FINAL EXAM (Psych)

Conceptual Revolutions leading to modern psychology

1. Mind is a part of nature (i.e. Materialism) 2. We can study the mind scientifically and empirically (localization of functions).

Two things we can learn from Phrenology

1. Modularity of mental functions: We have many mental abilities which are distinct and independent from one another. For instance, our ability to see is independent from our ability to smell. 2. Localization of Function: Good evidence that different faculties are located in certain regions of the brain. For example, the region of the brain which controls memory is separated from the region which controls speech.

Broad Principles of Brain Organization and Function

1. Specialization of Function 2. Size Correlation with Function 3. Principle of Contralateral Organization

Assertions of Phrenology

1. The brain is the organ of the mind. (True) 2. The mind is composed of distinct, innate faculties. (True) 3. Because they are distinct, each faculty must occupy a distinct part or "organ" in the brain. (True) 4. The size of an organ, other things being equal, is a measure of its power. (True) 5. The shape of the brain is determined by the development of the various organs. I.e. Brain plasticity: the brain changes shape as it develops. (True) 6. As the skull takes its shape from the brain, the surface of the skull can be read as an accurate index of psychological aptitudes and tendencies. (False)

Biological Preparedness/Predisposition

A propensity for learning some kinds of associations over others. Could explain food aversions, as taste associates easily with sickness in humans.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields. Excellent spacial resolution, but no temporal resolution.

What is a correlation?

A measure of the degree to which one variable is related to another. Correlation does NOT mean Causality. A third factor can cause a correlation between unrelated factors.

Neurons

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. They receive and transmit information through electrical impulses.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps build long term memory. People with damage to this structure may be unable to acquire any new long term memories, even though they retain the memories that they had prior to the damage.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. Often referred to as "firing". Action potential is one-directional and "all or none"; i.e. the nerve either fires at full power or it doesn't fire at all.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it regulates several basic body functions (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Random Sampling

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Amygdala

A small brain structure involved in processing and regulating emotional states, specifically fear.

Little Albert Experiment and its significance

A study in which a white rat was paired with a loud sudden noise in order to condition a fear response in an infant. Showed that even emotional responses could be conditioned.

autonomic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.

Placebo Effect

A treatment that alters a person's behavior or feelings through the power of suggestion. External cues cause the brain to expect.

fMRI

A type of MRI which measures changes in oxygen consumption and blood flow in the brain. When parts of a brain activates, blood flows to that area and consumes oxygen in the bloodstream. Because deoxygenated blood has different magnetic properties from oxygenated blood, fMRI's can measure concentrations of deoxygenated blood to determine which areas of the brain are activating. fMRI's have excellent spatial resolution and fair temporal resolution.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcement or diminished if followed by a punishment. The process by which a behavior becomes associated with its consequences

Materialism

A type of monism which holds that nothing exists except for matter and energy. All human thought and behavior can be explained in terms of physical processes in the body--in the brain in particular. Popularized by Thomas Hobbes.

advantages and disadvantages of correlational studies

Advantage: Can observe the relationship between variables in a natural setting. Disadvantage: Cannot determine causality. Always possible for 'unseen' variables to influence a correlation.

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

CT Scan

An x-ray image of a slice of the brain. Lets us look at the brain's anatomy. Fair spatial resolution but no temporal resolution.

Behaviorism

Behaviorists wanted to restrict psychology to truly objective, observable data. Treat the mind like a black box where the complex underlying processes can't be understood. Thus, we should concentrate our efforts on understanding the relationships between stimulus and response and attempt to learn how we can predict behavior. Problem: Restricting study to only the things that are directly observable is not a good way to discover.

Types of Aphasia

Broca's Area: An area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. Damage causes the afflicted to have difficulty producing language. Wernicke's Area: An area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension. Damage causes speech to be fluent, but nonsensical.

Proof of Modularity and Localization of Function

Broca's Area: People with damage to Broca's area have difficulty with speech production, but have relatively normal comprehension of language. This result suggests that a specific part of the brain is responsible for the production of speech distinct from a general understanding of language. Wernicke's Aphasia: Wernicke's Aphasia is sometimes called "Jargon Aphasia", because they can produce speech fluently, but the content of the speech is relatively meaningless. This result suggests that a specific part of the brain is responsible for language comprehension.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. Effects can be excitatory (makes the receiving neuron more likely to fire) or inhibitory (less likely to fire).

Spinal Cord

Consists of bundles of nerves, called tracts. Ascending tracts carry sensory info to the brain, while descending tracts carry motor info from the brain to the body.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. This only affects unconditioned stimulus-response.

How did Descartes's Dualism solve the problem of the Church?

Descartes observed that some behaviors exhibited by us resemble that of an animal's. It was widely accepted at the time that non-human animals have only bodies and do not have souls. Therefore, since animals have no soul, much behavior does not require a soul. Since the body was physical and scientific study on it was acceptable, we are allowed to study body-caused behavior without worrying about being put to death by the Church as long as thought and mind is not studied.

Goals of Scientific Psychology

Describe - Characterize the features of behavior Predict - Relate two or more variables informatively Explain - What causes the variables to be related?

Reinforcement Schedule

Describes how often and under what conditions a behavior is reinforced. 2 types of conditions (Interval/Ratio) and 2 frequencies (Fixed/Variable) -Fixed Interval: Reinforced at definite periods of time while the action is being performed (ex. every hour). -Fixed Ratio: Reinforced every time the action is performed a certain amount of times. -Variable Interval: Reinforced at a random time while the action is being performed. -Variable Ratio: Reinforced after a random amount of times the action is performed.

Specialization of Function

Different parts of the brain specialize in different functions. We can divide the cortex into 4 general areas or "lobes".

Double Blind Study

Double-Blind: A procedure in which both the experimenter and the subjects are ignorant (blind) about the conditions the subjects are in. Purpose: So neither the experimenter nor the subject will have expectations about how subjects should perform in a particular condition.

Monism vs. Dualism

Dualism can be contrasted with Monism, or the belief that the world can be explained by only one category of substance. So, according to dualism the mind is NOT a product of the brain but according to monism it IS.

What are the building blocks of the mind? Empiricism vs Nativism

Empiricism: All human thought and knowledge are acquired from sensory experience (Locke/Hume). Nativism: The idea that certain elementary ideas are innate to the human mind and do not need to be learned (Kant).

Experimental Issues: Expectancy

Experimenter/Observer Expectancy: Experimenter unconsciously treats groups differently. Which can cause participants to behave differently. This can cause bias in the results that is produced from the researcher's expectation that subjects will behave in a certain way. Subject Expectancy: Subject has theories about the experiment which influence how he or she performs [e.g., Placebo Effect ]

Scientific Theory

Explains through an integrated set of principles and predicts behaviors or events. Must generate testable predictions (hypotheses) that can show the theory to be false.

Fixed and Variable

Fixed means the frequency of reinforcement is consistent whereas variable means it is random.

Brain Lobes

Frontal Lobe: Most complex lobe associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving. Parietal Lobe: Processes bodily sensations including touch and pain. Temporal Lobe: Responsible for hearing and language comprehension. Occipital Lobe: Important for vision.

Reflexes

Genetically coded responses to events. They are automatic and caused by the nervous system.

Santiago Ramon y Cajal

Identified neurons under a microscope and discovered its shape.

Cognitive Approach

If we cannot completely understand the mind, we can at least infer by studying different levels of analysis. Cognitive: Mental processes. Developmental: Change over time. Biological/neurological: Physiological mechanisms of the brain or nervous system. Clinical: Mental disorders and treatment. Social: Influence of society and groups on conformity.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response by itself before conditioning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Placebo Effect - Conclusion

In testing treatment effectiveness, a control treatment should be present that mimics the irrelevant components of the treatment. Subjects should be blind to whether they are in the treatment or the control condition. The researcher should also be blind to which subjects are in the treatment and control conditions (double-blind protocol).

Experimental Variables

Independent: The manipulated factor in an experiment. Hypothesized to cause an effect on another variable. Dependent: The variable that's measured. What's hypothesized to be affected.

Interval and Ratio

Interval is the period of time over which an action is performed whereas Ratio is the amount of times an action is performed.

How do we research the brain?

Invasive Brain Surgery (Psychosurgery): Egas Moniz Case Studies: Phineas Gage Noninvasive Brain Imaging: Taking pictures of brain activity

Pavlov's Dog Experiment

Ivan Pavolv's famous experiment involved a dog being presented with food alongside a bell. The dog originally salivated reflexively from the meat, but eventually learned to salivate from the sound of the bell alone. This is the quintessential example of classical conditioning.

Language in the Cortex

Language is located in the left hemisphere. Important parts of the language cortex are Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area. Aphasia is the impairment of language through damage to the left hemisphere.

Corpus Callosum

Large bundle of neural fibers (axons, specifically) connecting the two brain hemispheres. Permits data received in one hemisphere to be processed by the other hemisphere

Cell Body

Largest part of a neuron; contains the nucleus and DNA. It processes information received by the dendrite and decides whether to fire.

Differences in Biological Preparedness/Predispositions between species.

Laws of learning do NOT apply equally well to all types of stimuli and animals. Rats for example, learn to associate nausea with taste while birds associate it with color.

Mylein Sheath

Layer of electrically insulating fatty tissue that covers many axons and helps speed up neural activity. Damage to mylein sheathe is associated with Multiple Sclerosis.

Observational Learning

Learning can occur by watching the actions and behaviors of others. Disproves radical behaviorism which posited that all behavior is influenced by consequence history.

Thalamus

Located on the end of the brainstem. The brain's sensory relay station that receives input from most of the sensory modalities -- vision, audition, etc but not smell.

Electroencelphalogram (EEG)

Measures electrical signals associated with brain activity. Has excellent temporal resolution, but absolutely no spatial resolution.

The Principle of Contralateral Organization

Most of the sensory and motor information that travels to and from the brain goes to the opposite side of the body. The left visual field crosses to the right-side of the brain and the right field to the left-side. The left brain controls the right hand, and the right brain the left hand.

Motor and Sensory Cortices

Motor cortex: also called the Primary Motor Area. Located at the rear of the frontal lobes and controls movement. Sensory cortex: also called the Primary Somatosensory Area. Located at the front of the parietal lobes and registers body sensations.

Basal Ganglia

Necessary structure for fine motor control (esp. intentional/precise movements). Damage produces 'tremors at rest'. Parkinson's disease affects nerves running into the basal ganglia

Introspectionism and its problems

One of the first psychological schools of thought. This approach involved a study of conscious mental events by "introspecting" or "looking within." Introspection involves the observation and recording of one's own thoughts and experiences. Main problems: 1. Variability: One person's impressions are often very different from another person's. 2. Verification: We cannot access the thoughts of others so there is no public access to results or ways to verify. 3. Reliance on Consciousness: Many mental processes are unconscious and cannot be analyzed by the self.

Cerebral Cortex

Outermost layer and largest part of the brain, accounting for roughly 80% of its total volume. About 1/3 is visible, and it can be divided into 2 hemispheres.

How does the material mind work?

Phrenology: A failed attempt to localize cognitive functions in the brain. I.e. The idea that different sections of the brain operate different functions.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Positive outcomes (e.g., rewards) increase the frequency of a response. Negative outcomes (e.g., punishment) decrease the frequency of a response. The tendency to perform a given response is strengthened or weakened by the effect that the response brings about.

Phineas Gage

Railroad worker who survived a severe injury to the frontal lobe that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function and the frontal lobe.

Experimental Issues: Random Assignment

Random Assignment: Every participant in the study should have an equal chance of being placed in any of the conditions. Randomization helps avoid false results because some participants might have different reactions to certain conditions.

Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement increases behavior, Punishment decreases behavior. These can also be Positive or Negative, where positive means adding while negative means removing. -Positive Reinforcement: Giving something good. -Negative Reinforcement: Taking something bad. -Positive Punishment: Giving something bad. -Negative Punishment: Taking something good.

How do we achieve the goals of psychology?

Research Methods: 1. Correlational Study: No manipulation of variables. Measure the relationship between existing variables. 2. Experimental Study: Manipulate variables in a controlled environment to determine cause-effect by observing changes in behavior.

What's really going on in classical conditioning?

S-R Theory: The brain associates the conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response. The conditioned stimulus becomes a stand in for the unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus has no affect on this process. S-S Theory: The brain associates the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus. This causes the conditioned response to occur in expectation of the UCS. The S-S Theory has more evidence, as habituation of a UCS appears to have an impact on conditioned responses.

Three types of Neurons

Sensory: Send input from sensory areas to the brain and spinal cord. Motor: Send output from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands. Interneurons: Carry information between other neurons

What does Classical Conditioning tell us about learning?

Shows that automatic responses, or biological states, like salivation, can be triggered by an arbitrary stimulus.

Issues in Brain Imaging

Spatial Resolution: How close in physical proximity you can get to the target brain area Temporal Resolution: How close in time you can get to when the neurons fire

The two divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic: Arouses the body into a flight-or-fight mode. Important for responding to stressful situations. Parasympathetic: Calms the body to restore it to a relaxed state. Prevents overwork.

What does localization of function tell us?

Taken together, Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia provide concrete evidence that complex mental processes can be localized to different parts of the brain. The acceptance of the idea that there was a physical basis for mental events was an important step in the development of psychological science.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The Central Nervous System is comprised of the brain and the spinal cord. In the course of evolution, species have developed more complex brain systems by "adding on" to older, more primitive structures.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The Peripheral Nervous System is the set of nerves that connects the CNS to the sensory organs, muscles and glands.

Learning: Classical Conditioning

The ability to acquire new responses or to optimize or alter existing reflexes

Dendrite

The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

General Overview of Functions

The closer the brain structure is to the brainstem, the more "essential" it is. The outermost layers are for "luxuries" like complex judgement and voluntary action. The human cerebral cortex is much larger than other animals' and it is the cause of our mental complexity.

Axon

The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. This is the cell's output structure.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; it occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).

When to use experiments

The experiment is the best method for determining cause-effect relationships, but is not always used because: 1. Random assignment is unethical (e.g., smoking, religion, parental styles) 2. Random assignment is not practical or affordable (e.g., Does Oreo eating in childhood cause happiness in old age?)

Synapse

The gap between the axon tip (terminal branch) of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

Dualism

The idea that the world is composed of 2 distinct categories of substance: mental substance (the soul) and physical substance (the body). The mind is a product of the soul.

Split Brain Experiments

The left hemisphere is mainly responsible for language. The right hemisphere contains the ability to recognize human faces/spatial relations. In a split brain experiment, words shown on the right side of the visual field can be easily identified verbally because the left hemisphere is responsible for language. The patient would not be able to read words from the left visual field, but they would be able to draw or pick out the object using their left hand (but NOT the right). These experiments are proof that each hemisphere stores different pieces of information and uses the corpus callosum to exchange it.

Size Correlation with Function (Cortices)

The motor and sensory cortices have segments "mapped" to certain parts of the body. The more cortex devoted to a body part, the finer control and sensitivity we have over that body part.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions, such as controlling breathing and the heartbeat. Comprised of the Pons, Medulla, and Midbrain

Conditioned Response (CR)

The original unconditioned response becomes associated with and is triggered by the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of time.

Why was Dualism an obstacle to the study of psychology?

The soul/mind was seen as a supernatural entity separate from the physical body. Therefore, it was seen as heretical to study the mind, and attempts to do so could result in execution by the Church.

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (E.g. Little Albert was conditioned to feel fear from rats, but this generalized to a fear associated with any small furry objects).

Where did our complex mental faculties come from?

Theory of Natural Selection: Attributes contributing to survival and reproduction are likely to be passed on to succeeding generations. All attributes can evolve, including those that underlie mental processes.

Radical Behaviorism

Theory that all behavior is a result of its reinforcement history. Theoretically, if we knew all the events of reinforcement an individual experienced, we could accurately predict behavior.

Drug Tolerance and Situation Specificity

Tolerance to drugs like heroin is often observed to be situation specific (i.e. drug tolerance increases in certain environments/locations). This occurs as a result of the body's conditioned response to activate countermeasures against the harmful effects of the drug. The location is the conditioned stimulus that causes the body to begin its response in expectation of the drug's injection. This shows that even environments and bodily processes can be affected by conditioning.

Variable Reinforcement Effect

Variably reinforced behaviors resist extinction better than fixed reinforcement. Variable ratio encourages the subject to continue behavior, while variable time encourages the subject to continue performing over time. Fixed reinforcement schedules are faster to learn, but very quick to extinction. Not receiving reinforcement after a fixed ratio schedule will quickly make the behavior go extinct, while fixed interval discourages the subject from performing the action after reinforcement is received.

How do neurons communicate?

When action potential reaches the terminal branches of the axon, the impulse signals for the release of a chemical stored in sacs called vesicles (electrical process). These chemicals cross the synaptic gap and are received by the dendrites of another neuron (chemical process).

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; responsible for motor control, posture, balance, and important for rapid, well-timed movements.

What is Psychology?

the science of mind and behavior