play partner to appear and are particularly delighted by reemergences that surprise them. Note that this demonstrates that they continue to be aware of the existence of their play partner, even when not in sight. By about --, infants take an increasingly active role in the game, initiating play by covering their eyes or putting a cloth over their face.

neural maturation and social interaction

Influences on language development include ---- and ----

(a) Primary circular reaction: Action and response both involve infant's own body (1 to 4 months) (b) Secondary circular reaction: Action gets a response from another person or object, leading to baby's repeating original action (4 to 8 months). (c) Tertiary circular reaction: Action gets one pleasing result, leading baby to perform similar actions to get similar results (12 to 18 months). consolidated into a new scheme

Initially, an activity such as sucking produces an enjoyable sensation that the baby wants to repeat. The repetition again produces pleasure, which motivates the baby to do it yet again (Figure 1). Describe according to the three circular reaction. The originally chance behavior has been --

HOME or Home observation for measurement of environment

Instrument to measure the influence of the home environment on children's cognitive growth

one led by B. F. Skinner, the foremost proponent of learning theory, the other by the linguist Noam Chomsky.

Is linguistic ability learned or inborn? In the 1950s, a debate raged between two schools of thought:

Info-processing approach; perception, learning, memory, problem solving; mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information

It aims to discover how children process information from the time they encounter it until they use it. focuses on ----- (4) Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the -----.

Psychometric testing

Its goal is to measure quantitatively the factors that are thought to make up intelligence (Comprehension and reasoning) to Help predict future performance (school achievement.

Invisible imitation; deferred imitation

Key Developments of the Sensorimotor Stage Piaget's View: -- develops around 9 months; -- begins after development of mental representations in the sixth substage (18-24 months). More Recent Findings: Controversial studies have found invisible imitation of facial expressions in newborns and deferred imitation as early as 6 weeks. Deferred imitation of complex activities seems to exist as early as 6 months.

Categorization perceptual categories; categorize by function

Key Developments of the Sensorimotor Stage Piaget's View: Depends on representational thinking, which develops during the sixth substage (18-24 months) More Recent Findings: Infants as young as 3 months seem to recognize --; by the end of the first year, they can --

Symbolic development

Key Developments of the Sensorimotor Stage Piaget's View: Depends on representational thinking, which develops in the sixth substage (18-24 months) More Recent Findings: Understanding that pictures stand for something else occurs at about 19 months. Children under 3 tend to have difficulty interpreting scale models

Number

Key Developments of the Sensorimotor Stage Piaget's View: Depends on use of symbols, which begins in the sixth substage (18-24 months) More Recent Findings: Infants as young as 5 months may recognize and mentally manipulate small numbers, but interpretation of findings is in dispute

Object permanence looking behavior

Key Developments of the Sensorimotor Stage Piaget's View: Develops gradually between the third and sixth substage More Recent Findings: Infants as young as 3½ months (second substage) seem to show object knowledge through their --

Causality

Key Developments of the Sensorimotor Stage Piaget's View: Develops slowly between 4-6 months and 1 year, based on an infant's discovery, first of effects of own actions, and then of effects of outside forces More Recent Findings: Some evidence suggests early awareness of specific causal events in the physical world, but general understanding of causality may be slower to develop

under extended word meaning

Koo-Ka = Car

waves bye-bye, calls parents "mama" or "dada" or other special names, understands "no"

Language Milestone at 12 mos

Uses 1-2 words other than "mama" or "dada," follows directions given with a gesture and words, looks at familiar objects when they are named, points to ask for something or to get help

Language Milestone at 15 mos

Uses 3 or more words besides "mama" and "dada," follows directions without gestures

Language Milestone at 18 mos

Makes sounds other than crying, reacts to loud sounds

Language Milestone at 2 mos

Points to things in a book when asked to identify them, says at least 2 words together (e.g., "more milk"), points to at least 2 body parts when asked, uses gestures such as blowing a kiss or nodding yes

Language Milestone at 24 mos

Says around 50 words, says at least 2 words with one action word (e.g., "doggie run"), names things in a book when asked, says words such as "I," "me," or "we"

Language Milestone at 30 mos

Talks in conversations with at least 2 back-and-forth exchanges; asks who, what, where or why questions; says what action is happening in a picture when asked (e.g., "running"); says first name when asked; speaks well enough for most people to understand

Language Milestone at 36 mos

Responds to sound, coos and turns head towards others' voices

Language Milestone at 4 mos

Takes turns making sounds, blows raspberries and makes squealing noises

Language Milestone at 6 mos

Babbles in strings of consonants and vowels, lifts arms to be picked up

Language Milestone at 9 mos

Can perceive speech, cry, make some response to sound

Language Milestone at Birth

social interaction with a live communicative partner

Language takes not only the necessary biological machinery and cognitive capacity but also -------.

Classical Conditioning

Learned reflex, or involuntary response to a stimulus that originally did not bring about the response.

Operant conditioning

Learner acts, or operates on the environment. used to Study Memory

-numerous and complex word combinations that they cannot all be acquired by specific imitation and reinforcement. -caregivers reinforce utterances that are not strictly grammatical, as long as they make sense ("Gampa go bye-bye"). -Adult speech itself is an unreliable model to imitate, as it is often ungrammatical and contains false starts, unfinished sentences, and slips of the tongue. -does not account for children's imaginative ways of saying things they have never heard, such as when 2-year-old Clara indignantly said, "I am mostly ruly!" after being told she was unruly

Limitations of learning theory in explaining language acquisition

Object Permanence 4th substage

Look for object where first found if seeing it hidden (8-12 months)

Piagetian Approach; qualitative stages in cognitive functioning

Looks at changes/Stages in quality of cognitive functioning. It is concerned with how the mind structures its activities and adapts to the environment. Approach to the study of cognitive development that describes ----.

Psychometric Approach; measure intelligence quantitavely

Measures quantitative differences in abilities that make up intelligence by using tests that indicate or predict abilities. Approach to the study of cognitive development that seeks to ----;

Infant memory (Freud)

Memories are stored but repressed because they are emotionally troubling.

Representational Gestures (13 mos)

More elaborate gestures (ex: Holding empty cup to mouth to indicated thirst)

Over regularize rules

Mouses=mice thinked=thought

symbols

Much of the knowledge people acquire about their world is gained through ---, which are intentional representations of reality.

early procedural knowledge and perceptual knowledge; language-based memories used by adults

Not remembering anything that happened to you before you were about 2 years old is because ---- (e.g., how to pound a wooden peg into a hole) and ---- (e.g., what an apple tastes like) are not the same as the later explicit, ---- (e.g., what you did last Sunday). Infancy is a time of great change, and retention of those early experiences is not likely to be useful for long.

Object Permanence 6th substage

Object performance fully achieved (18-24 months)

Chomsky

Observation, imitation, and reinforcement do contribute to language development, but, as ---(1957) persuasively argued, they cannot fully explain it.

IMITATION

One-year-old Clara watches as her older sister brushes her hair. When her sister puts the brush down, Clara picks it up and tries to brush her own hair

A-not-B error; looking at the correct location where the object was moved but do not reach for it; looking and reaching for the object in the correct location; they will not search for it in a place where they did not see it hidden; toddlers will look for an object even if they did not see it hidden.

Over the next few months, object permanence ability continues to develop. For example, infants will continue to look for an object in the place where they first found it after seeing it hidden, even if they were later shown the object being moved to a new location (the ----). Somewhere between 5 and 8 months, they start -- but --. At about 9 to 10 months, infants will start --. At 12 to 18 months, most infants will reliably search for an object in the last place they saw it hidden. However, --. At 18 to 24 months, object permanence is fully achieved; which means --

cognitively stimulating aspects of the home environment are more culturally equivalent (i.e., they make more sense within the context of the culture) socioeconomic status and HOME scores cognitive function, language ability, and academic achievement stimulation and parental responsiveness

Overall, HOME items measuring --- are --- than are items measuring socioemotional support characteristics of the home environment. Additionally, -- and -- tend to be correlated across most cultures. HOME scores are also correlated with --(3). Last, -- and -- are important predictive variables

dialogic Reading

Parent asks challenging questions, child is story teller.

Vocab development

Parent holds ball while saying ball

Code mixing

Phenomenon in which bilingual children often use elements of both languages, sometimes in the same utterance, by young children in households where both languages are spoken.

4 to 6 months; 1st year; information-processing studies; 4½ months

Piaget believed that at about ---, as infants become able to grasp objects, they begin to recognize that they can act on their environment. However, he believed they did not yet know that causes must come before effects and that forces outside of themselves can make things happen. He maintained that this understanding develops slowly during infants' ---. However, ---- suggest that an understanding of causality emerges earlier. In one study, infants as young as --- were able to understand simple causality (a ball knocking another ball out of position).

under 18 months; stored representation of the action be recalled; lacked the ability to retain mental representations

Piaget believed that children -- could not engage in deferred imitation. As the behavior is no longer happening, deferred imitation requires that a ---. Piaget argued that young children could not engage in deferred imitation because they lacked --

integration begins almost immediately

Piaget held that the senses are unconnected at birth and are only gradually integrated through experience. However, this ------. The fact that neonates will look at a source of sound shows that at the very least they associate hearing and sight.

representational ability (substage 6: mental combinations)

Piaget's term for capacity to store mental images or symbols of objects and events

schemes

Piaget's term for organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations

circular reactions

Piaget's term for processes by which an infant learns to reproduce desired occurrences originally discovered by chance

deferred imitation; long-term memory

Piaget's term for reproduction of an observed behavior after the passage of time by calling up a stored symbol of it; complex ability requiring ---

categorization, causality, object permanence, and number

Piagetian abilities that depend on formation of mental representations that actually arise much earlier than Piaget anticipated (4)

crying, cooing, babbling, and imitating language sounds; 6 months

Prelinguistic speech includes --- (3). By ---, babies have learned the basic sounds of their language and have begun to link sound with meaning. Perception of categories of sounds in the native language may commit the neural circuitry to further learning in that language only.

IQ tests

Questions or tasks that show how much of the measured abilities a person has by comparing scores with norms. Psychometric tests that seek to measure intelligence by comparing a testtaker's performance with standardized norms

Object Permanence 3rd substage

Realization that object or person continues to exist out of sight. (If they cant see something dropped, it no longer exists) 4-8 months

violation of expectation

Research method in which dishabituation to a stimulus that conflicts with experience is taken as evidence that an infant recognizes the new stimulus as surprising.

how quickly babies habituate to familiar stimuli, how fast their attention recovers when they are exposed to new stimuli, and how much time they spend looking at the new and the old.

Researchers gauge the efficiency of infants' information processing by measuring --- (3)

Social-Contextual Approach

Researchers influenced by Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and working within the social-contextual approach are interested in how cultural context affects early social interactions. From the very beginning, choices made about child care are socialization tools that transmit cultural information. For example, in the United States, slightly over 20 percent of mothers report sharing a bed with their babies (Smith et al., 2016). In line with individualistic goals, parents often report sleeping separately is necessary for the child to build independence. However, in many nonindustrialized and traditional societies, bed sharing is the norm, and indeed forcing a baby to sleep separately from their mother is seen as abusive or neglectful. In this case, the collectivistic ideals call for integrating the baby into the social group.

Syntax

Rules for putting sentences together and allows us to understand and produce an infinite number of utterances; Children show their implicit understanding of the fundamental rules for putting sentences together with the word order they use

Early Vocalization Perceiving Language Sounds and Structure Cultural Differences in Perceptual Attunement Gestures First Words First Sentences

SEQUENCE OF EARLY LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT (6)

Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions

SUBSTAGE OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE Babies begin to turn toward sounds, showing the ability to coordinate different kinds of sensory information (vision and hearing).

Substage 2: primary circular reactions (1-4 months); purposely repeat a pleasurable bodily sensation first achieved by chance;

SUBSTAGE OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE -- Babies intentionally repeat an action merely for its own sake babies learn to --. These activities focus on the body rather than the external environment.

Substage 1: Use of Reflexes (Birth-1 month) neonates practice their reflexes; modify and extend the scheme for sucking; do not coordinate information from their senses

SUBSTAGE OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE -- neonates --. For example, newborns suck reflexively when their lips are touched. But they soon learn to find the nipple even when they are not touched, and they suck at times when they are not hungry. Infants thus --. However, they --, for example, by grasping an object they are looking at.

Substage 1: Use of Reflexes (Birth-1 month)

SUBSTAGE OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE: Babies do not coordinate information from their senses, for example, by grasping an object they are looking at.

Substage 1: Use of Reflexes (Birth-1 month) substage 2: primary circular reactions (1-4 months) Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) Substage 4: Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months) Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) Substage 6: Mental Combinations (about 18 months to 2 years)

SUBSTAGES OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

Substage 4: Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months)

SUBSTAGES OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE Babies have built upon the few schemes they were born with. They have learned to generalize from past experiences to solve new problems. Babies will crawl to get something they want, grab it, or push away a barrier to it. They try out, modify, and coordinate previous schemes to find one that works.

Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months); tertiary circular reactions

SUBSTAGES OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE babies begin to experiment to see what will happen. They now vary a behavior to see what might happen in --. For example, a toddler may squeeze a rubber duck, then step on it, then throw it in order to see if all three actions result in squeaks.

Substage 6: Mental Combinations (about 18 months to 2 years); the ability to mentally represent objects and actions in memory, largely through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental pictures

SUBSTAGES OF THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE transition to the preoperational stage of early childhood Representational ability (the ability to —- through --) frees toddlers from immediate experience. They can pretend, and their representational ability affects the sophistication of their pretending. They can think about actions before taking them and try out solutions in their mind.

lack of impulse control; faulty communication between immature brain systems

Scale error actions might in part be based on a ---: The children wanted to play with the objects so badly that they ignored perceptual information about size. Scale error actions of toddlers might also be from exhibiting ----. One brain system enables the child to recognize and categorize an object ("That's a chair") and to plan what to do with it ("I'm going to sit in it"). A separate system may be involved in perceiving the size of the object and using visual information to control actions pertaining to it ("It's big enough to sit in"). When communication between these areas breaks down, children momentarily, and amusingly, treat the objects as if they were full size.

cognitive, language, motor, social-emotional, and adaptive behavior.

Scores on the Bayley-III indicate a child's competencies in each of five developmental areas:

Object Permanence 5th substage

Search for object in last place seen will not search in other places (12-18 months)

Causality

Seven-month-old babies appear to understand that an object incapable of self-motion, such as a tennis ball, must be set in motion by a causal agent, such as a hand

Infant memory (Rovee-Collier)

Shorter attention span than adults.

they cannot yet carry out a two-step sequence of actions, such as lifting the cover of a box and then grasping the object; Methods based only on infants' looking behavior

Some research suggests that babies may fail to physically search for hidden objects not because they lack the understanding but because --- such as --. --- eliminate the need for coordination with motor activity and thus can be used at very early ages. With this technique, we can get a better assessment of what babies really know

Core knowledge

Specialized brain modules help infants organize perceptions and experience.

different sensory modalities; intraparietal sulcus

Studies suggest that even at this early age, number is an abstract concept that can be represented across ----. Furthermore, brain imaging research has identified the ---- as the likely region responsible for this system. Moreover, the ability, in infancy and preschool, to estimate approximate numbers is related to later mathematical achievement, and this relationship is particularly true for lower-achieving students

new interest in manipulating objects and learning about their properties

Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) Substage coincides with a -- and --.

behavior is more intentional and purposeful, and they can anticipate events.

Substage 4: Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months) Babies' behavior is -- and they can --

trial and error

Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) By --, toddlers try behaviors until they find the best way to attain a goal

Can think about actions before taking them and try out solutions in their mind. no need for trial and error

Substage 6: Mental Combinations (about 18 months to 2 years) Toddlers can-- and --. They no longer have to go through laborious trial and error in the real world to picture the difference between what might happen when food is thrown, shoved, or dropped from different heights off the side of their high chair.

-newborns' ability to differentiate phonemes easily; -master their native language in the same age-related sequence without formal teaching -brain structures directly implicated in language use

Support for the nativist position comes from newborns' ----, suggesting that they are born with perceptual "tuning rods" that pick up characteristics of speech. Nativists point out that almost all children ---- Furthermore, our brains have structures that have been shown to be ----.

treat content on a screen more like a photograph than a real object and are limited in what they can learn

Tablet computers and cell phones offer an interesting contrast in that objects on the screen are two-dimensional, like photographs, but can be manipulated like real objects. However, despite their facility with electronics, young children still -- and are --. When adults scaffold children's growing symbolic understanding, they are able to perform at higher levels

Visual preference

Tendency of infants to spend more time looking at one sight than another. Researchers can use this natural tendency to ask babies which of two objects they prefer.

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bailey-III)

Testing 1 month - 3.5 Years on strengths, weaknesses and competencies in 5 developmental areas.

structure of language

The --- can provide support for verb learning. For example, children tend to learn verbs most easily in languages in which surrounding noun phrases are explicitly mentioned ("The girl is petting the dog"), and they have a more difficult time mapping meaning to verbs when the surrounding verb phrases are dropped ("She's petting it"). Moreover, once children understand syntax, they can use this knowledge to buttress their emerging abilities. For example, knowledge of the syntactical structure of "I'm VERBing it" can help them learn new verbs

acquisition of language

The --- is an important aspect of cognitive development.

prefrontal cortex; attentional, memory, and inhibitory processes;

The ---- (the large portion of the frontal lobe directly behind the forehead) is believed to control many aspects of cognition. In infancy, it helps children with --- (3).

social constructionist approach; not necessarily ideal for young children; Guided play programs

The ------ has been influential in early childhood education. Research has shown that preschool programs that are highly focused on academic skills are ----. Indeed, such programs may even result in lower academic achievement later in school. ----, by contrast, take advantage of children's natural motivation to play—supporting their autonomy and cultivating their love of learning while also scaffolding specific learning outcomes. For example, a geometry lesson in which 4- to 5-year-old children donned detective hats and were guided through solving a "mystery of the shapes" sorting task where they were asked to discover the secret distinguishing "real" shapes from "fake" ones was more effective in teaching shape knowledge than either didactic teaching or free play

discriminate native-language sounds; acquire language

The ability to------ at the end of 1st year predicts individual differences in language abilities during the 2nd year, whereas nonnative sound discrimination does not. The increased sensitivity to native sounds helps the child more efficiently -----

10 and 14 months; first words must convey meaning

The average baby says a first word (must ---) between ---

social interaction, language acquisition, and the understanding of others' intentions and mental states

The capacity for joint attention is of fundamental importance to ---- (3)

Direct adult involvement in children's play and learning; observe and participate in adults' work activities

The cultural context influences the way caregivers contribute to cognitive development. ----- may be better adapted to a middle-class urban community, in which parents or caregivers have more time, greater verbal skills, and possibly more interest in children's play and learning, than to a rural community in a developing country, in which children frequently ----.

18 and 24 months; 3

The first brief sentences generally come between ---. By age --, syntax and communicative abilities are fairly well developed.

sensorimotor stage; birth to approximately age 2; sensory and motor activity; reflexes and random behavior into -> goal-oriented toddlers.

The first of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development is the --. During this stage (--), infants learn about themselves and their world through their developing -- and --. Babies change from creatures who respond primarily through -- into --

10 and 14 months; linguistic speech; 16 and 24 months

The first word typically comes sometime between ----, initiating ----. For many toddlers, a naming explosion occurs sometime between ---

Schemes (Piaget) become more elaborate; coordinate input from their senses and organize their activities in relation to their environment; using symbols and concepts to solve simple problems; circular reactions;

The sensorimotor stage consists of six substages that flow from one to another as a baby's -- (which are organized patterns of thought and behavior) become --. During the first five substages, babies learn to -- and --. During the sixth substage, they progress to --. Much of this early cognitive growth comes about through --- (in which an infant learns to reproduce events originally discovered by chance).

conditioning paradigms; classically conditioning the presence of the odor and the ability to control the mobile with their body movements; use contextual cues to retrieve memories

The use of --- in research allow investigators to ask questions of babies in ways they can answer. For example, in one experiment, researchers operantly conditioned 3-month-old infants to kick to activate a mobile attached to one ankle by a ribbon. Babies were trained at this task in the presence of either a coconut or cherry odor, thus ---. Previous research had shown that babies this young forget what they learn 1 week later. However, when the infants were reminded of what they learned about the odor and mobile a day before being tested again, they were able to remember the relationship between their kicking and the mobile's movements. Thus, the babies' responses showed that babies were able to --- (i.e., the odor) to ----. Similar methodology can be used to "ask" babies a wide variety of questions about their perceptual development, memory, learning, and understanding of the world.

numbers

The violation-of-expectations paradigm can also be used to ask babies questions about their understanding of ---. In one classic study, infants watched as Mickey Mouse dolls were placed behind a screen and a doll was either added or taken away. The screen then was lifted to reveal either the number of dolls that should have been there or a different number of dolls. Babies looked longer at surprising "wrong" answers than at expected "right" ones, suggesting that they had mentally computed the right answers. Subsequent to this study, multiple programs of research supported infants' ability to discriminate between small sets of numbers

familiarization phase in which infants see an event happen normally; event is changed in a way that conflicts with/or violates normal expectations; surprised

The violation-of-expectations research method begins with a ---- in which ----. After the infant becomes bored and has habituated to this procedure, the ----. If the baby looks longer at this changed event, researchers assume the additional interest shown by the baby implies that the baby is ----.

goals; imitate others who are like them, such as other children; those whom they think they can learn the most from, such as adults

Theorists argue children's imitation depends on their ---. When children are trying to communicate similarity or forge social bonds, they are more likely to ---. When children are trying to learn new things, they are likely to imitate ----.

impossible objects; familiar objects that are smaller or larger than they should be; unable to apply real-world knowledge to a symbolic representation; do not understand it is a representation; point at a picture of an object while saying its name; a picture is both an object and a symbol

There are indications that even very young children can understand some aspects of pictorial representations. Infants as young as 4 months of age stare longer at "---" (such as a picture of a cube that would defy the rules of geometry), suggesting that even at this age, they have some ability to mentally represent three-dimensional objects. Still, this understanding is incomplete. For instance, although infants from about 7 to 12 months of age look longer at ----, children show no preferences for those same oddly sized objects when they are presented in pictures. This suggests they are --- Moreover, until about 15 months, infants use their hands to explore pictures as if they were objects—rubbing, patting, or attempting to lift a depicted object off the page. This suggests they ---. However, by about 19 months, children are able to ----, clearly demonstrating their understanding that a picture is a symbol of something else. And by age 2, children understand that ---. As children's ability to recognize and understand visual features in pictures improves, so too does their ability to draw those same features.

primary circular reaction (substage 2)

These activities focus on the body rather than the external environment. Piaget called this a .

Bilingual children

These children tend to have more advanced nonverbal executive control skills and theory of mind, and an earlier understanding of syntactical and morphological rules of language

object concept an object no longer exists once it is out of their line of sight

This is the understanding that objects have independent existence, characteristics, and locations in space. Piaget noted that infants under the age of 8 months act as if --.

prefrontal cortex; more sensitive to environmental disruption; working memory

This part of the brain develops more slowly than any other, making it ----. During the second half of the 1st year, this brain part and associated circuitry develop the capacity for ----

Substage 4: Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months)

This substage marks the development of complex, goal-directed behavior

distinguishing lexical tones; sensitivity to prosodic (intonation, stress, and rhythm) features of speech; pitch

Through a year of age, babies learning a tonal language are better at ------ and become increasingly accurate at doing so. However, nontonal learning infants' tonal sensitivity rebounds at about 17 to 18 months. It appears as if their increasing ----- may be responsible. As nontonal language children learn more about the social context of speech and the nonverbal information that is relayed by vocal tone, they may once again direct their attention to ---- and thus regain some sensitivity

Gesture-word combinations

Toddlers often combine gestures with words; serve as a signal that a child is about to begin using multiword sentences

learning theory and nativism

Two classic theoretical views about how children acquire language are --- and ---. Today, most developmental scientists hold that an inborn capacity to learn language may be activated or constrained by experience

habituation

Type of learning in which familiarity with a stimulus reduces, slows, or stops a response.

Cultural in fluence of guided participation

U.S.A: play activities, Guatemala: work activities.

Implicit memory

Unconscious recall/remembering without effort, generally of habits and skills; "procedural memory"

active role of the learner; innate capacity for acquiring language; inborn language acquisition device (LAD)

Unlike Skinner's learning theory, nativism emphasizes the----. Chomsky proposed that the human brain has an ---; babies learn to talk as naturally as they learn to walk. He suggested that an ---- programs children's brains to analyze the language they hear and to figure out its rules.

intellectual stimulation and support observed in a child's home; number of books and appropriate play materials in the home parent's involvement with the child parental emotional and verbal responsiveness acceptance of the child's behavior organization of the environment opportunities for daily and varied stimulation.

Using the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) (Bradley, 1989), trained observers interview the primary caregiver and rate on a yes-or-no checklist the --- and ----. The inventory includes six subscales that measure the: NP-I-EV-A-O-O

Linguistic Speech

Verbal expression designed to convey meaning.

attentional development; children with attentional problems are more drawn to television; high-quality educational programming; play in infancy

Watching television may impede ----, although the relationship is complex. It may be that television viewing does not cause attentional problems per se, but rather that ----. Moreover, the influence of television on children's development is affected by the child's individual characteristics and the family and social context. For instance, viewing ---- is associated with improvements in academic skills, especially for those children most at risk. However, at the same time, ----—a vitally important driver of development—is negatively affected by television, causing children to be more inattentive and hyperactive, have less effective executive functioning, and are more likely to have a language delay

Conventional Social Gestures (12 mos)

Waving bye, shaking head means no, nodding head means yes

Family characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, adult language use, and maternal responsiveness,

What factor affect a child's vocabulary development?

Nouns, because it is easier to form a mental image of nouns (image ability is associated with learning and memory)

What words are easiest to learn and why?

infants understood object permanence but could not demonstrate this knowledge with motor activity;

When Piaget investigated object permanence, he used infants' motor responses to gauge whether or not infants understood that a hidden object still existed. Their failure to reach for the hidden object was interpreted to mean they did not. However, it was possible that ----- but ----.

consequences of behaviors and how they affect the likelihood of that behavior occurring again

Whereas classical conditioning focuses on the prediction of events (a flash) based on their associations (a camera), operant conditioning focuses on the ---- and how---.

Those who grow up without normal social contact and those who are exposed to language only through television (lack of contingent social interaction that impeded learning)

Which children do not develop language normally?

because the actions they represent are generally transitory (cant miss witnessing the action to associate it with the verb word). Nouns, by contrast, are generally concrete items that may not require the same sort of sustained attention.

Why Verbs are more difficult for children to learn than nouns?

overwhelmed; slow development of object permanence

Working memory can be -----, as when someone speaks to you while you try to calculate the sale price. Working memory appears relatively late in development and may be responsible for the ------, which seems to be seated in a rearward area of the prefrontal cortex

Scale errors

a momentary misperception of the relative sizes of objects; ex. toddlers Act upon objects too small to allow the behavior to be performed

Crying; It motivates them to find the source of the problem and fix it; culture; intonation patterns and fundamental frequency

a newborn's first means of communication. Different pitches, patterns, and intensities signal hunger, sleepiness, or anger. Adults find it aversive for a reason:------; thus, it has great adaptive value. Although all newborns cry instinctively, even at this early age they are influenced by -----. The ---- and ---- of their cries vary with the language they have been exposed to.

tonal languages

a word can assume different meanings based on the pitch used when speaking it. For example, Thai has five different lexical tones (low, mid, high, rising, and falling), and the tone used when speaking a word changes its meaning

visual recognition memory; capacity to form and refer to mental representations

ability to distinguish a familiar visual stimulus from an unfamiliar one when shown both at same time. It is an ability that depends on the --- and ---

Pictoral Competence

ability to understand nature of pictures

operant conditioning; increase this behavior to receive even more smiles and attention; babbling; avoid this punishment

behaviors may be reinforced and become more likely to occur, or they may be punished and become less likely to occur. For example, a baby may learn that when they babble, their parents respond with smiles and attention, and they may ----. In other words, they have been reinforced for their ---. By contrast, a baby may see that when they throw their food, their parents tend to frown and speak sharply to them. To -----, they might learn not to throw their food

-with age, infants accumulate more information about how objects behave, so they are better able to see causality as a general principle operating in a variety of situations. -Increasing experience with the environment may also be a factor.

by 10 to 12 months old, the types of causal inferences made by infants become even more sophisticated due to: 2

using words in too broad of a category

children also overextend word meanings by ------.

overimitation rapid and extensive cultural learning exhibited in humans.

children are predisposed to ---. Children tend to copy any action performed by an adult, even if that action is clearly purposeless or inefficient. This has been viewed by many theorists as an underlying support framework for the ---

learn less from video than live presentation; video deficit; unaware that what they are seeing is a representation of reality; representational understanding of screen images; video calls and electronic media that is sufficiently interactive

children learn less from --- than ---, although the difference in learning between video and live presentation of information (known as the ---) grows increasingly smaller as children age. Although toddlers may spend a good deal of time watching television, at first they seem --- and may struggle to extract usable information from it. For example, 12- to 18-month-old children were better able to imitate an adult's actions (helping a puppet ring a bell) when they saw an adult performing the action in front of them than when they saw a video of the same thing. In another series of experiments, 2½-year-olds were able to locate an object hidden in an adjoining room after watching a video of an adult hiding it, but 2-year-olds could not. Yet the younger children were able to find the object if they watched through a window as it was hidden. Apparently, what the 2-year-olds lacked was ----. Fortunately, especially in the time of COVID-19 and social distancing, children do benefit from ---. When adults are able to establish high-quality joint attention processes in a video call, children do learn from such interactions. Young children understand and learn best from video calls when they view the call with others, especially when those others are responsive to what is happening onscreen .

language

communication system based on words and grammar; They can reflect on people, places, and things; and they can communicate their needs, feelings, and ideas in order to exert more control over their lives.

Behaviorist Approach; basic mechanics of learning

concerned with how behavior changes in response to experience Approach to the study of cognitive development that is concerned with ----

Types of Prelinguistic speech

crying (Newborn) Cooing (6-8 weeks) Babbling(6-12 months)

nativist approach limitations

does not tell us why some children acquire language more rapidly and efficiently than others, why children differ in linguistic skill and fluency, or why speech development appears to depend on having someone to talk with, not merely on hearing spoken language

Intelligence

enables people to Acquire, remember, and use knowledge, to understand concepts and relationships, and solve problems.

comprehender

encourages child to look deeper into meaning of story.

Causality

events have identifiable causes. Allows for prediction and control in the world. Infants ability to identify self-propelled motion is linked to development of self-locomotion

Symbolic Gestures

examples of this gesture are blowing to mean "hot" or sniffing to mean "flower," often emerge around the same time that babies say their first words.

Use punishment sparingly; normal trial-and-error exploration

fostering competence #11 to help babies develop cognitive competence: --. Do not punish or ridicule results of --

Naming explosion

happens sometime between 16 and 24 months where 50 words to several hundred words within a view months

Innate learning

inborn reasoning. Helps makes sense of info they encounter.

Novelty preference

infants prefer new sights to familiar ones

Explicit memory

intentional and conscious memory/recollection, generally of facts, names, and events that can be stated or declared; "declarative memory"

Performance oriented

introduces themes of story, asks questions after reading

degree of direct social interaction

key predictor for the development of gestures

parietal regions of the brain; processing auditory information; brain's phonetic perception and motor systems

newborn babies who showed more activity in the ------ had better declarative memory and auditory comprehension at 15 months. Similarly, babies who were better at ---- at 6 weeks of age, as indexed by brain activity, were more advanced in their language development at 9 months of age. A link also exists between the ---- and ---- as early as 6 months—a connection that becomes even stronger at 6 to 12 months

Overregularization

occurs when children inappropriately apply a syntactical rule. For instance, when children say sentences such as "Daddy goed to the store" or "I drawed that," they are applying the English language rule "add -ed to a verb to make it past tense." It takes a while for children to learn the rule as well as the exceptions to it. For example, children commonly use the exceptions to the rule first. They generally learn these by rote for phrases they commonly hear ("Daddy went to the store"). Then they learn the rule and use that to fill in the blanks when they can't recall the exception ("Daddy goed to the store"). By early school age, as they become more proficient in language, they memorize the exceptions and begin to apply them, once again saying the phrase correctly ("Daddy went to the store").

The typical pattern of findings for early intervention programs

participants show positive outcomes on cognitive developmental outcomes, including reading and math scores, IQ, and school progress. However, the strength of this advantage varies depending on the comparison group. When participants are compared to children who did not attend any form of preschool or day care, they tend to show impressive advantages. However, when they are compared to children who attended some form of early childhood education, such as a center-based day care, then the gains shown by children who participated in early intervention programs are not as compelling. Moreover, the gains are strongest initially and fade over time. However, long-term follow-up studies have found that despite the initial fall-off in gains, there are lasting effects of early intervention programs. Children who participate in early intervention programs are less likely to require special education services in grade school and high school, more likely to graduate from high school, more likely to be employed, less likely to be incarcerated, and report higher lifetime earnings.

Working memory

short-term storage of information the brain is actively processing, or working on. For example, when you try to estimate how much an item on sale will cost, you are using this memory to make the calculations.

holophrase

single word that conveys complete thought; An entire sentence expressed with one word For example, "Da!" may mean "I want Daddy now!" while "Daddy?" may mean "Where is Daddy?"

Phonemes (By 6 to 7 months, hearing babies have learned to recognize the phonemes used in their native language. By 8th, lose sensitivity to nonnative language)

smallest units of sound in speech. For example, the word dog has three phonemes: the d, the o, and the g sound. Every language has its own unique phonology, or system of sounds, that is used in the production of speech.

Early intervention; assessment research;

systematic process of planning and providing theraputic and educational services for families that need help in meeting infants, toddlers, and preschoolers child development levels. Such programs are expensive, and -- is typically required to justify continued funding For example, Project CARE (Wasik et al., 1990), the Abcedarian (ABC) Project (Ramey, 2018), and Head Start -Generally, these programs involve full-day, year-round early childhood education from infancy through the preschool years as well as family-oriented social services, early childhood education, medical care and services, and family education on child development.

process speech sounds in parallel and hierarchical streams; processing of speech; processing of linguistic information

the brains of young children, even before they begin to speak, process language similarly to adult brains. For example, both infants and adults -----. In other words, they process multiple features of speech (e.g., who the speaker is, emotion, intensity, sound, timbre, familiarity) across multiple brain regions. Additionally, frontal brain regions are involved in the ------- in infants as they are in adults, although in infants, this process is slower. Last, the ------- is localized in the left hemisphere in infants as it is in almost all adults

scale error

toddlers try to put on a hat that is too small for their head or sit in a car much too tiny to hold them

receptive vocabulary

what infants understand—continues to grow as verbal comprehension gradually becomes faster and more accurate and efficient