Final Exam Language development and disorders
differences in aging
-language continues to develop throughout the lifespan -older adults experience more tip-of-the-tongue phenomena: related to phonological retrieval; also difficulty with remembering names -older adults use a slower rate of speech -older adults have more difficult understanding affective prosody - sarcasm and irony
Literate language
-language used without the aid of context cues to support meaning. -literate language is highly decontextualized -monitor and reflect on past experiences and reason, plan, and predict future experiences -literate language is used extensively in educational contexts
Pragmatic assessment
-often involve observation, interviews, and input from family, friends, and teachers -some standardize assessments such as test of language competence: target higher level language functions including use of language for different purposes -analyze social skills in different settings -conversational discourse analysis- code turn taking, topic shifts, expansions, responses etc.
Differences in conversation
-older research shows that women are more polite in their conversations and men swear more -women tend to use more tag questions (don't you?); use rising intonation; use more requests than commands (can you please pass the salt? vs. pass the salt) -context and social status may play a role in conversational style than gender- more polite vs. more competitive settings -speakers tend to adapt their language to match that of their conversational partner -hedges- soften a statement- I kinda like dancing -boosters- add friendly enthusiasm - I'm so glad you're coming with us
Gender differences in school-aged kids
-parents model different language based on child gender -as early as age 6, children begin to show differences in their language based on gender -traditional gender roles are changing with some people pushing to eliminate them completely. difficult to do since most gender role mentality is subconscious.
expressive elaboration
-the continuous of narrative elements in an expressive or artful manner -adds to story grammar and enhances its overall expressive quality -appendages- marking the beginning or end of the story -orientations- providing more detail to story grammar elements - characters names, relations between characters, personal attributes -evaluations- conveying narrator or character perspectives
4 aspects of literate language
1- elaborated noun phrases- a noun or one or more modifiers providing additional information about the noun- articles, possessives, quantifiers, adjectives etc. Use becomes more sophisticated through school age, ending with noun postmodification 2- adverbs- modifies verbs and enhances the explicitness of action and event descriptions. They provide additional information about time- suddenly, again, now; manner- somehow, well, slowly; degree- almost, barely, much, place: here, outside and above, or research- therefore, since so, or negation- definitely, really, never 3- conjunctions- and, for, or, yet, but, nor, after, although, as, because 4- mental and linguistic verbs- refer to thinking (think, know, believe) and speaking (say, tell, speak, call, reply)
Areas of content achievements in school aged kids
1- lexical development 2- understanding of multiple meanings 3- understanding of lexical and sentential ambiguity 4- development of literate language
PA and reading
2 necessary conditions for PA instruction to impact reading outcomes: 1- individual or small group instruction 2- provide explicit, clear, models and practice of PA tasks -Large group (classroom) activities such as clapping for syllables and singing rhyming songs do not help reading outcomes
Irony and sarcasm
5-6 year olds cannot distinguish between irony and sarcasm -9-10 year olds can, and they consider instances of sarcasm as "mean" compared to verbal irony
Metaphors
Conveys similarity between two ideas or objects by stating that they are the same -we can use metaphors often to convey abstract concepts such as time and emotion -She's a shark in the water; all the world is a stage; the artist was an apple tree with no fruit
Segmenting and reading
Example- Segmenting into onset and rime units is particularly helpful for decoding Cat= /c/ /at/ -at, bat, fat, hat, mat, pat, rat, sat, -non-words- zat, yat, wat, nat
Idioms
Expressions that contain both a literal and figurative meaning -opaque- little relationship literal and figurative- she's pulling my leg -transparent- an extension of literal meaning- hold your tongue -5, 6, & 7 year olds can explain transparent idioms more easily than opaque ones
Phonological assessments
Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation- pictures and cues to sample imitative sounds productions in words, including difference word positions -comprehensive test of phonological processing- measures phonological processing skills including phonological awareness, working memory, and rapid automatic naming
literate language example
Hattie 4 years old: That's my toy! Elizabeth 8 years old: No, remember we have to share this toy? Mom and dad bought it for both of use to play with. Lets take turns. -oral language used to convey basis, highly contextual -literate language can only occur when oral language skills have been mastered.
Stage 4
Multiple viewpoints- high school- 14-18 years old -learn to handle increasingly difficult concepts and tasks -consideration of multiple viewpoints simultaneously.
Stage 3
Reading to learn the new- 4th grade to 8th or 9th grade; 9-14 years old; expands and develops vocabulary, builds background information, develops reading habits -phase 3A- grades 4-6- read beyond egocentric purposes so they can learn conventional information about the world; by end, they can read typical adult-length texts but not at adult reading level -Phase 3B- grades 7-8/9- can read on a general adult level
Similes
Similar to metaphors- but more explicit by using like or as -like water off a duck's back; sitting like a bump on a log -quiet as a mouse, flat as a pancake -use and understanding of metaphor and simile related to cognition, language, and academic achievement
Difference between stage 5 and 3 & 4- Is what you just read true?
Stage 3: yes, I read it in a book and the author said so Stage 4- I don't know, One author said it was, but the other said it was not. Maybe there are no true answers. Stage 5- there are difference views. One view has the best evidence so I would tend to believe that.
Prereading stage
The period form birth to the beginning of formal education. It includes most critical developments, including oral language, print awareness and phonological awareness.
Lying well
ability to lie is also related to advanced language use -must make false statements and ensure that subsequent statements and responses are congruent
Metalinguistic competence
ability to think about and analyze language as an object of attention -increases drastically over school-age years -PA- Not completely mastered until kindergarten or first grade. Later development abilities involve awareness of smallest units of sounds and include blending sounds, segmenting from words, and manipulating sounds -aka phonemic awareness -figurative language comprehension and use- language that people use in nonliteral and abstract ways- it's a metalinguistic ability because people have to recognize that language is an arbitrary code
functional flexibility
ability to use language for a variety of communicative purposes and functions -school age children must be able to compare and contrast, persuade, hypothesize, explain, classify, etc.
morphological analysis
analyzing the lexical, inflectional, and derivational morphemes of unfamiliar words to infer meaning -6-10 years old can use morphological cues -9 to 13 years old can use morphological and context cues
The relationship between learning to read and PA is....
bidirectional
Lexical development
by high school graduation, children understand and express about 60,000 words -learn words in 3 ways during school: 1- direct instruction 2- contextual abstraction 3- morphological analysis
Stage 2
confirmation, fluency, and ungluing from print- 2nd to 3rd grade; 7 to 8 years old; -confirmation- children hone decoding skills and become more confident readers; particularly for high frequency words -fluency- reading that is efficient, well placed, and free from errors -ungluing- as they become more confident their reading becomes more automatic -Gradually transition from learning to read to reading to learn
Stage 5
construction and reconstruction- college- reading selectively to suit own purposes and interests- which parts are important? journal articles -how thorough to achieve desired comprehension? -use advanced cognitive processes (analysis, synthesis, prediction) to construct meaning
growth in derivational morphemes
derivational prefixes added to change meaning to a negative- un-healthy, dis-engage, non-comformist, ir-regular
derivational morphology continued
derivational suffixes to change form class, meaning, or both -encroach from a verb to a noun (encroachment) - -y to change verbs into adjectives (tasty; squishy) (around 11 years old) - -ly to change adjectives/nouns to adverbs (correctly, aptly) (adolescence)
Persuasive writing
easier to study development of complex syntax in writing samples than language samples -persuasive writing- try to convince others of a particular point of view or to take an action -requires awareness of others' beliefs and ability to present ideas in a logical sequence -children include increasing amounts of complex syntax in their persuasive writing as the move into adulthood
abstract meaning
elicitation techniques- having children tell or retell a story -figurative language assessment- measures idioms, proverbs, metaphors, etc.; often informal assessments
Antidisestablishmentarianism
establish- to set up, put in place, or institute dis-establish- to end the established status of a body, in a particular church, given such status by law, such as the Church of England -Disestablishment- the separation of church and state (political movement in the 1860s in Britain) -anti-disestablishment- opposition to disestablishment -antidisestablishmentary- of or pertaining to opposition to disestablishment -antidisestablishmentarian- an opponent of disestablishment -antidisestablishmentarianism- the movement or ideology that opposes disestablishment
proverbs
express conventional values, beliefs, and wisdom of society -serve various communicative functions -most difficult for children to master -understanding improves gradually through adolescence, correlated with academic achievement
Types of assessments
formative- testing to see what children show before teaching -summative- focuses on learning outcomes -norm-referenced- compares to peers -criterion-referenced- specific standards -dynamic- measures growth over time -screenings- brief; identify children who need extra help -comprehensive evaluations- in-depth; used for diagnostic purposes- typically evaluates every aspect of speech/language -progress monitoring- fairly brief and given regularly; document improvement- response to intervention
Achievements in use
functional flexibility, conversational abilities, and narrative development
Major achievements in content
gains the result of decontextualized language from classroom discussions and texts -lexical development -understanding lexical and sentential ambiguity -development of literate language
Children progress through 5 stages that build on the prereading stage
initial reading or decoding stage- kindergarten through 1st grade; 5-7 years old; begin to decode words by associating letters with corresponding sounds in phases. There are 3 phases of errors: 1- substitute semantically and syntactically probable words (The dog is barking) 2- substitute graphic resemblance, regardless of semantics (The dog is green) 3- substitute graphic and semantic resemblance (The dog is growling or the dog is going).
Syntax assessments
language samples and transcripts- examine number and quality of meaningful units in phrases and sentences - similar to MLU -elicited language samples- create situations in which children need to use certain word forms -Test of language development- TOLD- sentence combining, word ordering, morphological comprehension
Direct instruction
learning the meaning of a word from a more knowledgable source -another person or a dictionary
narrative development
narration is more difficult conversation because the speaker carries the linguistic load and the listener is passive 4 types: 1- recounts- telling a story about a personal experience or retelling a story that has been read. 2-accounts- type of personal narrative- they are spontaneous 3- event casts- what sportscasters do- describe a current situation or event as it is happening 4- fictionalized stories- made up and usually have a main character who overcomes a challenge or solves a problem. AKA fictional narratives
Figurative language
nonliteral and abstract- requires understanding that language is arbitrary and can have multiple meanings -metaphors, similes, hyperboles, idioms, irony, proverbs
complex grammatical structures
noun-phrase postmodification with past participles (a dance called the waltz) -complex verb phrases using the perfective aspect (Stephanie has arrived from Vancouver) -Adverbial conjunctions (only, consequently) -passive voice (the fish were caught by an experienced fisherman)
Irony and sarcasm
occurs when the speaker's intentions are different from the literal meaning of their words -verbal irony- unmet expectations that cannot be traced to an individual -sarcasm- a specific individual fails to meet expectations
Example:
on the way to the park, Tim comments to Jan that the weather is perfect for a picnic. As they unpack their food, it begins to rain. Jan comments- what perfect weather for a picnic
Before the school age years a child's source of language input is....
oral
Differences in pragmatics
pragmatic differences are noted in conversations: -women make more eye contact -men change topics more -women use more fillers- uh-huh, yeah -men interrupt more to object -women interrupt for clarification -some of these differences may be related to context
elements of mature narratives
school age kids learn to move both forward and backward in time as they tell their narratives -younger kids can only move forward -elements of story grammar: characters, setting, episodes, etc.
morphophonemic development
show gains in morphophonemic development- -sound modifications when morphemes are joined -at around age 5, children start to use /iz/ for plural -the grammatical morphemes has 2 phonological forms -vowel shifting when adding a derivational morpheme- serene to serenity, sane to sanity -stress emphasis- hotdog vs. hot dog -distinguish nouns from verbs- record vs. record and present vs. present (mastered by 12 years old)
What is the most complex phonological awareness ability?
sound manipulations- usually develops around 2nd grade- -Example- Say rate without the "r" or what word do you have if you switch the p and t in the word pat?
conversational abilities
stay on topic longer -have extended dialogues -make more relevant and factual comments -smoother shifting between topics -adjust content and style to the listener -better at understanding indirect requests- do you know what time it is?
sentential ambiguity
surface-structure ambiguity- words in a sentence can be grouped in a different way that conveys a different meaning (Can you tell me how long cows should be milked? As long as the short cows, of course!) deep-structure ambiguity- noun serves as the subject in one interpretation and the object in another. (Did you know the natives liked the potatoes more than the missionaries? Yes, but the missionaries are more nutritious) or (The duck is ready to eat)- can mean that the duck is hungry or it is ready to be eaten
lexical ambiguity continued
the source of much humor -did you hear about the kidnapping at school?- must be aware of the ambiguity and then attend to determine the appropriate meaning -children with poor oral language skills have difficulty detecting lexical ambiguity
Hyperboles
uses exaggeration or emphasis or effect -I'm so hungry I could eat a horse; I nearly died laughing -use of the word literally -intonation patterns may aid in comprehension -discrepancy from reality may help kids infer meaning
contextual abstraction
using context clues, spoken or written, to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words -similar to fast mapping and extended mapping, but older children can do it without an object present -pragmatic inferences: bring personal knowledge or background to the text (story books) -logical inferences- only use information provided by the text (text books)
lexical ambiguity
when words have multiple meanings -homophones- sounds alike, different meanings, spelled the same or different- bare or bear -homographs- spelled the same, different meaning, may sound different- row and row and record and record -homonyms- spelled and sound the same, different meaning- bare and bear
Once children learn to read they acquire input from....
written text
content assessments
-analyze language samples for vocab use -peabody picture vocabulary test- PPVT- measure receptive vocab and points to picture that matches the word -Expressive vocab test- EVT- naming items based on pictures -Test of word knowledge- TOWK- expressive and receptive vocabulary, definitions
achievements in form for school aged children
-changes are slow and subtle -morphophonemic development- when an individual attains the ability to make sound modifications by joining certain morphemes (use of /iz/), to use vowel shifting (/aI/ to I/- decide vs. decision), and to use stress and emphasis to distinguish phrases from compound words (green house vs. greenhouse)
Proverbs continued
-commenting- Blood is thicker than water -interpreting- his bark is worse than his bite -Advising- don't count your chickens before they hatch -Warning- better safe than sorry -encouraging- every cloud has a silver lining.
Complex syntax development in school aged kids
-developmentally advanced grammatical structures that mark a literate or decontextualized language style *single most important achievement during school age -literate language- decontextualized -grammatical structures that are rare in spoken language but common in text -necessary for reading comprehension and for writing