Final Exam Study Guide Environmental Science

Prevailing view of nature in the 1950's (especially EARLY 1950s)-how did that change by the late 1950s?

"Nature" was a force to be tamed and controlled for human purposes & chemical pesticides were an innovation that was enthusiastically embraced.The most widely used chemical pesticide was DDT. • Insecticide: used against crop pests & mosquitoes (malaria),body lice (typhus) and fleas(plague)• Was considered harmless to vertebrates (people). Late 1950s: heated debate was raging over the widespread use of chemical pesticides: • Birds of prey were dying (vulnerable to DDT)• DDT remaining in soil/water for a longtime• Consumers worried about chemical residues (food).

The Dust Bowl: Where? When? Why? Two Main Causes?

-Oklahoma and Texas panhandles and neighboring sections of Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico. -Occurred in the 1930's -It happened do to two main causes which were poor farming practices and droughts. -Texas Cattle Ranchers pressures government to open to cattle grazing, which they did.

Invasive Plants in GA: Kudzu, Privet, Water Hyacinth, Chinese Wisteria, How they got here: Where they are from: Where are they a problem: What problems do they cause (to humans, environment):

83 invasive or potentially invasive plant species Kudzu: How they got here: Introduced as ornamental bush (effortles sand efficient shade producer)-1800s• Rebranded as erosion control in1940s/1950s• Southern farmers were given about eight dollars an acre to sow topsoil with the invasive vine-1 milacres Where they are from: S.E. Asia Where are they a problem: southeastern, eastern, midwestern US. Also a problem in Australia, New Zealand, Canada. What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): heavy shading (growing over plant)• out competes other plants for resources• Also, 28% reduction in stocks of soil carbon(climatic change issues). Privet: How they got here: Brought in: sold as landscaping; ornamental Where they are from: Asia Where are they a problem: 9 species in US invasive• huge problem in Australia & New Zealand(banned- pollen is known to cause asthma and eczema) What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Outcompete; shades; lowers biodiversity—less trees, shrubs and critters. Water Hyacinth: How they got here: Brought in: ornamental,1884 and onwards Where they are from: South America Where are they a problem: Problem in: Gulf coast states, eastern seaboard, California (smaller populations elsewhere) What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Impacts freshwater/slower moving water systems• Clogs equipment• Decays: fish kills/deoxygenation• Recreation/shipping hazard• Changes aquatic plant (light) and animal (less quality food source)• Use up nutrients/changes water chemistry. Chinese Wisteria How they got here: Ornamental (1916) & onward Where they are from: China Where are they a problem: Eastern US What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Girdles trees, starve system of light.

Energy transfer between the different trophic level so How much is lost? What does that mean? How many people can each level feed?

90% of all energy is lost, only 10% of energy is transferred up each level. Producer Level (Plants): Plants (producers) capture sunlight through photosynthesis and convert it into chemical energy. However, not all of this energy is consumed by herbivores. Primary Consumer Level (Herbivores): Herbivores consume plants, but they don't assimilate all the energy stored in the plant biomass. Some energy is lost as heat during metabolic processes, and not all plant parts are edible. Secondary Consumer Level (Carnivores): Carnivores that consume herbivores also experience energy loss during digestion and metabolic processes. Again, only a fraction of the energy from the herbivores is transferred. Tertiary Consumer Level (Top Predators): Further energy loss occurs as you move up the food chain to tertiary consumers, which are predators at the top of the trophic pyramid. The 10% rule means that only about 10% of the energy from one trophic level is transferred to the next. The rest is lost as heat or used in metabolic processes. As a result of this energy loss, ecosystems are more efficient when there are fewer trophic levels. It is more energy-efficient to obtain nutrients directly from plants (primary producers) than to consume animals higher up in the food chain. Humans less than 1% of animal biomass We use more than 30% of terrestrial net primary production Converted 1/3 of Earth's ice-free surface to agriculture Agroecosystems.

Hydroelectricity-pros, cons, rates of usage etc.

Advantages• Fuel and pollution free(or is it?) • Continuous electricity Disadvantages • Loss of land • Ecosystem disruption • Initial cost Hydropower Production These 11 countries account for about 75% of the world's hydropower production. With the completion of the Three Gorges Dam facility,China is now the world's number one producer and consumer of hydroelectric power.

How to conserve soil—a.k.a. good farming practices

Basic principles for soil conservation: Keep soil covered • Minimally disturb soil • Keep plantgrowth year round • Diversifycrops/covercrops Techniques for Preventing Soil Erosion: Contour farming: follow the contours of hills causing water toflow across, less erosion; Intercropping (alternating crops—annual (corn in gold) & perennial (alfalfa in green) limits erosion Terracing: allows for farming of very steep terrain Shelterbelts or windbreaks: slow the wind, reducing soilerosion and protecting fragile crops No-till techniques: cotton in a field that has not been plowedkeeps max topsoil Cover crop (rye): to improve soil fertility and prevent erosionduring the winter months

Benefits we get from insects-we went over a few...know them (food, forensics, genetics, products etc).

Benefits of Insects: • Food!! • Honey & grub/adult • Pollination!!• Honeybees (pollinate 80% of our crops-$20 billion dollars of crops) • Silk • Natural & Biological Controls!! • Genetics Research • Products!!• Lac: Found in Lac Scale insects (mostly India)--floor polishes, shoepolishes, insulators, various sealants, printing inks, and varnish • Beeswax: ointments, polishes, creams, lotions & candle making • Dyes: Cochineal is a bright red pigment that is gained from the bodies of a scale insect, Coccus cacti, which lives on cactus plants. Cleaning skeletons • Carpet beetles Forensic Etemology

Make sure you are familiar with all of these. We spent some time on algae. Where can it be grown?What are the benefits? How can it be utilized with a corn ethanol plant?

Biofuel, food products baby food spirulina omega 3 fatty acid, we are trying to accelerate the process of oil. Reduce C02 emmisions while making a sustainable oil. 30x more efficinet and grown easily. Corn uses up lots of land and resources.

Invasive Plants in GA:Blady Grass or Cogongrass How they got here: Where they are from: Where are they a problem: What problems do they cause (to humans, environment):

Blady Grass or Cogongrass How they got here: accidentally 1912 to Louisiana(packing material)• intentionally to FL in 1930s (forage and erosion control) Where they are from: SE Asia Where are they a problem: mainly southeastern US What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): overtaken more acreage than Kudzu• eliminates natives, crowds them out• possible allelo pathic effect• the chemical inhibition of one plant (or other organism) by another, due to the release into the environment of substances acting as germination or growth inhibitors.

Invasive Animals in GA:How they got here:Where they are from:Where are they a problem:What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Burmese Pythons, Rabbits into Australia, Cane Toads into Australia

Burmese Pythons: How they got here: Petstores released into the wild. Where they are from: Burma Where are they a problem: Problem in Florida and potentially other southeastern states What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): They eat basically anything, they can wipe out all of the life in the system. Rabbits into Australia How they got here: Where they are from: Originally imported from England to provide sport for gentleman Where are they a problem: Australia What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Cane Toads into Australia How they got here: Where they are from: Brought in from Hawaii to eat the cane grub (insect) Where are they a problem: Australia What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): They contain a toxin, poison sacs make it to where nothing could eat them and they could eat everything.

What were some of the examples we looked at for improving public transportation?

Bus Rapid Transit As with BRT systems in other cities, buses in Bogotá, Colombia, have their own lane and boarding stations, which are physically separated from the rest of the highway. Note the traffic backup to the left. Bogotá has set daily driving restrictions based on the last digits of automobile license plates to help limit the congestion. They made a lane which was exclusive to this bus and saw that more people started to use the bus system rather then being stuck in traffic etc. The new light-railsystem in Houston,Texas, is one factor accounting for diminished automobile traffic congestion in its city center.

Explain carrying capacity (what does it mean and can you go above?), umbrella species, keystone species,density independent vs dependent controls, edge effect.

Carrying Capacity: The size of a population that the environment can support indefinitely, (Given that the conditions do not change). As the population approaches carrying capacities, the death rate increases and the birth rate decreases.How humans have impacted carrying capacity: Humans have increased the world's carrying capacity through migration, agriculture, medical advances, and communication. The age structure of a population allows us to predict population growth. Unchecked human population growth could have dire long-term effects on our environment. Umbrella Species: By protecting an umbrella species that protects more species. Example jaguar species that has a wide range in order to protect them we need to protect all the habitats they move through and everything they come into contact with. Anything in that habitat is protected by that umbrella species. Keystone Species: Keystone Species: Named after wedge-shaped keystone that holds arched structures together, removal of these species causes collapse. Examples: Wolves, beavers, grizzly bears, and sea otters.Keystone species are important in stability of many food webs and are usually predators, (but not always elephant). Loss of keystone species can cause trophic cascade, which results in herbivores that destroy primary producers. Density Independent vs Density Dependent Density Independent Controls: Affect populations in similar ways, regardless of the size of the population, usually negative but can be positive, and usually hard to predict. Examples: weather changes, natural disasters, seasonal cycles and human activities (ex. damming a river). Hurricanes, natural disasters, etc.

Invasive Pathogens in GA:How they got here:Where they are from:Where are they a problem:What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Chestnut Blight, Dutch Elm Disease, Chytrid Fungus, White Nose Syndrome

Chestnut Blight :How they got here: Introduced: Came in on nursery stock; first isolated in NY• Appalachian Mountains ~one in every four hardwoods was an American chestnutWhere they are from: Origin: Fungal infection from Japan in early 1900sWhere are they a problem: North Eastern USWhat problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Grows under bark and girdles tree• Spores transmitted by wind• 1st half of 1900s-killed ~4 billion trees. Dutch Elm Disease How they got here: Europe (1910), N. America (1928)• Shipment of logs from Netherlands brought it here, that's where name comes from Where they are from: Asia Where are they a problem: Problem in: mainly eastern and central USWhat problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Spread by bark beetles• Tree plugs own tissues in defense, leaves die from lack of water, roots from lack of food• 75% of estimated 77 million N. American elms dead by 1989• Elms (benefits):• Landscaping; dominate tree in flood plain forests; wood for furniture/veneer; seeds are food for opossums, squirrels, mice etc. Chytrid Fungus How they got here: pet trade; frogs for food; climate changes;shoes/gear; amphibians as baitWhere they are from: Possibly from Africa (pregnancy testing);1930sWhere are they a problem: Problem in: worldwide spread and concernWhat problems do they cause (to humans, environment): 350+ species (many extinct)—global problem• skin infected (thickening/shedding)—breathing/absorption-death by cardiac arrest, starves, sick White Nose Syndrome How they got here: Cave near Albany, New York in Feb 2006Where they are from: EuropeWhere are they a problem: Problem in: mostly eastern US (hopefully)What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): 16 species of bat native to Georgia; allinsectivores• Hitting three of ours especially har

Where coal, oil and natural gas and plastics come from and where they can be found o Again, pay attention to graphs/charts. Lots of good info on those. Also, think about how these substances form.

Coal: Ancient plant deposits Extraction and processing • Removed from sediments by underground & surface mining: cleaned-removes dirt & other impurities • Globally, 67% used for electricity generation(90% in United States). Transformed into electricity at coal-fired power plants • Burned to create steam for steam turbines. Highest coal reserves are found in Europe,United States and Asia. Oil/natural gas: microorganisms Existing reserves • Half of known oil reserves in Middle East • 18% in Venezuela • 10% Canadian tar sands • 2% in United States The world's largest natural gas reserves generally occur where oil is also abundant. Note that almost 90%of Europe and Eurasia's natural gas reserves are found in only two countries, Russia and Turkmenistan. Nearly half of global proved reserves of oil are concentrated in Middle Eastern countries, including Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Iraq.

What is an incentive? What is an externality?

Commodity: Goods and Services that are exchanged. Profit: Difference between cost to produce a commodity and its price in the marketplace. Markets are Not perfect, therefore Prices do not Reflect all of the Costs. Externalities: Costs and benefits associated with production of a commodity that affect people other than the buyers or the sellers. Opportunity Costs: Smoking-used to be perceived glamorous (benefit), now know to cause health issues (cost). -Free markets sometimes produce incentives for actions that deplete a resource or damage the environment. -We have resources that are in limited supply. Economic models often treat individual commodities as if they are OR easily interchangeable with other goods/services. -Rarely the case (over the last 4 decades, 70% or more of the worlds marine fish stock have been fully exploited or overexploited), externalized costs distributes unevenly between current and future generations.

Difference between contact vs systemics.

Contact: Definition: Contact substances act on the external surface of the target organism. They remain on the surface and do not penetrate into the tissues or circulatory system. Application: Contact pesticides are typically applied directly to the target organism, such as insects, fungi, or plant surfaces. Mode of Action: They work upon direct contact with the target. For example, contact insecticides may disrupt the insect's nervous system or interfere with its outer shell (cuticle). Duration of Effect: The effectiveness of contact treatments is usually short-lived. Reapplication may be necessary if the target organism is mobile or if environmental conditions wash away the substance. Systemic: Definition: Systemic substances are absorbed and transported within the organism, affecting internal tissues, cells, or systems. Application: Systemic treatments can be applied to the roots, leaves, or other parts of a plant. In medicine, systemic medications may be administered orally or through injection to affect the entire body. Mode of Action: They are absorbed by the organism and distributed through its circulatory system, reaching various parts of the body. In plants, systemic pesticides may move upward from the roots to the leaves via the xylem. Duration of Effect: Systemic treatments often provide longer-lasting effects compared to contact treatments. Once absorbed, the substance can continue to affect the organism over an extended period.

How do you refine crude oil?

Crude oil is pumped from reservoirs and sent to refineries • Primary oil recovery:original flow (first 20%) • Secondary oil recovery:additional methods,injecting water • Tertiary oil recovery:injection of CO2 steam;fracking Fracking The process of fracking involves horizontally drilling to access oil trapped in sediment. In oil refinery cracking towers, the components of crude oil, such as diesel fuel and gasoline,are separated by their different boiling points. Oil companies burned natural gas as waste in the past• Now natural gas is captured in pipelines • Fracking used to harvest natural gas from shale deposits. Refined to remove impurities • Water, sulfur, other gases• Converted to liquified natural gas

Where we all live (urban vs rural)

Current trends • Urbanization still at rapid rate • 55% of people live in urban areas • 75% or higher in developed nations • Urban poor becoming major issue • Megacities- More than 10 million residents The percentage of the total U.S.population living in metropolitan areas has grown steadily over the past century. Within these areas, growth has been greatest in the suburbs. 2020 data is looking quite similar to2010 data.

Density independent vs dependent controls, edge effect.

Density Independent Controls: Affect populations in similar ways, regardless of the size of the population, usually negative but can be positive, and usually hard to predict. Examples: weather changes, natural disasters, seasonal cycles and human activities (ex. damming a river). Hurricanes, natural disasters, etc. Density Dependent Controls: Only operate when the population size reaches a certain level. Examples: Competition: When a population becomes too crowded, other individuals outcompete. •Resources are limited: if there are too many individuals and not enough resources, certain individuals will become malnourished or starve, which will lower the population growth. •Examples: competition, predation, parasitism, disease Fragment forest systems into sections due to infrastructure etc. Urban and suburban areas, cuts of systems from each other creating an island. Oragnisms are in isolation can not support apex predators so you see a drop off. Inbreeding problems and loss of biodiversity, the system is not behaving how it should be due to habitat loss and fragmentation. The edge effect Instead of complete loss of the system the habitat keeps getting divided into smaller and smaller sections. Dams are a good example. In environmental science, the "edge effect" refers to the ecological changes and influences that occur at the boundary or edge between two different ecosystems or habitat types. This transition zone is often characterized by distinct environmental conditions and ecological dynamics that differ from those found in the interior of each habitat. The edge effect is particularly relevant in areas where natural habitats interface with human-altered landscapes or where different natural habitats meet. Here are some key aspects of the edge effect:

Dams: o How do they work? o What are they are used/constructed for? o How many there are in the US? How much energy do they produce? o How do they alter ecosystems?

Designed to impound or divert water• Dam building: became popular around end of the1800s and peaked in 1960s• Most are designed to:• Store water: reservoir for drinking water, irrigation and recreation• Electricity• Flood control• In the United States:• Unknown total number of dams• 75,000-79,000 dams over 3 feet high• impounding 600,000 mi (970,000 km) of river• Of these, only 2,540 hydropower dams.In the 1940's, hydropower provided about 75% of all the electricity consumed in the West &Pacific NW & about 1/3 of the total US electrical energy• Today: only 6.8% of the US energy consumption• Big dams:• Hoover• 1931-1936; Colorado River;boarder between NV and AZ;thousands of workers & 100+ lost their lives; irrigation/ hydroelectric• Grand Coulee• Columbia River in the state of Washington; hydroelectric and irrigation; 1933-1942.Altering the riparian buffer zone• Some flooding of ecological or agricultural land• Changing sediment load downstream• Sediment load maintains ecosystems--including productive deltas, barrier islands, fertile floodplains and coastal wetlands• Changing temperature, DO and chemical composition on both sides of the dam• Kills many different types of organisms• Changing floodplain downstream• Increased erosion• Stronger cutting streams• Less recharge further down• Eroded channels drop the water table—make it harder for plants to access water (farmland, ecosystems). Sediment build up behind the dam• Reduced capacity, fills up over time• Fragmentation of river ecosystems• Blocks migrating organisms• Loss of biodiversity: Blocks gene flow• Reservoirs contribute to greenhouse gas emissions• Get anaerobic zones that create methane gas Relocation of people• Loss of way of life• Loss of farming area• Are costly and failing (finite

Conversion efficiency of different agricultural product, so think food products—water efficiency and feed efficiency.

Domestic animals • Significant portion of agriculture • 20% of Earth's pasture for animals • 30% of crops for animal feed • Trophic-level efficiency varies by speciesTrophic-level efficiency • Most domestic animals are herbivores • Efficiency depends on ability to break down cellulose• Ungulates most efficient • Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs• Horses have simpler digestive tracts• A pasture can support twice as many cattle as horses. Comparing ConversionEfficiencies: Domestic animals differ in their conversion efficiencies. In this diagram the breadth of the arrows depicts the relative amount of feed needed to produce a single kilogram of a particular food. Cows require the greatest feed input per kilogram of edible weight, pork is intermediate, and chickens are most efficient. We see that beef comes out as the least efficient in multiple scenarios. The items with the highest feed conversion efficiency would be eggs, poultry and dairy.Energy and protein feed-to-food conversion efficiencies in the US and potential food security gains from dietary changes. Waste management • Manure is rich in nutrients• Some pathogen concern • Methane production • Livestock accounts for 5% of global warming• Possible energy source. Land use• Forests and habitats cleared for grazing Transmission of disease • Coevolution of flu virus • E. coli Water Usage: We see that water efficiency varies in different products, with chocolate and beef have alow efficiency and vegetables and eggs having a high efficiency.

What does the term ecosystem service mean? Would you recognize one if you saw it?

Ecosystem: The interaction of all of organisms and the physical/chemical environment in a given area (functions as a integrated ecological unit). In other words: the abiotic (water, minerals, temp) and biotic (plants, animal, bacteria) aspects. Ecosystem Services: The resources and processes that ecosystems supply to humans (can quantify some of them). There are three types. Provisioning: Supply us with materials or energy outputs from ecosystems- food, water, air, medicine, raw materials. Regulating/Supporting: Important conditions and processes: air quality, carbon sequestration and storage, climate, water quality; flood control; disease control; pollination; soil formation; nutrient cycles; genetic diversity. Culture: Spiritual and Recreational benefits; knowledge benefits; aesthetics; sense of place.

Any issues associated with non-renewables? THINK OIL SPILLS—what impacts did we see? What about fracking?

Environmental Impacts (of oil and natural gas):• Environmental degradation: fracking (gas) and exploration (both) • Drilling and transportation: spills (oil); methane leaks (natural gas) • Emissions: methane! (gas) carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide(both), hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides; greenhouse gas emissions • Political turmoil. The ANWR Controversy Significant reserves of oil sit beneath this portion of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Arctic National Wildlife Refuge on Alaska's northern coastal plain. Environmentalists fear that drilling for oil and the construction of an oil pipeline would have serious consequences for this fragile ecosystem. Infamous Oil Spill—Lasting Impacts The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling platform opened an under sea well that spilled 5 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Remnants of this spill still regularly wash onto the shores of the Gulf Coast states.

How insects are used for crime fighting—examples

Estimation of Postmortem Interval (PMI): Maggot Activity: Insects, especially blow flies, are often the first organisms to colonize a decomposing body. Forensic entomologists can study the life cycle of these insects, particularly the development of maggots, to estimate the time of death. The stage of insect development and the types of insects present can provide valuable information about the PMI. Crime Scene Analysis: Insect Presence at Crime Scenes: Examining the presence and abundance of insects at crime scenes can help investigators reconstruct events. For example, the presence of certain insects on a corpse may indicate whether the body was moved or if the crime occurred at the scene. Trace Evidence: Entomological Trace Evidence: Insects can be transferred between crime scenes, suspects, and victims. Entomological trace evidence involves the analysis of insects found on clothing, vehicles, or objects associated with a crime. This can help link individuals to specific locations or events. Environmental Clues: Environmental Factors: The presence or absence of certain insects can provide information about the environmental conditions at the time of death. For example, the season, temperature, and humidity can influence the rate of insect development, which, in turn, aids in estimating the PMI. Toxicology Investigations: Insects as Bioindicators: Insects can be bioindicators of environmental contamination. Forensic entomologists may analyze insects for the presence of toxins, drugs, or poisons, providing additional evidence in cases involving poisoning or substance abuse.

How can fertilizer cause a dead zone?

Fertilizers can contribute to the formation of dead zones in aquatic ecosystems through a process known as eutrophication. Here's a breakdown of how this occurs: Fertilizer Application: Farmers apply fertilizers to agricultural fields to enhance the growth of crops. The two main nutrients in fertilizers that are relevant to this process are nitrogen and phosphorus. Runoff into Water Bodies: When it rains or when irrigation water is applied, excess fertilizers on the fields can be washed off the land and into nearby water bodies. This runoff carries a significant amount of nitrogen and phosphorus. Nutrient Enrichment: Once in the water, the excess nutrients act as a form of enrichment. While nutrients are essential for plant growth, an excess amount can lead to imbalances. Algal Blooms: Nitrogen and phosphorus act as fertilizers for aquatic plants, including algae. The enrichment of water with these nutrients often leads to rapid and excessive growth of algae, known as algal blooms. Decomposition: When the algae die, they sink to the bottom, where they are decomposed by bacteria. This decomposition process consumes oxygen, leading to a decrease in dissolved oxygen levels in the water. This process is often associated with the development of dead zones in coastal areas, where excess nutrients from agricultural runoff enter rivers and eventually reach the ocean. One of the most well-known examples is the Gulf of Mexico's Dead Zone, which forms in the northern Gulf due to nutrient runoff from the Mississippi River watershed.

What's the difference between a food web and a food chain? Which is more accurate?

Food Chain: Definition: A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms, each of which serves as a source of food for the next organism in the chain. It represents a simple, one-dimensional path of energy transfer. Representation: In a food chain, organisms are arranged in a straight line, with arrows pointing from one organism to the next, indicating the direction of energy flow. For example, grass is eaten by a grasshopper, which is eaten by a frog, and so on. Simplicity: Food chains are relatively simple and represent a single pathway of energy transfer. They are a useful tool for understanding basic predator-prey relationships. Limited Scope: Food chains typically focus on one specific feeding relationship. They don't account for the multiple food sources or interactions of organisms in an ecosystem. Energy Flow: Food chains illustrate the direct flow of energy from one trophic level (feeding level) to the next, with each transfer resulting in some loss of energy to the environment as heat. Food web is more accurate as far as food relationships go. It interacts in a variety of ways not just food. Many components are dependent on one another and have complex relationships. Food webs depicts all of the feeding relationships and is more detailed then food chains, with more complex food webs creating greater stability.

Ecosystem services provided by forests

Forests contain more than 50% of terrestrial species Ecosystem services (to name a few) • Flood prevention • Carbon storage • Carbon sink-stores more than releases • Recreation • Hiking, camping, hunting etc. • Wood/paper • Other products (we'll discuss more soon) • Air and water quality Estimates: $3.8 trillion per year This takes into account: • Nutrient cycling, erosion control, soil formation, water regulation, raw materials, food, genetic resources,habitat, climate regulation, recreational and cultural uses.

Climate change o Explain arctic amplification, sea level rise (what's causing it and why do we care?) and ocean acidification.

Global temperature rise: most extreme in the arctic • Warming at twice the rate. Arctic amplification' • Ice reflects heat, underneath it is what color? • Additionally, storms in the tropics push more hot air up (global wind patterns) • Growing season 30 days longer since1990 • Sea ice melting and permafrost disappearing • Fires more common • Animal pop decreasing • 30% decline in polar bears • Lemmings declining • Food source for MANY predators(carnivorous birds, mammals like the. Sea level rise • Caused by: • Thermal expansion • Glacial meltwater • Warming oceans: absorb a lot of excess heat • What happens when water warms? • Oceans absorb around 90% of the heat from climate change. Melting ice sends more water down rivers and to the sea • Influx of freshwater (lowered salinity of estuaries/coastal waters). Precise satellite measurements indicate that sea level is currently rising at the rate of about 32 mm (1.2 in.)every decade. Scientists fear that additional warming may cause this rate to accelerate. Ocean acidification • Since Industrial Revolution, acidity increased 30% • Amount of CO2 absorbed by oceans increasing 2 bill tons a year. Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide not only contributes to global warming but also leads to ocean acidification. The absorption of excess CO2 by the oceans results in more acidic seawater, which can harm marine life, particularly organisms that rely on calcium carbonate for their skeleton.

Water o Why do we extract groundwater---what's our number one use?o How can you be more water efficient at your home?

Groundwater• Water that resides in rocks and soil beneath the ground• 0.3% of Earth's water• Aquifers• Layers of sediment and rock saturated with water. We utilize over half of water flowing in Earth's streams • We use water from streams, rivers and aquifers for both: • consumptive (not returned to river or aquifer, such as irrigation and industry) and • non-consumptive (returned:hydroelectric, wastewater in septic). • Globally, the largest use off reshwater withdrawals is for:agriculture. Conserving water in agriculture is crucial for sustainable and responsible water management, especially considering the increasing demand for water resources and the potential impacts of climate change on water availability.70% of freshwater irrigates crops • Irrigation efficiency • Percentage of applied water that actually gets used by plants• Most farms less than 40% efficiency • Simple changes in practices and new technologies can decrease use by 15-50%Drip Irrigation:Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the base of plants, minimizing water wastage through evaporation and runoff. This method is more efficient than traditional overhead sprinkler systems.Mulching:Applying mulch around plants helps reduce soil evaporation, retain moisture, and suppress weed growth. This is particularly beneficial in arid and semi-arid regions. Rainwater Harvesting:Collecting and storing rainwater for agricultural use during dry periods can reduce the reliance on traditional water sources. This can be done through the use of rain barrels, ponds, or other storage systems. Soil Moisture Monitoring:Implementing soil moisture monitoring systems helps farmers assess the actual water needs of crops. This allows for more precise irrigation scheduling, preventing overwatering.

How does biodiversity help ecosystems resist/recover from change?

Helps ecosystems respond to disturbance/change. Diverse ecosystems have many species with varying tolerances (think: drought or pollution). Oftentimes, they have many organisms with similar roles this can increase productivity as well as protect from change. Provides humans with many ecosystem. Services. Improves production of goods. Food, Fuel, Fiber, Medicine.Provides us w/ ecosystem services: Good economics! Storm buffer, water filtration, climate control, carbon sequestration and GOODS Improves production of goods. Food, Fuel, Fiber, Medicine, Ecotourism, Biotechnology. People like biodiversity. Existence value: intrinsic value in plants/animals. Religious beliefs or ethics. United Nations Charter for Nature. "Every form of life is unique, warranting respect ..."

Invasive Insects in GA: Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, Spotted Wing Drosophilla (fruit fly). How they got here: Where they are from: Where are they a problem: What problems do they cause (to humans, environment):

Hemlock Woolly Adelgid How they got here: Brought in: First noticed in North America: With Canada (1920s); eastern US (1950s)• Most likely: plant trade/plant stock. Where they are from: Origin: E. Asia/Japan Where are they a problem: Problem in: eastern US/Appalachian Mountains heading to Maine What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): feeds on phloem and may inject a toxin• Why do we care?• Hemlocks: stream erosion control, food for wildlife (deer), shelter for critters, ornamental use, lumber. Brown Marmorated Stink Bug How they got here: Brought in: to US in 1996probably accidentally in a shipping container Where they are from: Eastern Asia Where are they a problem: Problem in: eastern US and coastal western US What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Feeds on a variety of plants,including fruit trees, ornamentals, and some crops (soybean)• Can cause allergic reaction• Indoor pest. Spotted Wing Drosophilla (fruit fly): How they got here: Brought in:• Hawaii in the 1980s and in the continental U.S. in California in 2008. Where they are from: SE Asia Where are they a problem: Problem in: eastern US and coastal western US What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Attacks fruit prior to harvest• ~$500 million in damage to fruitcrops (and growing)• Blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, cherries• impacting the $255 mil GA blueberry industry with crop losses of up to 20%annually since 2010.

Pesticides: more specifically, insecticides (all about DDT—(where was it sprayed, why was it troubling, why was it used etc) and our early uses of pesticides in the US)

History of Pesticides in the US • First round: really toxic or ineffective compounds • Arsenic, lead and hydrogen cyanide • Lead arsenate pesticides were used to control insects in orchards from the 1890s to the 1960s • Second round: synthetic components • First one DDT "Nature" was a force to be tamed and controlled for human purposes & chemical pesticides were an innovation that was enthusiastically embraced.The most widely used chemical pesticide was DDT. • Insecticide: used against crop pests & mosquitoes (malaria),body lice (typhus) and fleas(plague)• Was considered harmless to vertebrates (people) Late 1950s: heated debate was raging over the widespread use of chemical pesticides: • Birds of prey were dying (vulnerable to DDT) • DDT remaining in soil/water for a longtime • Consumers worried about chemical residues (food)

IPM o 3 components and what each of those means!; benefits of IPM

IPM involves adjustments to chemical practices as well as biological and cultural improvements to how farmers interact with their crops. Biological Control: What It Means: Biological control involves the use of living organisms to control pest populations. These organisms can be predators, parasites, pathogens, or competitors of the target pests. Benefits: Biological control is environmentally friendly, sustainable, and often self-perpetuating. It can provide long-term pest control without the need for chemical interventions. Cultural and Physical Controls: What It Means: Cultural and physical controls involve practices that create unfavorable conditions for pests, disrupt their life cycles, or physically prevent them from reaching crops. Examples: Crop rotation, intercropping, using pest-resistant crop varieties, maintaining proper sanitation practices, and employing physical barriers or traps. Benefits: Cultural and physical controls contribute to the prevention of pest outbreaks by altering the agroecosystem to make it less conducive to pests. These methods often have fewer environmental impacts than chemical controls. Chemical Control as a Last Resort: What It Means: Chemical control involves the use of pesticides when other strategies have not been sufficient to manage pest populations. However, the emphasis is on using chemicals judiciously and only when necessary. Benefits: Using chemicals as a last resort minimizes the risks associated with pesticide use, such as environmental contamination, harm to beneficial organisms, and development of pesticide resistance. It helps to maintain a balanced and resilient ecosystem.

How do impervious surfaces impact rivers? (think in URBAN systems).

Impervious surfaces in urban areas, such as roads, parking lots, and buildings, have significant impacts on rivers and water systems. These surfaces prevent water from infiltrating into the soil, leading to increased runoff and alterations in natural hydrological processes. Here are several ways impervious surfaces affect rivers in urban systems: Increased Surface Runoff: Effect: Impervious surfaces do not allow rainwater to infiltrate into the ground, resulting in increased surface runoff. Impact: Rapid and increased runoff can lead to higher volumes of water flowing over surfaces, carrying pollutants, sediments, and other contaminants into rivers. This altered flow can contribute to streambank erosion. Water Quality Issues: Effect: Impervious surfaces collect pollutants such as oil, heavy metals, nutrients, and sediment. Impact: During rainfall, these accumulated pollutants are washed into rivers, degrading water quality. Urban runoff is a significant source of nonpoint source pollution, impacting aquatic habitats and ecosystems. Flooding: natural occurrence with seasonal volumes of rain or snow melt• Annual flood cycles support rich agricultural areas• Nile; Mississippi• Urban systems—challenges:INCREASED flash floods• Impervious surfaces• Pavement, roofs; do not absorb rainfall• Too much water• From increased paved areas and deforestation• Trees: single deciduous tree in NC can transpire 100 gallons per day• Solutions: increase greenspace, use pervious pavement, green roofs(retain 75% of rainwater).The impervious surfaces of urban landscapes generate over four times as much runoff as do forests or meadows, which have completely pervious (permeable) surfaces. In this diagram the estimates of infiltration and runoff are based on 3 inches of rainfall.

How impervious surfaces impact water systems.

Impervious surfaces, such as pavement, roads, and rooftops, have significant impacts on water systems and can contribute to a range of environmental and hydrological issues. Here are some of the key ways impervious surfaces affect water systems: Increased Surface Runoff: Impervious surfaces prevent water from infiltrating into the ground. Instead, rainwater runs off quickly over these surfaces, leading to increased surface runoff. This rapid runoff can contribute to flooding, erosion, and changes in natural flow patterns. Altered Hydrological Cycle: Impervious surfaces disrupt the natural hydrological cycle by reducing the amount of water that infiltrates into the soil and replenishes groundwater. This alteration can lead to changes in streamflow patterns, with more rapid and flashy responses to rainfall events. Reduced Infiltration and Groundwater Recharge: The lack of permeability in impervious surfaces hinders the infiltration of water into the soil. This reduction in infiltration rates can lead to decreased groundwater recharge, impacting aquifers and overall water availability. Increased Peak Flows: Impervious surfaces contribute to the acceleration of runoff, resulting in higher peak flows in rivers and streams during storm events. This can exacerbate flooding downstream and lead to the erosion of riverbanks. Water Quality Issues: Runoff from impervious surfaces often carries pollutants, including sediment, oil, heavy metals, and nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus). This polluted runoff can degrade water quality in receiving water bodies, harming aquatic ecosystems.

Dam video: All of it is fair game. However... o In particular, pay special attention to: -Fish hatcheries and the issues associated with it; why dams lose effectiveness over time;general cultural and environmental issues with dams; do you remember how dams impacted people?; how sediment exited dams like Condit

In the documentary DamNation they mentioned a couple reasons about why having fish hatcheries are an issue for both the environment and also the fishes. Fish hatcheries are an issue because they feed the fish brown pellets in a concrete box, then release them into the wild and expect them to thrive. However, that is not often the case. Most times they are just a sitting target waiting to be eaten. They release millions of their fish every year and very few of them survive to come back. Another issue with releasing tons of hatchery fish at the same time is that they start to outcompete the wild fish in the stream, crippling the chances of the wild fish being recovered in that system. Fishes from fish hatcheries are also inbred making them lack genetic diversity compared to fish in the wild. Environmentally, dams change fish migration patterns and also water temperature and the quality of the water making it harder for fish to adapt and survive in their environment.In my opinion based on what I saw in the documentary, dams have a high impact on people and the environment. Dams have deeply affected native americans populations who sacredly rely on salmon in their daily lives. Creating dams in these sacred places takes away a huge part of their culture creating a very big impact on their local community. People who like to fish and kayak are also affected by the creation of these dams because it completely alters the ecosystem which was once present. Environmentally, millions of tons of sediment are trapped behind dams starving the ecosystem downstream, while creating stagnation of water above the stream which is just as bad. Natural sediment flows are very critical to river habitats, wetlands, offshore environments, and protecting coastal communities from storm surges and sea level rise. Not allowing that natural flow o

Incomplete vs complete metamorphosis

Incomplete Metamorphosis: Stages: In incomplete metamorphosis, there are three main stages: egg, nymph, and adult. Egg: The life cycle begins with the laying of eggs by the adult insect. The eggs hatch into nymphs. Nymph: The nymph is a juvenile form that closely resembles the adult but lacks wings (if the adult has wings). Nymphs undergo a series of molts, shedding their exoskeletons as they grow. Each stage between molts is called an instar. With each molt, the nymph becomes larger and more developed. Adult: After reaching the final nymphal instar, the insect undergoes a final molt, revealing fully developed wings (if applicable) and reproductive organs. The adult emerges and is capable of reproducing. Examples: Insects that undergo incomplete metamorphosis include grasshoppers, crickets, dragonflies, and cockroaches. Complete Metamorphosis: Stages: Complete metamorphosis involves four distinct stages: egg, larva (caterpillar or maggot), pupa, and adult. Egg: The life cycle begins with the laying of eggs by the adult insect. Larva: The egg hatches into a larva, which is a worm-like, often caterpillar-like, feeding stage. Larvae are specialized for feeding and growing, and they undergo multiple molts to increase in size. Pupa: The larva undergoes a process called pupation, during which it transforms into a non-feeding and often immobile pupa. Inside the pupa, the insect undergoes significant changes, including the development of adult structures. Adult: The adult insect emerges from the pupa. The adult is often markedly different in appearance from the larval stage and is equipped for reproduction. Adult insects typically have wings (if applicable) and reproductive organs. Examples: Insects that undergo complete metamorphosis include butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and bees.

How insects differ from you in their circulatory and respiratory systems (and how those systems work in insects)

Insects: Tracheal System: Insects have a tracheal system, which consists of a network of tubes (tracheae) that deliver air directly to cells. The openings of the tracheae, called spiracles, are located on the body surface. Diffusion: Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged directly between the tracheal system and cells through diffusion. This efficient system allows for rapid gas exchange without the need for a respiratory pigment like hemoglobin. No Respiratory Pigment: Insects do not have respiratory pigments in their hemolymph, as the direct delivery of oxygen to tissues eliminates the need for oxygen transport by a blood pigment. Humans: Lung-Based System: Humans have a lung-based respiratory system. Air is inhaled through the nose and mouth, travels down the trachea, and enters the lungs, where gas exchange occurs in tiny air sacs called alveoli. Hemoglobin: Oxygen is transported in the blood by the respiratory pigment hemoglobin, which binds to oxygen in the lungs and releases it to tissues throughout the body. Carbon dioxide, a waste product, is transported back to the lungs and exhaled. Complex Respiratory Structures: Humans have complex respiratory structures, including the bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli, all of which contribute to efficient gas exchange.

Invasive Insects in GA: Japanese Beetles, Chinese Mantis, Asian Ladybug (Lady Beetle) How they got here: Where they are from: Where are they a problem: What problems do they cause (to humans, environment):

Japanese Beetles: How they got here: Brought in: accidentally in 1912-1916 (NJ) through the iris bulb trade Where they are from: Japan Where are they a problem: Problem in: eastern US(creeping west). Also a problem in Europe. What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Damages ornamentals, trees,shrubs, flowers and crops• Feeds on 300 different host plants• $460 million a year. Chinese Mantis: How they got here: Brought in:• 1896 accidentally introduced(PA)• Also intentionally brought in a biological control agent• Still sold at many nurseries Where they are from: Asia Where are they a problem: Problem in: most of eastern US and some western states What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Eats insects (including declining species, such as monarchs) and small vertebrates (even sometimes consuming reptiles, amphibians and possibly hummingbirds). Asian Ladybug (Lady Beetle): How they got here: Brought in: intentionally and accidentally• Originally brought in in 1916, but not established until 1980s• U.S. Department of Agriculture as a biological control agent for aphids and scale• Later, accidentally introduced in New Orleans from an Asian freighter. Where they are from: Eastern Asia Where are they a problem: Most of USA What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): threat to native species and biodiversity• grape industry (feed off of rotting grapes & give wine 'off' taste)• Gets in homes.

How does agriculture in general impact the environment?

Land Use and Habitat Conversion: Deforestation: Clearing land for agriculture, especially in regions with high biodiversity, can lead to deforestation. This results in the loss of natural habitats, affecting plant and animal species. Habitat Fragmentation: Agricultural activities can fragment natural landscapes, isolating populations and reducing biodiversity. Water Use and Pollution: Water Consumption: Agriculture is a major consumer of freshwater resources. Irrigation, in particular, can lead to the depletion of aquifers and surface water sources. Water Pollution: Runoff from agricultural fields can carry pesticides, fertilizers, and sediments into water bodies, leading to water pollution. This runoff can harm aquatic ecosystems and compromise water quality. Soil Degradation: Erosion: Improper agricultural practices, such as overgrazing and inadequate soil conservation measures, can lead to soil erosion. This depletes the topsoil, reducing its fertility and harming the overall health of the soil. Biodiversity Loss: Monoculture: Large-scale agriculture often relies on monoculture, where a single crop is cultivated over extensive areas. This reduces biodiversity, making ecosystems more vulnerable to pests and diseases. Pesticide Impact: The use of pesticides in agriculture can have unintended consequences, leading to harm to non-target species, including beneficial insects and wildlife. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Fossil Fuel Consumption: Modern agriculture often relies on machinery, transportation, and synthetic inputs, all of which require fossil fuels. The energy-intensive nature of industrial agriculture contributes to carbon emissions and environmental pollution.

Rubber tapping vs cattle ranching o What do these activities involve? Are they sustainable and how do they impact the forest system?

Land Use: Rubber Tapping: Rubber plantations may replace natural forests, but the impact can be less severe than cattle ranching. Cattle Ranching: Cattle ranching often involves extensive clearing of large areas of forests, leading to more pronounced habitat loss. Biodiversity: Rubber Tapping: Biodiversity impact varies, but some rubber plantations may support less diverse ecosystems compared to natural forests. Cattle Ranching: Deforestation for cattle ranching can have significant negative effects on biodiversity, displacing native flora and fauna. Carbon Sequestration: Rubber Tapping: Rubber plantations may sequester carbon, but the net impact depends on factors such as plantation management. Cattle Ranching: Deforestation for ranching releases stored carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.

Mountain top removal.

Mountain Top Removal (MTR) is a mining practice primarily associated with the extraction of coal. It involves the removal of the entire or substantial portions of mountaintops to access coal seams beneath the surface. The process is particularly prevalent in the Appalachian region of the United States, where coal deposits are often found in mountainous terrain. Key features of Mountain Top Removal include: Clearing Vegetation: Before mining begins, the natural vegetation covering the mountaintop is cleared. This includes forests and other plant life. Blasting: Explosives are used to break up the rock and soil on the mountaintop. The resulting debris, known as overburden, is pushed into adjacent valleys. Excavation and Hauling: Heavy machinery, such as draglines and bulldozers, is used to excavate coal from the exposed seams. The extracted coal is then transported for processing. Environmental Degradation: The removal of mountaintops and disposal of overburden in valleys can lead to the destruction of ecosystems, habitat loss, and alteration of watercourses. Water Pollution: The disposal of overburden in valleys can result in the contamination of water bodies with sediments and pollutants, impacting water quality and aquatic ecosystems. Health Impacts: Nearby communities may experience health issues due to dust, noise, and water pollution associated with MTR. Respiratory problems, for example, have been reported in some areas.

What caused CCD?

Neonicotinoids:• synthetic analogues of the natural insecticide nicotine • acetylcholine receptor agonists; broad-spectrum systemic pesticides • Contact vs systemics • Responsible for 1 out of every 3 bites of food• crops grown for their fruits (including vegetables such as squash, cucumber, tomato and eggplant), nuts, seeds, fiber(such as cotton), and hay (alfalfa grown to feed livestock). Neonicotinoids: Certain neonicotinoid pesticides have been linked to honeybee health issues. These systemic pesticides are used in agriculture and can be present in nectar and pollen. Chronic exposure to neonicotinoids has been associated with decreased foraging behavior, impaired navigation, and increased susceptibility to pathogens.

Do fire retardants help? How do they impact human health? One Medical Affect and Two Behavioral Affects.

No fire retardants do not help, and if anything they cause more issues then they solve. Respiratory Health: Medical Effect: Fire retardants can release toxic fumes and particles when burned, potentially leading to respiratory issues when inhaled. Behavioral Effect: Individuals may experience discomfort, coughing, or irritation, influencing their behavior and well-being. 2. Endocrine Disruption: Medical Effect: Some fire retardants contain chemicals that may act as endocrine disruptors, interfering with hormonal systems in the body. Behavioral Effect: Endocrine disruption can potentially impact reproductive health, development, and behavior. 3. Bioaccumulation: Medical Effect: Certain fire retardants can bioaccumulate in the environment and organisms, leading to increased exposure over time. Behavioral Effect: The potential for bioaccumulation raises concerns about long-term health effects, influencing behaviors related to exposure avoidance.

What we use coal, oil and natural gas and plastics for?

Oil Uses: 15-16% non-energy products • Solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, plastics70% converted to gasoline or diesel • Internal combustion engines • Cars, trucks7% converted to aviation fuel7% heating oil Natural Gas: 44% Industry • Production of plastics, fertilizers, and synthetic fibers, firing offurnaces25% direct household energy31% (and growing) electricity generation • Natural gas-fired power plants release fewer pollutants and do not produce fly ash like coal fired. Coal: Globally, 67% used for electricity generation(90% in United States)Transformed into electricity at coal-fired power plants • Burned to create steam for steam turbines. Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—account for nearly 80% of the primary energy resources consumed by humans.

Breakdown of our trash: what's in our landfills

Paper is the largest single component of municipal waste in the United States. Non organic wastes such as metals and glass make up less than15% of the waste stream. Organic Waste: Food Scraps: Leftover food, food peels, and scraps. Yard Waste: Grass clippings, leaves, branches, and other organic materials. Paper and Cardboard: Newspapers and Magazines: Print media and periodicals. Cardboard Boxes: Packaging material. Office Paper: Printer paper, notebooks, and other paper products. Plastics: Single-Use Plastics: Disposable items like plastic bags, bottles, utensils, and packaging. Plastic Packaging: Wrappers, containers, and packaging materials. Metals: Aluminum Cans: Beverage cans and food containers. Steel and Tin Cans: Canned food containers. Glass: Bottles and Jars: Glass containers for beverages, food, and other products.

How do we alter chemical cycles on the planet (think phosphorous, carbon, nitrogen).

Phosphorus Cycle: Human Impact:Agricultural Runoff: Excessive use of phosphorus-containing fertilizers in agriculture can lead to runoff into water bodies, causing eutrophication, harmful algal blooms, and oxygen depletion in aquatic ecosystems.Wastewater Discharge: Discharge of phosphorus from domestic and industrial wastewater contributes to nutrient enrichment in water bodies.Deforestation and Soil Erosion: Deforestation and soil erosion can release phosphorus from soils into waterways, impacting aquatic ecosystems. Carbon Cycle: Human Impact:Fossil Fuel Combustion: Burning fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, contributing to the greenhouse effect and climate change.Deforestation: Clearing land for agriculture and urban development reduces the number of trees that can absorb and store atmospheric carbon dioxide through photosynthesis.Land Use Change: Conversion of natural ecosystems, such as forests and wetlands, into agricultural or urban areas alters carbon storage and cycling. Nitrogen Cycle: Human Impact:Fertilizer Use: Excessive use of nitrogen-based fertilizers in agriculture contributes to nitrogen runoff, leading to water pollution, eutrophication, and harmful algal blooms.Industrial Emissions: Industrial processes, including the combustion of fossil fuels, release nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, contributing to air pollution and acid rain.Wastewater Discharge: Discharge of nitrogen-containing compounds from sewage and industrial effluents can impact aquatic ecosystems.Deforestation and Land Use Change: Similar to phosphorus and carbon cycles, changes in land use, including deforestation, can affect the nitrogen cycle.

What are microplastics? What is the Pacific garbage patch?

Plastic which is smaller then 5mm, in the ocean it comes from larger pieces of plastic which have degraded overtime or straight from our products. Plankton are eating micro plastics and marine animals are eating the feces which floats for a longer time. Normally the feces would sink but now it is floating for longer periods allowing animals to eat it. Now marine animals are eating more plastic which can be deadly because the plastic has BPA's, and Phthalates which when consumed can cause organ damage, genetic mutations, reproductive issues. In a study they found that exposure to these plastics for 2 months led to liver stress and altered gene expression. Acts as a endocrine disruptor. Micro plastics act as sponges absorbing all types of chemicals. Great pacific garbage patch: Made of mostly plastic which does not biodegrade, and it breaks down and becomes smaller microplastics. It spreads across millions of miles in the pacific coast from California to China. The patch is caused by a series of currents in the pacific ocean pooling what we all throw away. 3.5 million tons of it. Small fish are eating the plastic. Less then 5% of all plastic is recycled globally, changing our behavior is the only hope.

Pre- & post-zygotic barriers:

Prezygotic Barries: Reproductive Barrier before Zygote formed. 1.Habitat isolation: Mountains, rivers etc 2.Temporal isolation: breeding at different times or seasons. 3.Behavioral isolation: failure to send or receive appropriate signals. 4.Mechanical isolation: physical incompatibility of reproductive parts. 5.Gametic isolation: molecular incompatibility of eggs/sperm or pollen/stigma. Postzygotic Barriers: Reproductive Barrier after Zygote Formed 1.Reduced hybrid viability: interaction of parental genes impairs the hybrid's development or survival. 2.Reduced hybrid fertility: hybrids are vigorous but cannot produce viable offspring. 3.Hybrid breakdown: hybrids are viable and fertile, but their offspring are feeble or sterile.

Primary energy sources utilized o Pay attention to charts

Primary Energy Sources For the United States, we see a similar pattern. Petroleum, natural gas and coal still come in quite high. Renewables are a relatively small but growing percentage. Primary Energy Sources Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—account for nearly 80% of the primary energy resources consumed by humans.

Invasive Animals in GA: Quagga 1989 & Zebra Mussels 1988, European Starling, Cowbird, Asian Carp How they got here: Where they are from: Where are they a problem: What problems do they cause (to humans, environment):

Quagga 1989 & Zebra Mussels 1988: How they got here: They hitchhiked from Europe ships to the US great lakes. Where they are from: Black and Caspian Sea Where are they a problem: Originally the great lakes but now in freshwater and saltwater across the US What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Clog equipment/pipes,alter nutrients, alter food web interactions. European Starling: How they got here: Brought in: Intentionally in 1890• Shakespeare enthusiast (Central Park-NY) Where they are from: Eurasia Where are they a problem: Entire US What problems do they cause (to humans, environment):Competes with native species:• Food—diet is fruits, seeds, insects• compete with native cavity-nesting birds such as bluebirds, flickers, other woodpeckers, purple martins and wood ducks• Agriculture:• Destroys Crops: fruits: grapes, blueberries,peaches• damages corn• Livestock issues: eats livestock supplements;transfers livestock disease• Other• roosting. Cowbird: How they got here: South America and migrated to the US Where they are from: Midwest and areas with high populations of cows farmland etc Where are they a problem: Native to US but range is usually restricted. What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Destroying eggs and killing hatchlings. Starving out competition. Stressing out parents to the point of starvation or overtaxing them. Asian Carp How they got here: Introduced into fish farm ponds (Arkansas) andsewage treatment plants in the 1970s andquickly spread across the United States—flooding Where they are from: Asia Where are they a problem: Illinois river, Mississippi river basin What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Harm/Impact:• Outcompetes native species• Eat 20% weight a day• Half a million eggs each spawn• Harmful to humans.

Rachel Carson: her life, her accomplishments, Silent Spring

Rachel Carson: (marine biologist & writer -U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)-- compiled all of the available evidence about the consequences of widespread pesticide use. Her book, Silent Spring (1962)-widespread attention to pesticide issues Awareness of the problems caused by pesticides quickly developed into concern for a host of environmental issues. Born in: Springdale, Pennsylvania (rural), just up the Allegheny River from Pittsburgh. Grew up: reading & playing on family's 65 acre farm;wanted to be a writer. First published at 11 in St. Nicholas Magazine-- "A Battle in the Clouds" -based on brother (US Army Air Service WWI). Partial scholarship: Pennsylvania College for Women(now Chatham College); family had to sell parcels of land to pay rest of tuition. Rachel Louise Carson (May 27, 1907 - April 14, 1964). Switched from English to Biology (HUGE CHANGE AT THAT TIME). Got a scholarship: Masters in Zoology at Johns Hopkins University. Father died in the 30s -she is 28 (left family with little-she takes care of mother)• Then sister died—she is 30 at this point (leaving two small girls)• 43-breast cancer• 49-adopts her grandnephew—after his mom dies• dies at 56 of cancer. Best-seller: launched the modern environmental movement. President Kennedy ordered his Science Advisory Committee to investigate Carson's claims • Backed up Carson's research & said we should do a phase out of "persistent toxic pesticides" • Scientists & lawyers --Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) with the specific goal of winning a ban on DDT. EPA did 7 months of hearings-banned (except for certain, specific, limited public health concerns).

Invasive Insects in GA: Red Imported Fire Ants, Globular Stink bug or Kudzu Bug, Emerald Ash Borer How they got here: Where they are from: Where are they a problem: What problems do they cause (to humans, environment):

Red Imported Fire Ants:How they got here: Port in Mobile, AL (lumber)(1930s/1940s)Where they are from: South America Where are they a problem: Problem in: southeastern United States and scattered populations out west What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): birds, tortoise, rodents,pollinators ETC!• $5 billion in US (medical treatment, damage and control)+ $750 mil in agricultural assets• In the top 5 costliest invasive species,1970-2017 (with mosquitos, rats, cats and termites). Globular Stink bug or Kudzu Bug:How they got here: Brought over in 2009Where they are from: Asia Where are they a problem: Georgia and neighboring states What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Damaging soybean and other legume crops• Broader diet than originally thought.Emerald Ash Borer How they got here: Accidental-probably packing crates; Michigan Where they are from: Eastern Ash Where are they a problem: Problem in: a large portion of eastern and central US.What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Killed 10s of millions of ash trees•Potential to kill the 8.7 billion ash trees (in 20+states currently)• Impact: increased invasive plants, changes in soil nutrients and harm to species that feed on ash +used for wood products• Ash trees—larval feeding disrupts nutrient flow/water and girdling trees; kills trees before of seed-producing age•with insecticide ineffective, looking for other solutions.Brown Marmorated Stink Bug How they got here: Brought in: to US in 1996probably accidentally in a shipping container Where they are from: Eastern Asia Where are they a problem: Problem in: eastern US and coastal western US What problems do they cause (to humans, environment): Feeds on a variety of plants,including fruit trees, ornamentals, and some crops (soybean)• Can cause a

Causes of deforestation.

Removal of forest cover that allows alternative land use (replace forest with something else)Each year the world's forests disappear • Lost: estimates around 80,000 acres of tropical rain forest daily; degrading another 80,000 acres every day • Lost: plant and animal species: Rain forests are also home to some 50 percent of the world's species • Driven by multiple factors • Agriculture, unsustainable harvest, road construction, and urban development. As the Amazon Rain forest is cleared for lumber, roads lead to new developments. Timber—illegal and legal harvesting. Issues Affecting our Forests: Actual removal Fragmentation Altered patterns of disturbance • Fire suppression Non-native species• Insects and diseases. Fire Suppression Creates Risk In the absence of fire over the past century,young trees and shrubs have invaded the under story of this stand of ponderosa pine in northern Arizona. Today, if a fire ignites in this forest, it will likely be very severe.

What is the difference between a renewable and non-renewable energy source?

Renewable• Sources that are not depleted when used or can be replenished quickly • Solar; wind; wood Nonrenewable• Derived from sources that exist in limited quantities • Fossil fuels; nuclear

Alternatives to dams.

Run-of-River Hydropower: Description: Run-of-river hydropower projects generate electricity without the need for large reservoirs. Instead, they divert a portion of the river's flow through a turbine to generate power. Advantages: Reduced environmental impact compared to conventional dams, as they often have a smaller footprint and minimal disruption to river ecosystems. Tidal and Wave Energy: Description: Tidal and wave energy systems harness the energy from ocean tides and waves to generate electricity. This can be achieved using underwater turbines or other technologies. Advantages: Renewable energy source with low environmental impact compared to traditional dams. Potential for predictable and consistent energy generation. Solar and Wind Power: Description: Solar and wind power are renewable energy sources that can be harnessed without the need for dams. Solar panels and wind turbines generate electricity from sunlight and wind, respectively. Advantages: Environmentally friendly and suitable for decentralized energy generation. Can be deployed in diverse locations without altering water courses. Matilija Dam• The one they painted on; filled with silt/non-functional• 2016: proposals looking at solutions to the dam issue• 2017: Fish & Wildlife setting aside money to look at alternatives to total removal (including creating tunnels/holes at bottom of dam).Sustina River (Alaska) Dam Project:• Originally proposed many years ago and got momentum in 2011.• Cancelled in 2015/2016: Revived yet again in 2020:Klamath River Dams (4) Update:• Pushed back but still alive; activists hoping to be out by 2024.

Urban heat island effect-what does that mean/impact?

Significant climate change from rural to urban • Urban heat island effect • Cities warmer and less humid: 4 characteristics drive this effect • Less vegetation • impervious and sealed surfaces • complex three-dimensional structure • sources produce heat and pollutants • All affect absorption of solar energy, rate of heat loss and air movement. In this thermal satellite image of Atlanta,Georgia, buildings and streets appear yellow to red, indicating that they are warmer than the open lawns, parks, and ponds, which appear green to blue.

Soil horizons: how have we altered them here in GA? What activities have impacted them?

Soil types are based on a mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, air, and organisms. Minerals: Sand- Particles 0.5-2 mm •Chemical structure resembles that of parent material Silt- Particles 0.002-0.5 mm Clay-Particles less than 0.002 mm Soil horizons: Layers of the soil O horizon• Humus—leaves or crop residues A horizon• Mixture of organic matter and minerals B horizon• Subsoil—rich in clay from sand and siltweathering C horizon• Lowest layer• Bedrock broken up Agriculture: Plowing and Tilling: Traditional agricultural practices, such as plowing and tilling, can disturb the soil structure and mix soil horizons. This can lead to the erosion of topsoil and changes in soil composition. Fertilizer and Pesticide Use: Agricultural activities often involve the application of fertilizers and pesticides. While these inputs can enhance crop productivity, they may also impact soil nutrient levels and the microbial community. The O and Most of the A layer is gone in Georgia due to agricultural practices.

Renewables: solar, wind, biomass, tidal, geothermal etc. What they are, how they work, if applicable:where in the US are these most effective, advantages/disadvantages, any challenges that renewables in general must be overcome

Solar: Passive solar technology • Uses solar energy without mechanical devices • Natural lighting and heating Active solar • Uses mechanical devices • Rooftop solar panels • Photovoltaic (PV); solar water heater Advantages • Widely available; few environmental costs Disadvantages• Intermittent; regional;distribution Where is solar most abundant?We see the highest levels of solar radiation in places out west. Although, it is very viable throughout most of the United States. Biomass: Energy contained in wood and other plant matter: derived from solar energy (photosynthesis) • Biomass can be burned to produce energy • Wood; charcoal; crop residue;ethanol; biodiesel Advantages • Carbon neutral: equal amounts removed by plants as burned • Emits less NO2 and SO2 than fossil fuels • Evenly distributed Disadvantages • Impacts on food supply • Inefficient choice of fuel crops. The production of ethanol from corn uses considerable amounts of nonrenewable energy,including the gasoline used to run machinery and the fossil fuels used to manufacture fertilizer. Biomass Improvements: Cellulosic ethanol • More efficient than corn based ethanol • Claims of 80-90% reduction of greenhouse emissions compared to corn • Still at small scale • Still may displace food production • Palm oil---clearing critical habitats New sources of cellulosic ethanol • Switchgrass Challenges that renewables most overcome: New technologies• Many still in development,working out issues• Economies of scale • Scale still relatively small—but growing! • Externalized costs • Subsidies for fossil fuels • Pollution • Limited consumer knowledge and understanding.

Nuclear power- pros and cons?

Sources and production • Uses heat generated by fission of atoms • Uses decay of uranium Uranium found in many locations • Reserves for 120 years • Produces 16% global electricity Uranium extracted by open pit mines Costs/Benefits: • Large open pit mines;water quality issues;thermal discharge;meltdown; radiation leak;spent nuclear fuel; does not release greenhouse gases. Like other primary energy sources, uranium ore is found in large quantities in relatively few locations around the world. It is in most abundance in Australia, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Canada. Fukushima: 3years after earthquake & tsunami, millions of gallons of radioactive water continue to pour into the ocean. Highly contaminated radioactive fish caught within 100km of the facility.

Why is fire important in certain ecosystems?

Succession: Pattern of change after disturbance.Primary Succession: Virtually all resources removed, or none to begin with. This process can take a millenia. Typically bare rock, from glacial retreat or volcanic eruption.Pattern of Primary succession: Pioneer species, facilitation and migration of new species, and climax community.Secondary Succession: Follows disturbances that leave significant legacy (soil still intact), soil, seed banks, woody debris. This process is much faster as quick as 70-100 years, old-field succession are abandon farm fields.Cyclic Succession: Succession may increase chances of disturbance. Buildup of under story leads to intense fire. Some ecosystems are maintained by cyclic succession. ire plays a crucial and natural role in many ecosystems, and its importance varies depending on the type of ecosystem and the specific plant and animal species present. Here are several reasons why fire is important in certain ecosystems: Ecological Succession: Renewal of Vegetation: Fire is a natural part of ecological succession, helping to clear away dead plant material and promote the regeneration of vegetation. Some plant species have evolved to depend on periodic fires for their life cycles. Nutrient Cycling: Release of Nutrients: Fires break down organic matter into ash, releasing nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium into the soil. This process, known as pyrolysis, contributes to nutrient cycling and can enhance soil fertility. Germination of Seeds: Stimulating Seed Germination: In some fire-adapted plants, the heat from a fire is necessary to trigger the germination of seeds. Fire opens seed casings, making it possible for seeds to sprout and grow.

What's the definition of sustainability?

Sustainability: Meeting the needs of the current population and environment in an equitable and fair fashion without compromising generations' ability to meet their needs. Need to handle/adapt to 3 types of change: World is changing, we are changing (tech) and we are changing the world.

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is a vast and ecologically significant protected area located in northeastern Alaska, USA. Established in 1960, the primary purpose of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is to conserve the unique and pristine ecosystems found within its boundaries. Key aspects of what the ANWR does include: Conservation of Wildlife: Habitat Protection: The refuge encompasses a diverse range of ecosystems, including tundra, mountains, rivers, and coastal plains, providing critical habitat for a wide variety of wildlife species. Migratory Birds: The coastal plain of the refuge serves as a crucial breeding ground and migratory route for a large number of bird species, including many waterfowl. Biodiversity Preservation: Arctic Ecosystems: The ANWR plays a vital role in preserving the unique and fragile Arctic ecosystems, supporting a variety of plant and animal species adapted to extreme conditions. The issue of whether to allow oil and gas development in the coastal plain of the ANWR has been a longstanding and contentious debate. Proponents argue that tapping into the energy resources could boost domestic production and reduce reliance on foreign oil. Opponents, including environmentalists and indigenous groups, emphasize the potential environmental impacts on the delicate Arctic ecosystems and the cultural and subsistence values of the Gwich'in and Iñupiaq peoples. The fate of the refuge and the potential for oil and gas development have been influenced by legislative decisions, with different administrations and Congresses taking varying positions on drilling within the ANWR. As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, there were ongoing discussions and debates on the issue, and the future of the ANWR remains a subject of political and environmental consideration.

What are our population estimates for the coming decades?

The current world population growth is at an estimated 8 billion, by 2050 it is projected to be 9.8 billion, and by the end of the century 11-13 billion. Estimating population growth is important because it is used to gauge resource needs. Examples would be infrastructure, transportation, healthcare, social security/retirement, natural resources, food needs.

MOVIE CLIPS: The End of the Line o The parts we looked at: you should be familiar will all of the main ideas we looked at. In particular: o Bluefin tuna (what did the sci, politicians and the industry do-specifically): o World catch—how has it changed, why has that occurred? What went on that caused us to have inaccurate world catch data?

The fishing industry could catch 4xthe world's catch • Fishing down the food web • Removing apex predators Bluefin tuna (what did the sci, politicians and the industry do-specifically): The recommended catch amount is 15,000 tons, the scientist believes we should catch 10,000 tons to allow more to generate while the politicians believe it should be at 29,500 tons of catch. However, the industry is breaking the rules and catching 60,000 which is 1/3 of the total amount. World catch—how has it changed, why has that occurred? What went on that caused us to have inaccurate world catch data? The world catch rate has increased on paper but scientist shortly realized discrepancies in local areas which were catching less fish. They figured out that China was catching more fish then the rest of this world which inflated the total number, when in reality the worlds fish population was decreasing.

Continental Drift o Evidence of continental drift

This continental drift would eventually isolate marsupials to Gondwanaland, especially to Australia, Antarctica and South America. Once isolated on South America and Australia, perhaps with minimal competition from placental mammals, radiation continued, resulting in different orders of marsupials. This suggests that the continents were once joined. For example, fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile, have been found both in Brazil and western Africa. Also, fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus have been found in Africa, India and Antarctica. Continental Drift, Who Came up with it? In 1911, Wegner realized continents used to fit together based on geological formations that matched, he called this supercontinent Pangea. How did the scientific Community Respond: The one issue with Wegner at the time is that he could not figure out the the mechanism that caused the earth to drift apart, therefore he was largely dismissed. Lines of Evidence? Evidence that the plates are moving. Began to date when rocks formed. •Age varied greatly: some continental rocks from 4 billion yrs ago (Earth: 4.6 billion yrs old); oceanic relatively new: no more than 200 million •Lead to the theory of plate tectonics •Earth's crust broken into tectonic plates •They move - via convection in the mantle •Where they meet up, geologic activity occurs

Renewables: wind, tidal, geothermal etc. What they are, how they work, if applicable:where in the US are these most effective, advantages/disadvantages, any challenges that renewables in general must be overcome

Tidal/Hydropower: Advantages • Fuel and pollution free(or is it?) • Continuous electricity Disadvantages • Loss of land • Ecosystem disruption • Initial cost Takes advantage of tides,waves, and temperature differences• Tides: driven by moon;turbines turned as tides enter & leave bays. Waves: uses kinetic energy of waves Advantages • Fuel and pollution free • Very low greenhouse gas emissions Disadvantages • Loss of land • Ecosystem disruption • Limited geographically Geothermal: Uses heat energy from Earth's interior • New installations in U.S.increasing10-20% per year Harnessed in 3 ways • Dry-steam or flash-steampower plants • Ground-source heat pumps Advantages • Reliable and relatively inexpensive; pollution free Disadvantages • Can be overused; start-up cost. We see that rock temperatures remain highest out west. This is important when siting for geothermal. (bottom)For geothermal, the heating of steam will be used to turn a turbine. (top). Wind: Driven by sun: kinetic energy from wind collected by wind turbines • Wind power just over 6% of global energy • Fastest growing renewable • In US: 9.2% of electricity production • Past 25 years cost down 90%Advantages • No fuel, no pollution; economic;domestic; CO2e free Disadvantages • Intermittent; aesthetics;impacts to wildlife. Wealth biggest factor• 50 richest countries• 20% of population• 70% of all primary energy consumption.

Pesticides Part 2: more specifically, insecticides (all about DDT—(where was it sprayed, why was it troubling, why was it used etc) and our early uses of pesticides in the US)

Today, about 3,000 to 4,000 tons of DDT are produced each year for disease vector control • Soil half life can range from 22 days to 30years; HIGHLY persistent in the environment: Accumulates UP the food web. absorbed by aquatic organisms and adsorbed on suspended particles • Toxic to: marine animals; eggshell thinning in birds;humans: an endocrine disruptor; estrogen mimic; likely human carcinogen; in-utero exposure—breast cancer. Colorless, crystalline, tasteless and almost odorless organochloride. Used in the second half of World War II to control malaria and typhus among civilians and troops (pyrethrum in short supply)Advances in application equipment coupled with a high degree of organization and sufficient manpower (main factors leading to malaria & dengue fever). Additionally, mosquito resistance & life cycle issues1972-ban on the agricultural use of DDT in the United States • bald eagle & the peregrine falcon A worldwide ban on its agricultural use was later formalized under the Stockholm Convention.

What's a dead zone?

UN estimates over 200 dead zones (lakes,estuaries etc)- All associated with the mouth of a river- Major contributor to declines of many fish species:Nutrient pollution also harms coral reefs• Mercury bio accumulation in large fish• Stream biodiversity decline (over 50% of native freshwater mussels endangered or extinct)• Algal blooms from excess nutrients• Oil. A dead zone refers to an area in a water body, typically a coastal or marine environment, where oxygen levels are extremely low, often approaching zero. In such areas, the lack of oxygen makes it challenging for most marine life to survive and thrive. Dead zones are a result of a process known as hypoxia, which is the depletion of oxygen in the water to levels that are insufficient to support aquatic organisms. The primary cause of dead zones is excessive nutrient pollution, particularly from nitrogen and phosphorus. The main sources of these nutrients are agricultural runoff, wastewater discharge, and the use of fertilizers. When these nutrients enter water bodies, they promote the growth of algae in a process known as eutrophication. As the algae bloom, they eventually die and sink to the bottom, where they are decomposed by bacteria. This decomposition process consumes oxygen, leading to the creation of hypoxic conditions.

Invasive species How did they get here? What damage/impact do they do?) o How do invasives alter biodiversity? What three Characteristics classify an Invasive Specie?

Unintentionally:• Hitching a ride in a shipping container• Hitching a ride in or is a packing material• Hitching a ride on board a boat, plane, car etc• Through the sale/trade of plants or parts of plants: AKA crop contaminants (organisms hitching a ride)• During a natural disaster• People planted them and they escaped Intentionally:• To eliminate another invasive• To eliminate a native pest• To hunt, fish or otherwise harvest• For shade or another ornamental feature• To feed wildlife• As exotic pets that are thrown out How do you define Invasive Species? Habitat modification: alters habitat in ways that decreases biodiversity. Ex: European beach grass—introduced to dunes in CA—used to have lots of grasses, wildflowers;offered more cover for predators to eat seabirds Competition for resources: use up resources that native species used. Ex: Zebra mussels in Great Lakes out competed all of native mussels. Predation: consume native fauna. Ex: Guam; cargo plane brought in brown tree snake (probably from Solomon Islands next to Australia); killed native birds + eats reptiles. How do they impact biodiversity? Herbivory: consuming native flora• Ex: hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae),has killed most hemlock trees in New England. Pathogens: Actually brings in a disease or IS a disease• Ex: Chestnut blight: fungus killed American chestnut trees. Hybridization: makes native species go extinct via hybridization• Ex: The Hawaiian duck is threatened by hybridization with the North American mallard.

Urban sprawl-what causes it?

Urban sprawl is characterized by the unplanned and often expansive spread of urban or suburban development into previously undeveloped areas. Several interconnected factors contribute to the phenomenon of urban sprawl: Causes of urban sprawl• Government policy; economic growth; transportation;cultural issues; poor planning Consequences of sprawl • Degrades human environments; reduces biodiversity;stresses infrastructure; diminishes human heath and well-beingUrban plans and planning • Unites various disciplines to build environments and transportation systems for urban communities. San Diego, California ,Ⓐprovides an example of an urban grid, whereas Paris,France , has a radialⒷorganization. Barcelona,Spain , combines grid andⒸradial patterns of organization.

How the cost of the automobile is subsidized and externalized.

Urban transportation economics • Costs of automobile subsidized • Government builds roads/highways • Free parking • Cost of automobile use externalized • Pollution• Ecosystem damage • Congestion • Reduces productivity If people saw the true price that they were paying when the were to buy a car they would not buy it because of the damage it is doing and most likely not be able to afford all of the hidden costs. Infrastructure Costs: Environmental Costs: Subsidized: The environmental impact of car emissions, including air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, contributes to health problems and climate change. Externalized: The costs of treating health issues related to air pollution, as well as the broader societal impacts of climate change, are not directly borne by individual car owners but are instead shared by society. Traffic Congestion: Subsidized: The time and productivity lost due to traffic congestion are costs that individuals and businesses bear. Externalized: The overall economic impact of congestion is often not fully accounted for, and efforts to address congestion (e.g., building more roads) may result in additional externalities, such as environmental degradation and urban sprawl. Urban Sprawl: Subsidized: Policies that encourage urban sprawl, such as infrastructure development that facilitates suburban living, may be subsidized by governments. Externalized: The social and environmental costs of urban sprawl, including loss of agricultural land, increased energy consumption, and reduced walkability, are not fully borne by individual car owners.

Different types of ethical viewpoints?

Virtue Ethics- Right if motivated by virtues (kindness, loyalty, justice, etc.) Consequence-Based Ethics- Importance of outcome (benefit vs. harm, pleasure vs. harm). Utilitarianism- greatest good for most people. Duty-Based ethics- Based on set of rules/laws (lying always wrong).

How different types of soil impact water usage & what that means for AGRICULTURE. How does water go through the different types of Soil?

Water is essential to plant growth: Water availability determined by rainfall and soil factors Amount of water soils hold depends on soil texture and organic matter Gravitational water: Water that flows through soil Hygroscopic water: Water bound to soil particles Capillary water: Water held in micropores Field capacity: Amount of water amount of soil can hold- Depends on soil particle structure Soil wilting point:Point where less water available than transpiration rate. Agriculture How we do it now: Center pivot irrigation How we could do it better: Alternative methods• Drip irrigations Plant-breeding programs• Developing new breeds of crops that use less water Planting alternative crops• Jojoba• Native to CA- high salt, lowH20, pest resistant etc• Lubricating oil, cooking,cosmetic uses and biofuel. Infiltration: The process by which water enters the soil is called infiltration. Sandy soils allow for rapid infiltration, while clayey soils may have slower infiltration rates due to their compacted nature. Percolation: After entering the soil, water moves downward through the soil profile in a process called percolation. Sandy soils facilitate faster percolation compared to clayey soils. Capillary Action: Capillary action refers to the ability of soil to draw water upward against gravity. Capillary action is more pronounced in fine-textured soils like clay.

Water Logging

Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water to the extent that air is no longer present in the soil pores. It occurs when the rate of water input into the soil exceeds the rate of water drainage or percolation. As a result, excess water accumulates in the soil, leading to waterlogged conditions. This can happen due to various factors such as heavy rainfall, poor drainage, high water table, or impervious layers in the soil. Reduced Oxygen Availability: Root Suffocation: Excess water in the soil limits the availability of oxygen in the root zone. This can lead to root suffocation, inhibiting the normal metabolic activities of plant roots. Nutrient Imbalances: Nutrient Leaching: Waterlogged conditions can cause the leaching of essential nutrients from the soil, leading to nutrient imbalances. This affects the nutrient uptake by plants and can result in deficiencies or toxicities. Poor Plant Growth: Stunted Growth: Waterlogged soils hinder root development and nutrient absorption, resulting in stunted plant growth. This can lead to reduced crop yields and poor productivity in agricultural systems. Increased Soil Salinity: Salt Accumulation: Waterlogging can contribute to the accumulation of salts in the soil. As water evaporates from the soil surface, salts are left behind, leading to increased soil salinity.

Insect diversity

We've named almost 2 million species on earth—about half of those named are insects• Scientists estimate that, based on our current observations, insects are about 80% of the world's species Estimates are that there might be between 2-30million insect species, and that they might makeup an even higher percentage of life (+90%) • That's a lot of diversity running a lot of important functions on the planet • Everything from nutrient cycling, disease regulation,pollination, food web functions and more!

Endocrine disruptors o What are they? How are you exposed?o How do they harm wildlife and/or people? (think physically or behaviorally)o What are the concerns with them, and how do they relate to environmental justice? One Medical Affect and Two Behavioral Affects. California Endocrine Disruptors and the Communities it affects. Environmental Justice of it.

What are endocrine disruptors? • Any chemical that impacts the vertebrate endocrine system by mimicking a hormone or by enhancing or inhibiting hormone activity • So, plastics fall into this category, but so do many other products in the modern world.You are surrounded by these. Medical in animal studies and currently being investigated in humans : can cause cancerous tumors, diabetes, obesity, reproductive system disfunction, thyroid issues and birth defects • Developmental in animal studies and currently being investigated in humans: adverse developmental, reproductive, neurological and immune effects in both humans and wildlife. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals have been linked to behavioral changes: • fish that are lackadaisical about territorial defense • salamanders that ignore mating cues • birds that exhibit sloppy nest-building techniques • mice that take inexplicable risks • reduced nest-guarding behavior in male stickle backs • AS WELL AS A HOST OF MEDICAL ISSUES. In cans we drink out of you will find BPA's, in Cosmetics you will find phlates, foods sprayed with pesticides, and carpets and furniture infused with fire retardents. BPA's mimick estrogen receptors. Testicular cancer, birth defects, obesity, breast cancer, thyroid issues, reproductive issues, infertility- Atrazine Enviornmental Justice: People who are dealing with the issues of too much atrazine are usually in low income areas. California: Fifth largest economy in the world 1 in 10 jobs are in agriculture 30% of land is agriculture 350 agricultural products 50% of the US food Use more pesticides then any other state 90% of workers are latinx Almost all of the thirty poorest areas in california are in that area which means the people making that food are the one most affected by it in the poorer communitites.

Why is a few degree change a big deal? o How is the arctic changing from climate change? o What countries produce the most ghg emissions?

Why is a few degree change a big deal? Even a small change in average global temperatures can have significant and wide-ranging impacts on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies. Here are some reasons why even a few degrees of temperature change each year matters:Ecological Disruption:Small temperature changes can disrupt ecosystems and natural habitats. Many species have specific temperature ranges for optimal survival, reproduction, and other life processes. Even slight deviations from these optimal conditions can lead to changes in species distribution, abundance, and behavior. Oceans are warming: Points from the article of interest: • Fish-17% of world's protein source & up to 70% for coastal pop • 56 mill people worldwide are supported in some way by marine fisheries • "the amount of seafood that humans could sustainably harvest from a wide range of species shrank by 4.1 percent from 1930 to 2010" Ocean temperature important in hurricane/typhoon development • Warmer sea surface temperatures in past century • Stronger, more damaging storms • Responsibility of government or property owners? • Example of stronger storms sea level rise: How is the arctic changing from climate change? Shrinking ice sheets & declining arctic sea ice • Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets • 36 to 60 cubic miles lost per year 2002-2006; 36 cubic miles 2002-2005 • Extent and thickness of sea ice declining Glacial Retreat • almost everywhere around the world • Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and Africa • 80%+ of Earth's glaciers retreating. What countries produce the most ghg emissions? Total Global Emissions C02: 24% China 16% United States 8% European Union 6% India 5% Russia 3% Japan 33% Rest Per Capita Co2 Emissions: 1) United States 2) Australia 3) Canada 4) Russian Federation 5) Japan 6)

How did wolves impact Yellowstone?

Wolves Keystone species Impact on Elk Population: Wolves are natural predators of elk, and their reintroduction led to a reduction in the elk population. Before wolves returned, the elk population had become unnaturally high, leading to overgrazing and degradation of vegetation. Vegetation Regeneration: Impact on Plant Communities: With fewer elk, vegetation, including willow and aspen trees, began to recover. The browsing pressure on these plants decreased, allowing for regeneration and the return of a more diverse plant community. Changes in Animal Behavior: Impact on Elk Behavior: The presence of wolves altered the behavior of elk. Elk became more vigilant and changed their grazing patterns to avoid areas where they were more vulnerable to predation. This behavioral shift had indirect effects on plant communities. Impact on Other Wildlife: Cascading Effects: Changes in elk behavior and the recovery of vegetation had cascading effects on other wildlife. For example, the return of willow and aspen groves created habitat for beavers, which, in turn, influenced stream and wetland ecosystems. Streamside Habitat Improvement: Impact on Riparian Areas: The recovery of willow and other vegetation along streams improved riparian habitats. This, in turn, benefited various bird species and aquatic organisms. Soil Stabilization: Impact on Riverbanks: The return of vegetation had a stabilizing effect on riverbanks. Before the wolf reintroduction, excessive browsing by elk had contributed to erosion along riverbanks. With the return of vegetation, riverbanks became more stable. Return of Other Predators: Impact on Coyotes: The presence of wolves affected the behavior and distribution of coyotes. Wolves and coyotes share some similar prey, and the reintroduction of wolves led to changes in the coyote population and behavior.

Uses of our tropical forests, our forests in North America and forests around the world o What are the dominant uses? Pay attention to percentages/pie charts. What valuable commodities do we get from our forests? o How does deforestation for agriculture impact ecosystems and people?

Wood Use In North America and Europe, most wood is harvested for lumber used in construction and for fiber used to make paper. In Asia and Africa, most wood is harvested to meet local needs for cooking and heating. Non-Wood products: Here, we see the different resources we get from forest systems. The most valuable being pharmaceuticals, followed by mushrooms and truffles, ginseng and wild nuts & fruit. Hundreds of commodities come from forests • Pharmaceuticals • 80% of world's population in developing countries relies almost entirely on plant products for their primary healthcare• In the developed countries (20% of population), 25% of pharmaceutical used are derived from plant products. o How does deforestation for agriculture impact ecosystems and people? Actual removal Fragmentation Altered patterns of disturbance • Fire suppression Non-native species • Insects and diseases Biodiversity Loss: Habitat Destruction: Deforestation eliminates the natural habitats of countless plant and animal species. Many species are specialized to specific ecosystems and may not survive or adapt to the changed landscape. Species Extinction: The loss of habitat can lead to the extinction of plant and animal species, disrupting ecosystems and diminishing overall biodiversity. Climate Change: Carbon Release: Forests store large amounts of carbon in trees and soil. When trees are cut down and burned or left to decay, this stored carbon is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2), contributing to global warming and climate change. Soil Erosion and Degradation: Removal of Vegetation: Tree roots play a crucial role in stabilizing soil. Deforestation exposes the soil to erosion, leading to the loss of fertile topsoil and degradation of agricultural land.

MOVIE CLIPS: The End of the Line o Marine reserves—benefits, costs, how does it work, does this help? They have showed lots of benefits, increase of 3,4,5 times the amount of fish from the beggining. o What did the Japanese fishing fleet data show us? o Does fish farming help these issues? Why or why not?

o Marine reserves—benefits, costs, how does it work, does this help? They have shown marvelous benefits, there are 3,4,5 times as many fish from the start. It would cost 12-14 billion dollars a year to create 20-30% of the ocean as a Marine Reserve. Marine reserves work by making fishing and disturbing that area as completely off limits. Politicians need to act and enforce these reserves and consumers need to change there eating habits and the global fishing industry has to reduce their fishing capacity. Marine reserves cover less then 1% of the ocean, 99% of the ocean is fishable. Does fish farming help these issues? Why or why not? No it does not. You convert wild fish to farmed fish • Energy conversion lost • Fishing down food web• 5 kilos of anchovies makes 1 kilo of salmon. It kills more then it produces, 40% of fish gets grounded up and fed to more fish. The more fish farming we do the less fish we have because they are feeding them wild fish. o What did the Japanese fishing fleet data show us? It showed us that all major fish species are in decline and that because apex predators are decreasing it is allowing smaller fish that would be hunted to thrive in population creating too many. Their data shows a clear correlation between apex predators decreasing and lower level species increasing.