FALLACIES- DA LIST
Glittering Generality Example
"I am the new candidate for CHANGE." or "It's NEW"
Scare Tactic Example
"If you vote for this candidate, then your children's lives will be at stake!"
Appeal to the People Example
"Of course you want to buy Zest toothpaste. Why, 90% of America brushes with Zest!"
Tu quoque
"You also" Defending yourself by attacking the opponent; Example: "Who are you to condemn me! You do it too!"
Post Hoc. Ergo Propter Hoc.
"after this, therefore because of this;" assuming that an incident that precedes another is the cause of the second incident
Essentializing:
"similar to reifying" the tendency to reduce something or someone to certain characteristics that we assume are essential to its nature and present in every member of a category, such as men or women opp of relativizing
Ad Populum Fallacy
"to the crowd;" a misconception that a widespread occurrence of something is assumed to make it right or wrong
Ad Homineum Fallacy
"to the man;" a person's character is attacked instead of his argument
Esoteric Knowledge
(Esoteric Wisdom, Gnosticism, Inner Truth) formal and informal codes and discipline making up a police officer
Just Do it.
(also, "Find a way;" "I don't care;" "Accomplish the mission;" "By Any Means Necessary." ) A pure, abusive Argumentum ad Baculum (argument from force),
Default Bias:
(also, "If it ain't broke, don't fix it;" Acquiescence
Scapegoating
(also, Blamecasting) Blaming an innocent person or a group for one's own troubles
If-by-whiskey
(relativistic) (doublespeak)appears to affirm both sides of an issue, and agrees with whichever side the listener supports, in effect taking a position without taking a position
Ludic fallacy
****** the belief that the outcomes of non-regulated random occurrences can be encapsulated by a statistic; a failure to take into account unknown unknowns in determining the probability of events taking place.
Ad Hominem Example
*Person A: I think that the US will come out of this recession quickly. *Person B: What do you know about economics? You don't even have a job!
Red Herring Example
*Person A: What about Christmas? *Person B: Well, my aunt is coming next week.
Moral Licensing
- Doing something "good" permits you to be "bad
Argument from incredulity divine fallacy appeal to common sense
- I cannot imagine how this could be true, therefore it must be false.
tu quoque
- THE FALLACY OF A HYPOCRITE -a weak rhetorical strategy and logical fallacy that assumes the opponent's argument has no value because the opponent does not follow his or her own advice; from the Greek you also.
Inflation of conflict
- The experts of a field of knowledge disagree on a certain point, so the scholars must know nothing, and therefore the legitimacy of their entire field is put to question.
Naïve diversification
- When asked to make several choices at once, people tend to diversify more than when making the same type of decision sequentially.
the fallacy of misplaced concreteness
- a fallacy of ambiguity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothetical construct) is treated as if it were a concrete, real event or physical entity. In other words, it is the error of treating as a "real thing" something that is not a real thing, but merely an idea.
• Cherry picking
- act of pointing at individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position, while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position.
overwhelming exception
- an accurate generalization that comes with qualifications that eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to assume.
irrelevant conclusion
- an argument that may in itself be valid, but does not address the issue in question.
• Accident
- an exception to a generalization is ignored.
Argument from ignorance appeal to ignorance
- assuming that a claim is true because it has not been or cannot be proven false, or vice versa. •
• Fallacy of composition •
- assuming that something true of part of a whole must also be true of the whole.
Naturalistic fallacy
- claims about what ought to be on the basis of statements about what is.
Affirming a disjunct
- concluded that one disjunct of a logical disjunction must be false because the other disjunct is true; A or B; A, therefore not B.
• False equivalence
- describing a situation of logical and apparent equivalence, when in fact there is none.
Undistributed middle
- fails to link the major and minor term. -assuming that two things that are related to a third thing must be related to each other
Naturalistic fallacy
- inferring evaluative conclusions from purely factual premises in violation of fact-value distinction. For instance, inferring ought from is (sometimes referred to as the is-ought fallacy) is an instance of naturalistic fallacy. Also naturalistic fallacy in a stricter sense as defined in the section "Conditional or questionable fallacies" below is an instance of naturalistic fallacy.
Fallacy of the single cause causal oversimplification
- it is assumed that there is one, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes.
Base rate neglect
- making a probability judgment based on conditional probabilities, without taking into account the effect of prior probabilities. -ignorant of bayes rule
• Furtive fallacy •
- outcomes are asserted to have been caused by the malfeasance of decision makers.
Proof by verbosity proof by intimidation
- submission of others to an argument too complex and verbose to reasonably deal with in all its intimate details. (See also Gish Gallop and argument from authority.)
Affirming the consequent
- the antecedent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be true because the consequent is true; if A, then B; B, therefore A.
Retrospective determinism •
- the argument that because an event has occurred under some circumstance, the circumstance must have made its occurrence inevitable.
Denying the antecedent
- the consequent in an indicative conditional is claimed to be false because the antecedent is false; if A, then B; not A, therefore not B.
ad hominem Argumentum
- the evasion of the actual topic by directing an attack at your opponent. attacks on character about the claimant that are not relevant to the argument
Gambler's fallacy
- the incorrect belief that separate, independent events can affect the likelihood of another random event.
• False dilemma false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurcation, black-or-white fallacy
- two alternative statements are held to be the only possible options, when in reality there are more.
Proving too much
- using a form of argument that, if it were valid, could be used more generally to reach an absurd conclusion.
Suppressed correlative
- where a correlative is redefined so that one alternative is made impossible.
Special pleading
- where a proponent of a position attempts to cite something as an exemption to a generally accepted rule or principle without justifying the exemption.
Chronological snobbery
- where a thesis is deemed incorrect because it was commonly held when something else, clearly false, was also commonly held.
presentism
- which is a mode of historical analysis in which present-day ideas, such as moral standards, are projected into the past. -ACTS TO AVOIDTHIS WERE EVIDENT IN HUM12
wicked problem
-"wicked" denoteS resistance to resolution -IT LackS consensus on problem'S definitioN Moreover, because of complex interdependencies, the effort to solve one aspect of a wicked problem may reveal or create other problems.
ad Hominem
-Attacking the Character of the Opponent -When the arguer attacks his or her opponent by means of ad hominem or tu quoque instead of the opponent's argument.
Ignoring the Question -When someone is asked a question and says, "I'm glad you asked that question," but then promptly starts discussing something else, that person is guilty of ignoring the question.
-Similar to a red herring. Rather than answering the question that has been asked, the person shifts focus, supplying an unrelated argument. Example: During a press conference, a political candidate is asked a pointed, specific question about some potentially illegal fund-raising activity. Instead of answering the allegations, the candidate gives a rousing speech thanking all of his financial supporters.
False Causes
-When assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of course, sometimes one event really does cause another one that comes later. -misses the opportunities identified by Causal Inductive Arguments -CORRELATION NOT CAUSATION
formal fallacy
-a fallacy that can be detected by examining the form of the argument - an error in logic that can be seen in the argument's form. All formal fallacies are specific types of non sequiturs.
post hoc ergo propter hoc
-a faulty assumption that correlation between two variables implies that one causes the other. -This fallacy is Latin for "after which therefore because of which,"
Prosecutor's fallacy
-a low probability of false matches does not mean a low probability of some false match being found. -statistical reasoning to argue guilt, assumes the prior probability of a random match is equal to the probability the defendant is innocent.
informal fallacy
-a mistake in reasoning that doesn't occur in the form of an argument a fallacy that can be detected only by examining the content of the argument -most of these fallacies are of this type
Argument to moderation false compromise middle ground fallacy of the mean argumentum ad temperantiam
-assuming that the compromise between two positions is always correct
Take-the-best heuristic
-look at cue that clearly tells you which choice is best
Argument from silence = Appeal to Lack of Evidence
-making conclusions based on the absence (rather than the presence) of certain information -incorrectly, the null hypothesis is that a relationship exists
Victory by Definition
9.I rig what I say so that, no matter what anyone else says against me, I can say that's not what I meant.
Argument from the Negative
: Arguing from the negative asserts that, since one position is untenable, the opposite stance must be true. This fallacy is often used interchangeably with Argumentum Ad Ignorantium (listed below) and the either/or fallacy (listed above). For instance, one might mistakenly argue that, since the Newtonian theory of mathematics is not one hundred percent accurate, Einstein's theory of relativity must be true. Perhaps not. Perhaps the theories of quantum mechanics are more accurate, and Einstein's theory is flawed. Perhaps they are all wrong. Disproving an opponent's argument does not necessarily mean your own argument must be true automatically, no more than disproving your opponent's assertion that 2+2=5 would automatically mean your argument that 2+2=7 must be the correct one
Mind Your Own Business
; You're Not the Boss of Me
Arguing in Bad Faith
; also Sophism
Moralistic
= sententious. = characterized by a narrow and conventional moral attitude
They're Not Like Us (also, Stereotyping, Xenophobia. Ethnic Prejudice):
A badly corrupted, discriminatory argument from ethos where facts, arguments, experiences or objections are arbitrarily disregarded, ignored or put down without serious consideration because those involved "are not like us," or "don't think like us.
Vacuous truth -
A claim that is technically true but meaningless, in the form of claiming that no A in B has C, when there are no As in B. For example, claiming that no mobile phones in the room are on when there are no mobile phones in the room at all.
Appeal to Emotions Example
A commercial comes on the TV asking for money to help remove animals from abusive homes and shows a slide show of cute kittens and puppies.
Alphabet Soup fallacy
A corrupt implicit fallacy from ethos in which a person overuses acronyms, abbreviations, form numbers and arcane insider "shop talk" primarily to prove to an audience that s/he "speaks their language" and is "one of them" and to shut out, confuse or impress outsiders.
What is Circular Reasoning?
A couch is a sofa. A sofa is a davenport. A davenport is a couch.
Sending the Wrong Message
A dangerous fallacy that attacks a given statement or action, no matter how true, because itll "send the wrong message." In effect, those who use this fallacy are publicly confessing to fraud and admitting that the truth will destroy the fragile web of illusion that has been created by their lies.
ARGUMENT MAP
A diagram that captures the logical structure of a simple or complex argument.
suppressed evidence
A fallacy in which the arguer ignores facts that may support a different conclusion, if applied to the argument's premises.
Masked man fallacy
A fallacy that occurs when we substitute parties that are not identical within an argument The masked man fallacy involves a substitution of parties. If the two things we substitute are identical, then the argument is valid
Bandwagon
A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable. ie "You're not cool unless you wear this brand of clothing"
Testimonial
A famous person endorses a product, ideal, or candidate.
Gnosticism
A group of heretical religious movements that claimed salvation comes from secret knowledge available only to the elite initiated in that religion
ad Hitleram
A highly problematic contemporary historical-revisionist contention that the argument "That's just what Hitler said (or would have said)" is a fallacy, an instance of the Ad Hominem argument and/or Guilt by Association
Inductive fallacy
A more general name to some fallacies, such as hasty generalization. It happens when a conclusion is made of premises that lightly support it.
Magical Thinking
A patient insistently states, "I can decipher codes of DNA just by looking at someone." Which problem is evident?
Political Correctness ("PC")
A postmodern fallacy, a counterpart of the "Name Calling" fallacy,
Kettle (earth science type)
A small depression that forms when a chunk of ice is left in glacial till
non sequitur
A statement that does not follow logically from evidence
Biased statistic
A statistic is biased if it is calculated in such a way that it is only systematically different from the population parameterof interest
Dicto simpliciter / Fallacy of accident / Sweeping generalization
A sweeping generalization occurs when a general rule is applied to a particular situation, but the features of that particular situation mean the rule is inapplicable. It's the error made when you go from the general to the specific. Example: "Men are statistically more aggressive than women. Therefore, I, a male, must be more aggressive than you, a female."
Anchoring Bias
A tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information.
Untestability
A thoery cannot be tested when it makes no predictions. It is also untestable when it predicts events which would occur whether or not the theory were true.
Bandwagon Appeals
A threat of rejection by one's peers (or peer pressure) is substituted for evidence in an "argument." Example: Fifty million Elvis fans can't be wrong!
The Wisdom of the Crowd (when there is a human bias)
A very common contemporary fallacy that individuals may be wrong but "the crowd" or "the market" is infallible, ignoring historic examples like witch-burning, lynching, and the market crash Crowdsouring
What is a Weak Analogy?
A watch and the universe are similar because both display order and complexity; therefore, because watches are the product of intelligent design, the universe must be a product of intelligent design too.
" I figured that you couldn't possibly get it right, so I ignored your comment."
AD HOMINEM An attack on the character of the individual or the opponent rather than his or her actual arguments or qualifications
"Green Peace's strategies aren't effective because they are all dirty, lazy hippies."
AD HOMINEM An attack on the character of the individual or the opponent rather than his or her actual arguments or qualifications
"Sam Smith divorced his loving wife of ten years. How could he be qualified to be mayor?"
AD HOMINEM An attack on the character of the individual or the opponent rather than his or her actual arguments or qualifications
"You are so stupid your argument couldn't possibly be true. "
AD HOMINEM An attack on the character of the individual or the opponent rather than his or her actual arguments or qualifications
"If you were a true American, you would support the rights of people to choose whatever vehicle they want."
AD POPULUM (bandwagon) An emotional appeal to positive concepts or negative concepts rather than a direct discussion of the real issue.
"You should vote for Tom Green because he stands for Canadian values."
AD POPULUM (bandwagon) An emotional appeal to positive concepts or negative concepts rather than a direct discussion of the real issue.
What is a Hasty Generalization Fallacy?
According to a recent survey, 65% percent of my neighborhood believes my Muslim neighbor is a terrorist.
The Law of Unintended Consequences
Actions have effects that are not anticipated.
What is a Naturalistic Fallacy?
Adultery is acceptable because people naturally possess the animal instinct to desire more sexual partners.
What is an Ad Populum?
All the cool kids use this hair gel; be one of them.
Willed ignorance
An attitude of indifference to the possibility of error or enlightenment that holds on to beliefs regardless of the facts.
False Authority
An authority in one field many know nothing of another field. Example: A popular sports star may know a lot about football, but very little about shaving cream.
conjunction fallacy
An error that occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone. = repres heur
Loaded Question
An unanswerable, biased question--sometimes only allowing two possible answers (yes or no). "Hey, Tim, have you finally stopped beating your wife?"
Chronological Snobbery
Appealing to the age of something as proof of it's truth or validity; Example: Voo-doo magic must work because it's such an old practice. Example: Super-Glue must be a good product because it's so new.
Special Pleading (double standard)
Applying a different standard to another that is applied to oneself. Example: You can't possibly understand menopause because you are a man. Example: Those rules don't apply to me since I am older than you.
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (False Causation)
Arguing that because Event B occurred after Event A, Event A caused Event B. "Because I forgot to leave my porch light on, someone robbed my house."
extreme language
Argument uses language so extreme that the premise cannot be justified (only, never, always, cannot, certainly).
fallacies of relevance
Arguments that are really distractions from the main point
Equivocation
Arising from multiple meanings being applied to the same word or phrase. "I am opposed to taxes which slow economic growth."
Cause and Effect
Assuming that the effect is related to a cause because the events occur together. Example: When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise. Example: When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to run out of gas.
Division
Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the parts. Example: That car is blue. Therefore, its engine is blue. Example: Your family is weird. That means that you are weird too.
Straw Man
Attack a view similar to the one you wish to rebut. Divert attention away from difficult issues by setting up easier issues that you may 'knock down'. "I wouldn't let my child attend that school. He would be brain washed!"
Bulverism
Attacking a position by pointing out how the arguer came to hold it
psychogenetic fallacy
Attacking a position by pointing out how the arguer came to hold it
Ad hominem
Attacking the individual instead of the argument. Example: You are so stupid you argument couldn't possibly be true. Example: I figured that you couldn't possibly get it right, so I ignored your comment.
Ignoring the Question
Avoiding countering an opposing argument directly by introducing a new or non-issue to the argument. "Equal pay for women is an important issue, but I wonder whether women really want the responsibility that comes with higher paying jobs."
"Everyone knows that our ineffective drug control program is a miserable failure."
BEGGING THE QUESTION Loading the conclusion in the claim; assuming that something is true before it is proved
"Filthy and polluting coal should be banned."
BEGGING THE QUESTION Loading the conclusion in the claim; assuming that something is true before it is proved
"God exists because the Bible says so. The Bible is inspired. Therefore, we know that God exists."
BEGGING THE QUESTION Loading the conclusion in the claim; assuming that something is true before it is proved
"I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple: I will vouch for him."
BEGGING THE QUESTION Loading the conclusion in the claim; assuming that something is true before it is proved
False Analogy
Basing an argument in a poor comparison of two things, ideas, events or situations. "Teaching kids sex education is like letting them loose in a candy store."
Circular Argument
Begging the Question An argument that commits the logical fallacy of assuming what it is attempting to prove.
Survivor Bias
Bias in a sample that arises from selecting items that are present in the sampling frame for a longer period of time.
What is Arguing from Ignorance?
Bigfoot must exist because no one has been able to prove that he doesn't.
"I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple: I will vouch for him."
CIRCULAR ARGUMENT A sentence or argument that restates rather than proves
"Prime Minister Trudeau was a well-read man because he was an intellectual."
CIRCULAR ARGUMENT A sentence or argument that restates rather than proves
False Cause Example
Christians believe in God. Muslims believe in God. Therefore, Christians are Muslims.
Begging the Question
Circular Argument loading the conclusion in the claim; assuming that something is true before it is proven. "The anti war demonstrators of the 1970's should be remembered as the cowards that they were."
Catch 22
Circular Reasoning (The Vicious Circle; a situation where one is trapped by contradictory conditions
Non Sequitar
Comments or information that do not logically follow from a premise or the conclusion. Example: We know why it rained today, because I washed my car. Example: I don't care what you say. We don't need any more bookshelves. As long as the carpet is clean, we are fine.
Overgeneralization
Conclusions is not justified due to insufficient/biased evidence. "Professor Brugger is a hard grader because he gave my roommate a D last year."
Scare Tactic
Creates fear in people as evidence to support a claim. Mostly this is done by some form of threat.
Missing the point
Definition: The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws.
Anchoring and adjustment
Describes the common human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions.
sorites fallacy
Determinal terms like 'tall', 'heavy' etc, are open to dispute. Even if you try to use a precising definition.
There Is No Alternative
Discouraging critical thought by announcing that there is no realistic alternative to a given standpoint, status or action, ruling any and all other options irrelevant, or announcing that a decision has been made and any further discussion is simply a waste of time (or even insubordination or disloyalty).
Special Pleading
Double standards. "Yes, I do think that all drunk drivers should go to prison, but your honor, he is my son! He is a good boy who just made a mistake!"
questionable fallacy
Drawing a conclusion based on things that aren't related
Jumping to Conclusions
Drawing a conclusion without taking the needed time to reason through the argument. "That new home looks great! Let's buy it!"
Hasty Generalization
Draws a conclusion about a population based on a small sample (jumping to conclusions).
"Either we ban boxing or hundreds of young men will be senselessly killed."
EITHER/OR An oversimplification that reduces alternatives to only two choices, thereby creating a false dilemma
"We can either stop using cars or destroy the planet."
EITHER/OR An oversimplification that reduces alternatives to only two choices, thereby creating a false dilemma
What is a False Dilemma?
Either go to college or forget about making money.
False Dilemma Example
Either you are with me or against me.
False Dilemma
Either/Or When the arguer sets up the situation so it looks like there are only two choices.
Appeal to Authority
Ethos When the audience is expected to accept an argument from a source that may not be reliable.
a Genetic Fallacy?
Eugenics was pioneered in Germany during the WWI. Everything pertaining to eugenics, therefore, is evil, including genetic screening, birth control, segregation of the mentally ill, compulsory sterilization, etc.
What is a Fallacy of Composition?
Every sheep in a flock has a mother; the flock, therefore, has a mother.
Fallacy of Four Terms
Example: All rivers have banks. All banks have vaults. So, all rivers have vaults. The word "banks" occurs as two distinct terms, namely river bank and financial bank, so this example also is an equivocation
Homunculus fallacy
Explaining thought as something produced by a little thinker, a sort of homunculus inside the head, merely explains it as another kind of thinking (as different but the same).
"Teaching kids about sex education is like letting them loose in a candy store."
FAULTY COMPARISON/FALSE ANALOGY Basing an argument on simplistic comparison of two things, ideas, events, or situations
Perfect solution fallacy
Fallacy that occurs when an argument assumes that a perfect solution exists and/or that a solution should be rejected because some part of the problem would still exist after it were implemented.
Imitate-the-successful heuristic
Follow-the-best heuristic. An agent using the heuristic would imitate the behavior of the most successful person in her reference group. ie prestige
Complex question (Loaded question)
Framing the question so as to force a single answer; Example "Have you stopped beating your wife yet?"
"Frank just got out of jail last year; since it was his idea to start the hardware store, I can't trust him."
GENETIC FALLACY Arguing that the origins of a person, object, or institution determine its worth
"He speaks with a funny German accent. He must be a Nazi."
GENETIC FALLACY Arguing that the origins of a person, object, or institution determine its worth
"The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by Hitler's army."
GENETIC FALLACY Arguing that the origins of a person, object, or institution determine its worth
Reification
Giving an abstract concept a name and then treating it as though it were a concrete, tangible object.
"Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course."
HASTY GENERALIZATION Conclusion is not justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence
"Professor P. is a hard grader because he gave me a 36 on a biology test."
HASTY GENERALIZATION Conclusion is not justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence
What is Complex Question Fallacy?
Have you stopped beating your wife?
What is a Red Herring?
He cheated on the test, but look at the poor little thing! How would he feel if you made him retake it?
Unfalsifiability
He developed theories that are hard to prove or disprove: can we test to see if there is an id?
What is an Equivocation Fallacy?
Hot dogs are better than nothing. Nothing is better than steak. Therefore, hot dogs are better than steak.
Disproportionate Response
Hyperpathia
Zero Tolerance
I just read about an actual case of cannibalism somewhere in this country. That's disgusting, and even one case is way, way too many!
Hasty Generalization Example
I met some students from Fort Riley yesterday, who were very polite. I think all children from that area must be well-behaved.
What is Affirming the Consequent?
If Fred wanted to get Ken fired then he'd go and have a word with the boss. There goes Fred to have a word with the boss. Fred, therefore, wants to get Ken fired.
Divisional
If it's true to whole, it's true to parts. "All Asians love Chinese food!"
2nd affirming the consequent
If she's Brazilian, then she speaks Portuguese. Hey, she does speak Portuguese. So, she is Brazilian.
Dicto Simpliciter
Ignores an issue's complexities, variations, or exceptions. "The influx of foreign cars almost destroyed the American auto industry."
What is a Post Hoc Fallacy?
In 1976, I created a drawing of a robot and then Star Wars came out, so they must have copied the idea from me.
Inference objection
In informal logic, an inference objection is an objection to an argument based not on any of its stated premises, but rather on the relationship between premise and contention.
"Stockholm Syndrome.
In what syndrome do hostages feel sympathy for their captors?
Gaslighting
Is when one partner, perhaps using sarcasm, constantly criticizes or denies the other's definition of reality, diminishing the other's self-esteem.
What is a Tu Quoque Fallacy?
It doesn't matter that I occasionally break the speed limit; everyone else does it, even the police!
What is a Straw Man Fallacy?
It's not fair that when doing the same work and with the same qualifications, women are paid only $ .70 for every $1.00 that men are paid. Isn't it reasonable to expect that in equivalent jobs, with equivalent work experience and education, that your sex should have no impact on your salary? Of course not! Everyone knows that bosses go easier on women and what they do; besides, girls are physically smaller and weaker than men, so they need to be protected from the real world.
Availability Bias
Items that are more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently
Simulation heuristic
Judging the LIKELIHOOD of an OUTCOME based on how easy it is to IMAGINE a plausible series of events leading to that outcome
No true Scotsman ...
Making what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of an argument. John: "No Scotsman would ever drink wine." Jim: "But McDougal is a Scotsman and he drinks wine." John: "Well, no true Scotsman would ever drink wine."
What is Guilty by Association?
My opponent is calling for a healthcare system that would resemble that of socialist countries. Clearly, that would be unacceptable.
Appeal to Nature
Natural Law fallacy This argument goes that because something is natural, it must be better.
judenrein
Nazi term for "Jew free"
Fallacy of exclusive premises
No fish are dogs, and no dogs can fly, therefore all fish can fly. The only thing that can be properly inferred from these premises is that some things that are not fish cannot fly, provided that dogs exist.
Silent Treatment
Noncooperation) I don't respond to her until she does it stonewalling
fallacy of the beard
Occurs when a person argues that you cannot come to a conclusion because one thing differs from another only in degree
ethos
One of the fundamental strategies of argumentation .appeal to credibility. The writer is seeking to convince you that he or she has the background, history, skills, and/or expertise to speak on the issue. Whenever you encounter an ethos argument, always ask yourself is the credibility is substantiated and valid.
terms are too vague
Opposite of "extreme language," the words are too vague; lacking detail. Failure to define. What does it mean to exercise the same amount.
Etymological Fallacy
Origin of word is used but irrelevant
What is a Fallacy of Division?
Our team is unbeatable. Any of our players would be able to take on a player from any other team and outshine him.
Snow Job
Overwhelming the other party with so much information they cannot make sense of it.
"Because I forgot to leave my porch light on, someone robbed my house."
POST HOC, ERGO PROPTER HOC Arguing that because Event B occurred after Event A, Event A caused Event B.
"I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick."
POST HOC, ERGO PROPTER HOC Arguing that because Event B occurred after Event A, Event A caused Event B.
What is a Fallacist's Fallacy?
People argue that there must be an afterlife because they just can't accept that when we die, that's it. This is an appeal to consequences; therefore there is no life after death.
Inductive Fallacy
Premise 1: Having just arrived in Ohio, I saw a white squirrel. Conclusion: All Ohio Squirrels are white. (While there are many, many squirrels in Ohio, the white ones are very rare).
Deductive Fallacy
Premise 1: If Portland is the capital of Maine, then it is in Maine. Premise 2: Portland is in Maine. Conclusion: Portland is the capital of Maine. (Portland is in Maine, but Augusta is the capital. Portland is the largest city in Maine, though.)
Poisoning the well
Presenting negative information about a person before he/she speaks so as to discredit the person's argument. Example: Frank is pompous, arrogant, and thinks he knows everything. So, let's hear what Frank has to say about the subject. Example: Don't listen to him because he is a loser.
Red Herring
Presents an irrelevant topic to divert attention away from the original issue. The logic follows this form: Topic A is under discussion. Topic B is introduced under the assumption that it's related. Topic A is abandoned.
Straw Man Argument
Producing an argument to attack that is a weaker representation of the truth. Example: The government doesn't take care of the poor because it doesn't have a tax specifically to support the poor. Example: We know that evolution is false because we did not evolve from monkeys.
"Equal pay for women is an important issue, but I wonder whether women really want to take the responsibility that comes with higher-paying jobs."
RED HERRING Avoiding countering an opposing argument directly by introducing a non-issue to the argument
"I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you."
RED HERRING Avoiding countering an opposing argument directly by introducing a non-issue to the argument
"I know your car isn't working right. But, if you had gone to the store one day earlier, you'd not be having problems."
RED HERRING Avoiding countering an opposing argument directly by introducing a non-issue to the argument
"The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to support their families."
RED HERRING Avoiding countering an opposing argument directly by introducing a non-issue to the argument
Non Sequitor
Reasoning That Does Not Follow When the writer presents an argument in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically; one point does not follow another.
Bifurcation (Either-Or arguments)
Reduce complex issues to black and white choices. Example: Either we go to Panama City for the whole week of Spring Break, or we don't go anywhere at all.
Reification / Hypostatization
Reification occurs when an abstract concept is treated as a concrete thing. Example: "I noticed you described him as 'evil.' Where does this 'evil' exist within the brain? You can't show it to me, so I claim it doesn't exist, and no man is 'evil.'"
Guilt by Association
Rejecting an argument or claim because the person proposing it likes someone that is disliked by another. Example: Hitler liked dogs. Therefore dogs are bad. Example: Your friend is a thief. Therefore, I cannot trust you.
Reporting bias
Reporting bias involves a skew in the availability of data, such that observations of a certain kind are more likely to be reported.
LUDIC
Ridiculous
"If marijuana is legalized, then everyone will become drug addicts."
SLIPPERY SLOPE If A happens, then it is just a matter of time until B, C, D, etc. happen.
"If we let students wear sleeveless shirts, then before your know it, they will be wearing no shirts at all."
SLIPPERY SLOPE If A happens, then it is just a matter of time until B, C, D, etc. happen.
" We know that evolution is false because we did not evolve from monkeys."
STRAWMAN Setting up an artificially easy argument to refute in place of the real issue
"Although Ms. Jackson has been accused of misusing government funds, she has donated all of her income for the past three years to charity."
STRAWMAN Setting up an artificially easy argument to refute in place of the real issue
"The government doesn't take care of the poor because it doesn't have a tax specifically to support the poor."
STRAWMAN Setting up an artificially easy argument to refute in place of the real issue
The Plain Truth Fallacy
Simple Truth fallacy, Salience Bias, the KISS Principle
The Paralysis of Analysis
Since all data is never in any conclusion and always provisional, no legitimate decision can ever be made, and any action should always be delayed until forced by circumstances.
Slippery Slope
Sliding Down the A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented
Smear Tactic
Smearing the opponent causes an Ad Hominem Fallacy. Smearing the opponent's argument causes a Straw Man Fallacy.
Fallacy
Statements that are logically false, but which appear to be true. Basically, an error in reasoning.
Appeal to Novelty?
String theory, a cosmological theory based on the existence of cosmic strings that meld together gravitation, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force, is the most recent development in physics, and so it must be true.
Appeal to Money
Supposing that, if someone is rich or something is expensive, then it affects the truth of the claim
information Bias
Systematic errors in the collection of dat
Peak-end rule
That people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak (e.g. pleasant or unpleasant) and how it ended.
Spotlight fallacy
The Spotlight fallacy derives its name from the fact that receiving a great deal of attention or coverage is often referred to as being in the spotlight. It is similar to Hasty Generalization, Biased Sample and Misleading Vivideness because the error being made involves generalizing about a population based on an inadequate or flawed sample
The Taboo
The Taboo: The fallacy of unilaterally declaring certain arguments, standpoints or actions "sacrosanct" and not open to discussion,
skill and will
The argument assumes that people have the ability (skill) to do something or the motivation (will) to do it, when this has not been proven to be the case.
Moralistic fallacy
The argument that because something would be terrible if it were true then it must not be true.
Slippery Slope
The argument that one thing inevitably leads to another. A simplistic reduction of a possible chain of events. "If you give children candy, they'll grow up to be obese."
Genetic Fallacy
The attempt to endorse or disqualify a claim because of the origin or irrelevant history of the claim Example: The Nazi regime developed the Volkswagen Beetle. Therefore, you should not buy a VW Beetle because of who started it. Example: Frank's just got out of jail last year and since it was his idea to start the hardware store, I can't trust him.
E" for Effort. (also Noble Effort)
The common contemporary fallacy that something must be right, true, valuable, or worthy of respect and honor simply because someone has put so much sincere good-faith effort or even sacrifice and bloodshed into it.
Actions have Consequences
The contemporary fallacy of a person in power falsely describing an imposed punishment or penalty as a "consequence" of another's negative act. opposite fallacy is that of Moral Licensing.
They're all Crooks
The contemporary fallacy of refusing to get involved in public politics because all politicians and politics are allegedly corrup
We Have to Do Something: the Placebo Effect, "Security Theater"
The dangerous contemporary fallacy that when "People are scared / People are angry / People are fed up" it becomes necessary to do something, anything, at once even if it is an overreaction, is a completely ineffective, inert placebo, or actually makes the situation worse, rather than "just sitting there doing nothing."
Where there's Smoke, there's Fire
The dangerous fallacy of drawing a snap conclusion and/or taking action without sufficient evidence
Argument from ignorance
The fallacy of assuming that something is true/false because it has not been proven false/true. Example: "The student has failed to prove that he didn't cheat on the test, therefore he must have cheated on the test." Example: 'U.F.Os must exist, because no one can prove that they don't."
I Wish I Had a Magic Wand
The fallacy of regretfully (and falsely) proclaiming oneself powerless to change a bad or objectionable situation.. E.g., "What can we do about high gas prices? As Secretary of Energy I wish I had a magic wand, but I don't." [shrug]
The Argument from Inertia
The fallacy that it is necessary to continue on a mistaken course bc changing course would mean admitting that one's decision was wrong
Appeal to probability
The fallacy that occurs when we reason that just because something is possible, it is probable Something can go wrong, so something will go wrong. // There are a lot of dangerous criminals out there. So, if you are out at night, you will be mugged.
Appeal to force
The hearer is told that something bad will happen to him if he does not accept the argument. Example: If you don't want to get beat up, you will agree with what I say. 2. Example: Convert or die.
Appeal to the popular
The hearer is urged to accept a position because a majority of people hold to it. Example: The majority of people like soda. Therefore, soda is good. Example: Everyone else is doing it. Why shouldn't you?
Appeal to pity
The hearer is urged to accept the argument based upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc. Example: You owe me big time because I really stuck my neck out for you. Example: Oh come on, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline.
Social-circle heuristic
The heuristic is used to infer which of two alternatives has the higher value. An agent using the heuristic would search through her social circles in order of their proximity to the self. goes with majority
Sin of Presumption
The idea that whatever I do/choose, God loves me and will save me is: (Mark all True statements
Red Herring- When the speaker brings in something to distract the attention from the real issue at hand.
The introduction of a topic not related to the subject at hand. Example: I know your car isn't working right. But, if you had gone to the store one day earlier, you'd not be having problems. Example: I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.
What is a Cum Hoc Fallacy?
The more fireman that are fighting a fire, the bigger the fire will be.
missing the point
The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws.
Exclusive premises
The rule of "avoid two negative premises" is associated with the fallacy of...
Appeasement (also, "
The squeaky wheel gets the grease")
Affect heuristic
The tendency to consult one's emotions instead of estimating probabilities objectively.
Traditional Wisdom Example
The theory that witches and demons cause disease is far older than the theory that microrganisms cause diseases. Therefore, the theory about witches and demons must be true.
Style Over Substance
The way a text (including a human being) presents itself or is presented is often more important than the underlying messages/values it presents
hypostatization
The writer uses an abstract concept as if it were a concrete reality
What is a Gambler's Fallacy?
This coin has landed heads-up nine times in a row. It will, therefore, land tails-up next time it is tossed.
Plurium interrogationum / Many questions
This fallacy occurs when someone demands a simple (or simplistic) answer to a complex question. Example:"Are higher taxes an impediment to business or not? Yes or no?"
Apriorism (Hasty Generalization)
This is a conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence. In other words, you are rushing to a conclusion before you have all the relevant facts. Example: Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.
Two Wrongs do not Make a Right
This is a special kind of Ad Hominem Fallacy.
Traditional Wisdom
This occurs when it is assumed that something is better or correct simply because it is traditional or "has always been done"
Appeal to tradition
Trying to get someone to accept something because it has been done or believed for a long time. Example: This is the way we've always done it. Therefore, it is the right way. Example: The Catholic Church's tradition demonstrates that this doctrine is true.
Ad Hoc Rescue
Trying to save a cherished belief by repeatedly revising the argument to explain away problems
appeal to hatred
Type of Red herring fallacy "Are you tired of being ignored by your government? Is it right that the top 1% have so much when the rest of us have so little? I urge you to vote for me today!"
appeal to fear
Type of Red herring fallacy "If we don't bail out the big automakers, the US economy will collapse. Therefore, we need to bail out the automakers.
Appeal to Antiquity?
Type of Red herring fallacy -Sure I believe in God. People have believed in God for thousands of years so it seems clear that God must exist. After all, why else would the belief last so long?
Appeal to sympathy
Type of Red herring fallacy Appeal to sympathy. Agree because you feel sorry for the opposition. "He lost his leg in the war, so..."
Faulty Emotional Appeal
Type of Red herring fallacy Appealing to strong emotions that are (a) irrelevant to the argument or (b) used to mask other purposes. "I'm moved by his testimony, so I should believe him."
What is an Appeal to Consequences?
Type of Red herring fallacy If God does not exist, then everything is permitted.
Appeal to Pity
Type of Red herring fallacy Pro-life campaigners have recently adopted a strategy that capitalizes on the strength of appeals to pity. By showing images of aborted fetuses, anti-abortion materials seek to disgust people, and so turn them against the practice of abortion.
Appeal to ignorance
Type of Red herring fallacy When the appeal is based on a lack of information to prove a point or based on the idea that since the opposition cannot disprove a claim, the opposite stance must be true.
Appeal to Authority
Type of Red herring fallacy Assuming the authority of a figure establishes the truth of the argument. "Einstein says..."
Appealing to Prejudice- When the writers of an argument benefit from appealing to their readers' values.
Type of Red herring fallacy Arguing that the origins of a person, object, or institution determine its worth. "He speaks with a funny German accent. He must be a Nazi."
Appeal to Force?
Type of Red herring fallacy If you don't accept that the Sun orbits the Earth, rather than the other way around, then you'll be excommunicated into space. The Sun orbits the Earth, therefore, rather than the other way around.
What is an Appeal to Poverty?
Type of Red herring fallacy The working classes respect family and community ties. Respect for family and community ties, therefore, is virtuous.
Appealing to Tradition/ Scholasticism
Type of Red herring fallacy Using historical preferences as evidence that the historical preference is correct. "We cannot let women join our club because we've never let women join in the past."
What is an Appeal to Wealth?
Type of Red herring fallacy Warren is richer than Wayne, so Warren will make a better dinner-guest than Wayne.
Bandwagon Appeals -Argumentation ad Populum/Appeal to Popular Opinion-
Type of Red herring fallacy When the author utilizes arguments which urge people to follow the same path everyone else is taking.
Appealing to Tradition
Type of Red herring fallacy When the line of thinking asserts that the premise must be true because people have always believed in it and have done it; since it worked in the past, it will work now.
Ad Populum
Type of Red herring fallacy fallacy in evidence; appeals to popular attitudes and emotions without evidence supporting the claims -bandwagon- -speaks to positive -such as patriotism, religion, democracy- or negative - such as terrorism- concepts rather than the real issue at hand.
What is a Moralistic Fallacy?
Unfaithfulness is immoral, and so it is unnatural to feel desire for others when in a monogamous relationship.
Pitch Beast
Uses an animal to endorse a person, product, or idea.
Glittering Generality
Uses attractive, but vague, words that embody ideals such as: freedom, fame, justice, respect. This technique seeks to evoke emotions without making any commitments.
Appeal to the People
Uses the views of the majority as a persuasive device (very similar to bandwagon).
Venting Fallacy
Venting Fallacy a person argues that her/his words are or ought to be exempt from criticism because s/he was "only venting,"
Fallacy of exclusive premises
We don't read that trash. People who read that trash don't appreciate real literature. Therefore, we appreciate real literature. MATHEMatically , if 1. A and B = X 2. B and C = X then A ⊂ C. then A is subset of C
What is a Slippery Slope Fallacy?
We shouldn't allow people uncontrolled access to the Internet. The next thing you know, they will be frequenting pornographic websites and, soon enough our entire moral fabric will disintegrate and we will be reduced to animals.
Subjectivist Fallacy
Well X may be true for you, but it isn't true for me, said with the intent of dismissing or rejecting X.
Composition
What's true of parts is true to whole. "Each pro-bowl player is the best at his position in his league. So the winning pro-bowl team is the best team possible."
Testimonial Example
When Oprah Winfrey mentions a book, it becomes a best seller.
Social proof
When a choice is perceived as the "right one" because a lot of people are selecting that option; making decisions by observing what others do in similar situations.
Tokenism
When a single member of a minority group is present in an office, workplace, or classroom and is seen as a representative of that minority group rather than as an individual
Stacking the Deck
When a writer tries to prove a point by focusing on only one side of the argument while ignoring the other.
Appealing to Pity
When an arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone.
Poisoning the Well
When negative information is presented about a person before he/she speaks so as to discredit the person's argument.
Either/Or (False Dilemma)
When only two choices are presented yet more exist, or a spectrum of possible choices exists between two extremes. "You are either with God, or against him."
Appeal to Emotions
When something is associated with good/bad feelings, then it must be true/wrong (manipulates people's emotions)
Pitch Beast Example
When the Gieco Gecko is used in commercials to endorse the insurance company.
Straw Man
When the arguer attacks an argument that isn't really there, making it so that the arguer has an argument that's easy to knock down and proceeds to do so, claiming victory over the opponent whose real argument was quite different.
Loaded (Complex) Question
When the arguer combines two questions as if they were one, when they should be answered or discussed separately.
Appeal to Force
When the arguer issues a threat to the audience or some other negative repercussion if the audience doesn't accept/agree with the argument presented.
Misleading Statistic
When the arguer presents statistics that are not gathered by a large majority or that are portrayed as more drastic than they really are.
Ad Hominem
When the person presenting an argument is attacked instead of the argument itself (against the person).
What is a Sweeping Generalization Fallacy?
Women on average are not as strong as men and less able to carry a gun; therefore, women can't pull their weight in a military unit.
False Cause
Wrongly assumes a cause-and-effect relationship ('A' causes 'B' without proof that a relationship actually exists).
Post hoc ergo propter hoc "after this, therefore because of this" faulty cause/effect, coincidental correlation, correlation without causation
X happened, then Y happened; therefore X caused Y. The Loch Ness Monster has been seen in this loch. Something tipped our boat over; it's obviously the Loch Ness Monster.
What is an Ad Hominem?
You don't really care about lowering crime in the city, you just want people to vote for you.
Ambiguous middle term -
a common ambiguity in syllogisms in which the middle term is equivocated.0
Thought-terminating cliché
a commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell cognitive dissonance, conceal lack of thought-entertainment, move on to other topics etc. but in any case, end the debate with a cliche—not a point.
Post Hoc
a fallacy with the following form. 1. A occurs before B. 2. Therefore, A is the cause of B. Example: Eating five candy bars and drinking two sodas before a test helps me get better grades. I did that and got an A on my last test in history. Example: The picture on Jim's old TV set goes out of focus. Jim goes over and strikes the TV soundly on the side and the picture goes back into focus. Jim tells his friend that hitting the TV fixed it.
Proof by assertion -
a proposition is repeatedly restated regardless of contradiction; sometimes confused with argument from repetition (argumentum ad infinitum)
Fallacy of accent -
a specific type of ambiguity that arises when the meaning of a sentence is changed by placing an unusual prosodic stress, or when, in a written passage, it's left unclear which word the emphasis was supposed to fall on.
Confirmation Bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Statements in syllogisms can be identified as the following forms:
a: All A is B. (affirmative) e: No A is B. (negative) i: Some A is B. (affirmative) o: Some A is not B. (negative)
Equity heuristic
also referred to 1/N heuristic. Using the heuristic means equally distributing resources among the available options.
• False attribution
an advocate appeals to an irrelevant, unqualified, unidentified, biased or fabricated source in support of an argument.
Straw man fallacy
an argument based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position.
Existential fallacy
an argument has a universal premise and a particular conclusion
Enthymeme
an argument in which one premise is not explicitly stated. "All insects have six legs; therefore, all wasps have six legs," the minor premise, "All wasps are insects," is suppressed.
Existential fallacy -
an argument that has a universal premise and a particular conclusion.[9]
Psychologist's fallacy
an observer presupposes the objectivity of his own perspective when analyzing a behavioral event.
Association fallacy
arguing that because two things share a property they are the same.
Moving the goalposts (raising the bar) -
argument in which evidence presented in response to a specific claim is dismissed and some other (often greater) evidence is demanded.
bald man fallacy
argument that because no part can be distinguished from neighboring parts except by arbitrary division, there is little difference among the various points along a continuum
Regression fallacy
ascribes cause where none exists. The flaw is failing to account for natural fluctuations. It is frequently a special kind of the post hoc fallacy.
Scarcity heuristic
assume something is higher quality if it is rare or hard to find -- ie diamonds... almost implies we use scarcity as a proxy for total demand (ignoring supply))
Referential fallacy
assuming all words refer to existing things and that the meaning of words reside within the things they refer to, as opposed to words possibly referring to no real object or that the meaning of words often comes from how we use them.
Fallacy of division -
assuming that something true of a thing must also be true of all or some of its parts.
Hasty generalization
basing a broad conclusion on a small sample.
Superstitious Thinking
believing in the cause and effect relationship of noncontingent events. "If I eat a candy, it will instantly turn to fat."
Relativizing,
blithely dismissing any and all arguments against one's standpoint by shrugging one's shoulders and responding that "Everything's relative," or falsely invoking Einstein, Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle or Quantum Weirdness to confuse, mystify or "refute" an opponent. See also, "Red Herring."
Gaze heuristic
catching a ball. The gaze heuristic is one example of animals are able to process large amounts of information quickly and react, regardless of whether the information is consciously processed
Wrong direction
cause and effect are reversed. The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa.
Star Power
celebrities make good communication sources because famous faces catch attention. they embody cultural and product meanings. ex: oakley's one obsession uses athletes' personal stories of inspiration (surfer and cricket player)
Iconoclastic Fallacy
claiming truth or validity for one's standpoint solely or primarily because one is heroically standing up to prevailing "orthodoxy," the current Standard Model
Nirvana fallacy
comparing an actual thing with the idealized solutio
Biased Sample
conclusions drawn based upon a biased or prejudiced sample of evidence
Escalation of commitment
continuation of a course of action that's not working .. similar to momentum, inertia
Attention Bias
describes a situation in which people pay extra attention to some stimuli or some feature
Selective Attention fallacy
describes the situation when you are focused on certain stimuli in the environment while other stimuli are excluded
Appeal to the stone
dismissing a claim as absurd without demonstrating proof for its absurdity.
• Fallacy of relative privation "not as bad as" -
dismissing an argument or complaint due to the existence of more important problems in the world, regardless of whether those problems bear relevance to the initial argument.
Pooh-pooh
dismissing an argument perceived unworthy of serious consideration.
Fallacy of exclusive premises
drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise if either premise is negative the conclusion must be negative
Imitate-the-majority heuristic
e, in deciding which restaurant to choose, people tend to choose the one with the longer waiting queue.[6]
Contagion heuristic
eading people to avoid contact with people or objects viewed as "contaminated" by previous contact with someone or something viewed as bad—
Brainwashing
engineered or forced attitude change involving a captive audience
Accent Fallacy
fallacy arising from the wrong stress put on a word or phrase through voice, emphasis in sentence, or context - a fallacy of ambiguity
guilt by association
fallacy in responding; (bad company) another speaker associates the speaker with someone the audience finds objectionable
post hoc fallacy
false assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused that event
Familiarity heuristic
familiar items are seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar
Blood is Thicker than Water Favoritism Compadrismo
family always comes first over anyone else in times of need.
Undistributed Middle
first premise and conclusion are said to be related because they share a common property (think syllogy)
appeal to authority ad populum fallacies ad hominem ("against the person") tu quoque ("you, too!") ..........
focus our attention on people rather than on evidence.
Argument from fallacy
formal fallacy of analyzing an argument and inferring that, since it contains a fallacy, its conclusion must be false
Smokescreen
highlighting a minor detail to get attention away from the main/major issue
blame the victim
holding the victim of a crime, accident, or any type of maltreatment to be entirely or partially responsible for the transgressions committed against them
Fluency heuristic
if 2 items are recognized, but one is recognized more quickly then choose the item that was more quickly recognized
Texas sharpshooter fallacy -
improperly asserting a cause to explain a cluster of data.
incomplete comparison
in which insufficient information is provided to make a complete comparison.
Moral high ground fallacy
in which one assumes a "holier-than-thou" attitude in an attempt to make oneself look good to win an argument.
Shifting the Burden of Proof.
inappropriately assuming the validity of a claim unless it is proven false by another person who never made the original claim
• Ecological fallacy
inferences about the nature of specific individuals are based solely upon aggregate statistics collected for the group to which those individuals belong.
anti-naturalistic fallacy
inferring impossibility to infer any instance of ought from is from the general invalidity of is-ought fallacy.. For instance, is does imply ought
• Judgmental language
insulting or pejorative language to influence the recipient's judgment
Misleading vividness
involves describing an occurrence in vivid detail, even if it is an exceptional occurrence, to convince someone that it is a problem.
A quantification fallacy
is an error in logic where the quantifiers of the premises are in contradiction to the quantifier of the conclusion. Types of Quantification fallacies: ie the Existential fallacy -
representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevent information
Faulty Analogies
lead to faulty conclusions. Be sure the ideas you're comparing are really related. Example: Forcing students to attend cultural events is like herding cattle to slaughter. The students stampede in to the event where they are systematically "put to sleep" by the program.
Big Brain/Little Brain Fallacy
leads to Blind Loyalty
Tit-for-Tat heuristic
leads to intuitive reciprocation.
Be Grateful for What You've Got
logical fallacy that a bad situation stops being bad because it could be far worse, or because someone, somewhere has it even worse than you.
The Worst Negates the Bad
logical fallacy that a bad situation stops being bad because it could be far worse, or because someone, somewhere has it even worse than you.
Just Plain Folks
make the public feel that the candidate is just like them
• False analogy
n argument by analogy in which the analogy is poorly suited.
Sharpshooter's Fallacy
name from someone shooting a rifle at the side of the barn and then going over and drawing a target and bulls eye concentrically around the bullet hole. The fallacy is caused by overemphasizing random results or making selective use of coincidence.
Pedantry
narrow-minded, trivial scholarship or arbitrary adherence to rules and forms
is-ought fallacy
naturalistic fallacy arguments that assume that just because something is that way, it ought to be that way
Two wrongs make a right -
occurs when it is assumed that if one wrong is committed, another wrong will cancel it out. •
Sui Generis Fallacy
opp of false analogy -- its a postmodern stance that rejects the validity of analogy and of inductive reasoning altogether because any given person, place, thing or idea under consideration is "sui generis" i.e., unique, in a class unto itself.
Just in case fallacy
overprep
fallacy of Complexity
postmodern fallacy of Ineffability or Complexity, arbitrarily declaring that today's world is so complex that there is no truth, or that Truth (capital-T
Name Dropping
putting a picture of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. on an advertisement for mattresses, using Genghis Khan, a Mongol who hated Chinese, as the name of a Chinese restaurant
Faulty generalizations
reach a conclusion from weak premises. Unlike fallacies of relevance, in fallacies of defective induction, the premises are related to the conclusions yet only weakly buttress the conclusions. A faulty generalization is thus produced.
Bandwagon Fallacy
reasoning that suggests that because everyone else believes something or is doing something, then it must be valid or correct
Reductionism
reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study also, (Oversimplifying, Sloganeering)
o Fallacy of quoting out of context (contextomy) -
refers to the selective excerpting of words from their original context in a way that distorts the source's intended meaning.
Stay the Course
remain there until you are successful
Ecological fallacy example
results from incorrectly assuming that individuals in wealthier states are more likely to be wealthy. Or was Émile Durkheim's 1897 study of suicide
Recognition heuristic
selecting previously remembered information from an array of options
Argument from repetition
signifies that it has been discussed extensively until nobody cares to discuss it anymore --- sometimes confused with proof by assertion
attribute substitution
soiurce of these heurisitcs .. A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception.
• Fallacy of many questions complex question, fallacy of presupposition, loaded question
someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all the people involved. This fallacy is often used rhetorically, so that the question limits direct replies to those that serve the questioner's agenda.
Slippery Slope
suggests that one step will inevitably lead to more, eventually negative steps. Example: We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester! Example: You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over you.
Oversimplification
tendency to provide simple solutions to complex problems
Either/Or Fallacy
tendency to see an issue as having ONLY two sides
Tiny Percentage Fallacy
that an expense that is quite significant in and of itself somehow becomes insignificant simply because it's a tiny percentage of something much larger. E.g., a consumer who would choke on spending an extra dollar for two cans of peas will typically ignore $50 extra on the price of a car or $1000 extra on the price of a house simply because these differences are "only" a tiny percentage of the much larger amount being spen
Shotgun argumentation
the arguer offers such a large number of arguments for a position that the opponent can't possibly respond to all of them. (See "above.)
you too
the argument states that a certain position is false or wrong or should be disregarded because its proponent fails to act consistently in accordance with that position.
Conjunction fallacy
the error of believing specific conditions are more probable than a single general one
internal validity
the extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in behavior are a function of the independent variable and not the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables.
line-drawing fallacy
the fallacy of insisting that a line must be drawn at some percise point when in fact it isn't necessary. Example: There shouldn't be restrictions on violence in the movies. After all, when is a movie 'too violent'? You can't draw a line.
Intentionality fallacy
the insistence that the ultimate meaning of an expression must be consistent with the intention of the person from whom the communication originated e.g. a work of fiction
Naturalistic fallacy
the inverse of moralistic fallacy.
Equivocation -
the misleading use of a term with more than one meaning (by glossing over which meaning is intended at a particular time).
The Worst-Case
the most serious situation that might happen El peor de los casos
fallacies of defective induction
the premises of the argument (although relevant to the conclusion) are so weak and ineffective that relying on them is a mistake
Subverted Support
this happens when it intends to explain a phenomenon, which does not actually happen
appeal to hypocrisy
this is a fallacy in which someone dissmmises someone else's point of view because the person does it themself
Ad Hominem
to prime the audience with adverse information about the opponent from the start, in an attempt to make your claim more acceptable, or discount the credibility of your opponent's claim. "Boss, you heard my side of the story why I think Bill should be fired and not me. Now, I am sure Bill is going to come to you with some pathetic attempt to weasel out of this lie that he has created."
Snob Approach
type of argumentum ad populum doesn't assert "everybody is doing it," but rather that "all the best people are doing it."
Similarity heuristic
used to account for how people make judgements based on the similarity between current situations and other situations or prototypes of those situations
Anecdotal fallacy
using a personal experience or an isolated example instead of sound reasoning or compelling evidence. sample size is too small
• False authority (single authority) -
using an expert of dubious credentials or using only one opinion to sell a product or idea. Related to the appeal to authority fallacy.
Loaded Words
using higly connotative words to describe favorably or unfavorably without justification
Kettle logic
using multiple arguments to establish the same conclusion, but the premises of the different arguments are inconsistent
Circular Reasoning
using two ideas to prove each other a fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence
alternative causes
what can threaten internal validity
fallacy of accident
when a general rule is applied to a special case where the rule doesn't apply (exceptions to that rule)
No true Scotsman
when a generalization is made true only when a counterexample is ruled out on shaky grounds.
Survivorship bias -
when a small number of survivors of a given process are actively promoted while completely ignoring a large number of failures
Homunculus fallacy....
where a "middle-man" is used for explanation, this sometimes leads to regressive middle-men. Explains without actually explaining the real nature of a function or a process.
• Genetic fallacy -
where a conclusion is suggested based solely on something or someone's origin rather than its current meaning or context.
ergo decedo
where a critic's perceived affiliation is seen as the underlying reason for the criticism and the critic is asked to stay away from the issue altogether.
•Inconsistent comparison -
where different methods of comparison are used, leaving one with a false impression of the whole comparison.
Etymological fallacy - •
which reasons that the original or historical meaning of a word or phrase is necessarily similar to its actual present-day usage.
Effort heuristic
who took more effort to make higher quality stuff
Propositional fallacies
• Affirming a disjunct, Affirming the consequent, Denying the antecedent
• Continuum fallacy
• Correlative-based fallacies improperly rejecting a claim for being imprecise.
doublespeak
• The term refers to the deliberate use of evasive or ambiguous language.