geography 309
percent of renewable energy consumed in the US
9 percent of those 9 percent 22% wood , 21% biofuels
Biomass
Any plant mass harvestable for conversion to fuel, including animal and human wastes converted to fuel
top coal exporters
Australia, and Indonesia
coal exporter
Australia: world's largest coal exporter to E Asia, S Asia, SE Asia, Europe, L. Amer
coal emissions
Coal: ~44% of global CO2 emissions ~29% of global energy supply
top importer
Japan: world's top importer from Australia, North America, Europe, etc.
formation of petroleum
Marine life (plant, animal) in seawater environment accumulate nheat and pressure organic portions turned into hydrocarbons
natural gas formation
Marine life (plant, animal) in seawater environmentaccumulationheat and pressureorganic portions turned into hydrocarbons
coal of US biofuel policy
from 6.8 to 36B gallons/yr ethanol by 2022 (blended with gasoline)
petroleum
naturally occurring oily liquid, mostly hydrocarbons with small amounts of other compounds
Hubert solution
nuclear power
biomass renewable future
o Ethanol (from maize (US) , Sugarcain (Brazil) o Biodiesel (from soy(Europe) , palm oil (tropics)
onshore wind resources
o Potential = 11 million GWh/YR o Extraction rate= 20-25% (capacity Factor) o Adjusted potential = 2-3 million Gwh/YR (50% current electricity demand in US)
amount of ethanol in gas in the US vs Brazil
o USA -> E85 : 85% ethanol 15 gas o Brazil -> pure ethanol (alcohol) and gashol (25% ethanol
Energy systems imperatives
permeant quest for energy through biological or artificial conversion
biological:
plants and animals EX: burning plants , using animals to carry stuff
natural gas in industries
precise temperature control possible with gas;
coals importance
~25% of total global energy consumption; ~40% of world electricity; ~75% of world steel
international trade of gas
~30% of total production of gas ... of which 75% is pipeline (gaseous state)
natural gas trade cont
#3 Canada to US (74 BCM); Central Asia to China; North Africa to Europe #4 Central Asia (28.3), SE Asia (7.7) to China => LNG + pipeline (SW Asia?) #5 Bolivia to Brazil, Argentina (pipeline) #6 US to Mexico (pipeline, Eagle Ford + Permian)
US consumption and production
- Trends: increasing for electricity production; CPP, MATS (coal declinenatural gas increase) - Unconventionals => major influence on US production
more critics of biofuels
- Unnecessary intensification of farming • More mechanization, more fertilizersmore fossil fuels, more nitrogen runoff, less land for conservation • Carbon "debt": how much time is required for biofuel "savings" to offset carbon emissions from clearing land for planting biofuels?
transporting natural gas
- Very low density (energy content per volume is much lower than for oil)5 times more expensive to transport
japan march 2011
- nuclear provided 30% of electricity...until - triple meltdown at Fukushima - Sept. 2013: nuclear = 0%...Sendai restart approved Sept. 2014
LNG trade
-#1 importer = Japan (sources = Malaysia, Australia), 36% of all LNG imports -#2 importer = S. Korea (sources = Indonesia), 15% of all LNG imports
federal renewable electricity production tax credit
-$19 credit per 1 MW/hr generated in first 10 yrs of renewable project -lapsesuncertain signals...but now extended through 2012
natural gas trade
#1 Russia to Europe (120 BCM => all by pipeline) #2 to Japan: from Australia (25), W Africa (6.5), SE Asia (35.7), Russia (11.5), SW Asia (34) => all LNG (maritime)
summary of coal
-coal is ~20% of U.S. total energy supply -nearly all coal is burned for electricity (~93%) -44% of electricity comes from burning coal
petroleum in US energy flow
-domestic > imports total US -petroleum exports mainly refined -gasoline ~47% total petroleum, then diesel, then LPG, then jet -transport ~71% total petroleum consumption
type of solar power generators
-heat (solar cookers, water and space heaters; solar towers) -electricity (PV cells)
how have imports/ production changed over time
-increasing domestic production -decreasing exports
international oil trade
-key flow #1: Russia to Western Europe (296.4 M tonnes) -key flow #2: SW Asia to Asia/Pacific (Japan, Korea) (237.0 M tonnes) -key flow #3: SW Asia to China (171.7 M tonnes) -key flow #4: Canada to US (167.7 M tonnes)
international oil trade CONT
-key flow #5: SW Asia to India (121.1 M tonnes) -key flow #6: SW Asia to Europe (101.6 M tonnes) -key flow #7: SW Asia to US (93.0 M tonnes)
renewable portfolio standard (RPS)
-min % electricity from renewables, state-by-state
backyard drilling
-mineral rights separate from surface - "vested" rights...permit came first, then subdivision"subsequent development" - "constitutional takings"... mineral rights trump surface...unless non- arbitrary and reasonable procedures
nuclear and hydro US total energy
-nuclear ~7.5% -hydro ~2.5%
coal vs natural gas
-steady increase in natural gas, steady decrease in coal -Jan. 2015more electricity from natural gas than coal (!) -price differences: "relatively low price of natural gas"
reserves of natural gas
-top reserves: Middle East (Iran 18%; Qatar 13%); Russia (18%), US (4.5%) -top producers: Russia (18%), US (20%), Canada, Iran, Quatar (~4% each) -top consumer: US (22%)
US coal production in 2006
-western coal increased production, Appalachian decreased -underground mine accidents in West Virginia -western region: ~53% of US total (Wyoming is leading state Powder River Basin) -Texas produced 45.5Mt, compared to 92.7Mt at Black Thunder Mine (WY)
nuclear fussion
Heavy atoms (Uranium-235) hit by a neutron absorbed, ---then splits into two lighter atoms, ejecting -----2-3 neutronskinetic energy released, and neutrons hit other atoms that break apart (chain reaction)----converted to heat ----turbine ---- electricity
Asia and hydro
Hydro: most new capacity to be built in Asia -55% of global total in China
who is the leader in wind capacity
texas
cane biofuel in 2000
- "Flex" engines • Any blend of alcohol and gasoline (but: energy content difference) • August 2007: Flex cars ~85% of new cars sold - Mega-investments in sugarcane mills - Historic high petroleum prices - US commitment to increase ethanol consumption - Pressure on US to lower tariff on Brazilian ethanol
biomass renewable future?
- "Green" cloak of farm subsidies • US direct corn subsidies: $8.9B in 2005 • US protection against imported ethanol - Increase cost of food • Biofuel "could starve the poor": corn for ethanol lower stockshigher prices for corn • Biofuel as "crime against humanity"
movement against dams
- 1960s: criticism of high cost (corruption; overruns) - 1970s: environmental costs - 1980s: social costs resettlement; construction workers; livelihoods of fishers and farmers
transportation of oil
- Approx 65% of total crude oil is transported between different countries and regions - Tanker, pipeline
theory of non renewable resources
- Bell-shaped (normal; Gaussian) distribution of production over time - Production will peak at known time and slowly decline at predictable rate - Assumption: well known geologic structure - Ultimate Recoverable Resource - Successful prediction of US "peak oil" (early 1970s)
why renewables ?
- Carbon policy - Energy self-sufficiency
coal combustion
- Coal -> Steam ->Turbine - Coal -> Gas ->(gasification)
coal environmental issues
- Coal combustion: release PM, CO2, CO, SOx, NOx, mercury (coal = half of total mercury emissions), etc. - Secondary pollutant: surface O3 - Mobile: affect people distant from coal-burning power plants
what is coal
- Dead trees, covered by sediment and water, protected from atmosphere
what will renewable cost?
- Economic cost: $/MJ - Compare with cost of fossil fuels
civil nuclear power
- Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" speech at UN (1953)
public opposition of nuclear
- Emerges in mid/late 1970s in US and western Europe - Focus: risk of radiological contamination...reactors close to large urban centers - 1979: Three Mile Island accidentmechanical failures, operation error (but only slight release of radiation) - 1986: Chernobyl (Ukraine)flawed design, operator errors (large release of radiation)r
what do renewables require?
- Energy - Land, resources - Policies
critics of biofuels
- Expensive and ineffective at lowering petroleum consumption for transport: esp. maize poor maize efficient
reliance on hydro power
- High: Uganda (99%); Norway (99%); Brazil (84%); Venezuela (74%) - Medium: Canada (58%); Bolivia: 50%; Sweden (46%); India (14%); China (16%) - Low: US (<7%), Japan (8%)
unconventional hydrocarbons
- Hydrocarbons trapped in unconventional manner...economic use requires complex and technically advanced production methods...higher EROI
common processes of wind power
- Immobility: wind power should adjust to existing natural, cultural and social conditions...but adjustment might reduce productivity - Immutability: faith in the permanence of landscape collides with rapid change that energy projects create - Solidarity: people have deep ties to landscape...they are not just "unoccupied" - Imposition: someone else proposed wind farms, and someone else will benefit from them...continues processes of marginalization - Place: wind power may represent threat to place identity and place attachment (emotional bond with place)
clean coal idea
- Improve efficiency of coal-powered electricity plants • Replace ageing plants • Improved combustion technology
pollutions from emissions
- IsmercuryaCAApollutant?YESMATS - IsCO2aCAApollutant?YESCPP - MATS (Mercury and Air Toxics Standards for Power Plants)
grid connected soar energy
- Photovoltaic systems (S-facing rooftops) - Mirror arrays (solar thermal or concentrating); land requirements
solar resources
- Potential = 18.4 million GWh/yr - Conversion efficiency = 10% - Adjusted potential = 0.25% of US surface4 million GWh/hr (100% current electricity demand in US)
petroleum recovery
- Primary recovery: pumping + natural pressure removal of 20-25% - Secondary: heat increases flow of petroleum; injection of gas increases pressure additional 15- 20% "recovered"... but ~60% remains in "dry" fields
cases of opposition of wind power
- San Gorgonio Pass, near Palm Springs CA, 1980sindustrial landscape would interfere with visitor - Cape Wind project, Cape Cod negative visual change - Isle of Lewis cultural change feared - Lowland Oaxaca, Mexico low compensation
autonomous or of the grid solar energy
- Solution for energy issues of ~3B people lack electricity from the grid
wind tower
- Tower 60-80 m height - Blades 70-80 m diameter - Capacity 1.5-2 MW - Advances: materials; gearbox; location
coal trends vs natural gas
-EIA projections for electricity...coal decline from ~50% of electricity production to ~34% by 2040 -natural gas increase from ~16% to ~30% -coal loss, natural gas gain
energy density of fuels
-Gasoline: high-density fuel; high energy, low mass -Coal: ~ variable; lower energy content than gasoline -Biomass: lots of mass required to deliver energy
global solar trends
-Global trends: (1) Germany leads installed capacity; (2) rapid growth in grid-connected systems
manufacturing of solar generators
-Manufacturing: China and Germany lead production of solar panels; -China: government subsidizes firms that export (cheap credit; low regulation; currency manipulation); produces 50% of world's solar panels, 95% exported to US and Germany
Hubert prediction
-Peak US oil ~early 1970s...until recent increase -Peak global oil ~early 2000s
unconveiowal US petroleum
-Permian, ~2M b/d -Eagle Ford, ~1.5M b/d -Bakken, ~1.2 M b/d
way to promote solar energy
-Policies: (1) feed-in tariff: utilities pay above-market prices for renewable electricity, passed on to electricity consumers (German model; adapted in US); (2) subsidized PV installation; (3) renewable portfolio standards (cities; states)
determining factors of wind power expansion
-Potential -Market (population) ... but transmission lines? -Price for wind energy -Permitting model -Renewable energy portfolio
chinas oil demand
-Rapid increase in imports, 6.5M b/d in 2014 -Key sources: different from US: Saudi Arabia (16%), Angola (13%), Russia (11%), Oman (10%), Iran (9%
revising Hubert prediction
-Unconventional oil "shifts" peak into future -Unconventional oil follows Gaussian distribution -NGL = natural gas liquids -Polar: oil in areas covered by sea ice -Deepwater -Heavy crude oil: tar sands"unconventional"
international trade of coal
18% consumed
coal in the US
18% of total energy supply and demand => 93% for electricity
coal in the US
18% of total energy supply and demand => ~93% for electricity
amount of people that rely on biomass as source of domestics energy ?
2.7 billion
US ethanol production
2010: US ethanol production = 37 M gallons/day (exceeding Brazil)glut because of the 10% federal cap on ethanol in gasoline
electricity from natural gas
22%
natural gas total energy in US
23%
domestic + imports =>
31% total US
how much energy from land area
Ethanol o sugarcane -> 6,000 1/ha or 140 GJ/HA o maize -> 3000 1/ha , or 80 HJ/HA• biodiesel o soybeans-> 900 1/ha or 25 HJ/ha o oil palm -> 4500 1/ha or 150 gj/ha
first fuel ever used
biomass
global ethanol use
brazil- 32% US- 43%
top coal importers
china , japan, korea , ROC
bell shaped
distribution of production over time
where do we get our oil
domestic + imports (Canada 1 )
global biodiesel use
europe 75%
prediction for subsaharan africa death of indoor pollution
if current trends persist to 2030, ~9.8M people will die prematurely
hydro is predicted to
increase in electricity generation
coal issues
land disturbances , and mineral issues
wood in human history: USA
mid 1800 , biomass (wood) 90 percent of energy consumption • Iron mills • Steamboats • Railroads • Cities • Breweries, distilleries , brickwork , steam engines
impacts of coal
mining; ~30% of global CO2 emissions; toxic emissions
where does the excess ethanol get exported?
mostly to the EU
what caused the introduction to ethanol in brazil in 1975
program to produce ethanol and reduce oil imports - Military dictatorship gets loans from World Bank - Private industry: get subsidies to build new mills for guaranteed market - Ethanol as additive for automobiles gasohol
percent renewable in US and total wind and solar?
renewable- 9 % -wind 1% -solar .2%
hydro power generator
water in motion-->energy (electricity) -water --> turbine -->generator --> electricity
artificial:
windmills, engines coal or nuclear power
coal in china
worlds largest producer and consumer of coal (13% of coal reserves) • 2/3 of energy consumption from coal, and ~75% of electricity comes from coal
advantages of natural gas
• "Clean" burning: less CO2 emissions (and mercury, SOx, NOx) than coal • Electricity production by coal produces environmental gains (fewer externalities) • Moved by pipe easy terrestrial transport, but expensive because low density
brazil ethanol policies
• 1979 oil price shock - Production of sugarcane for automobile fuel, not only additive • 1981 - Area planted in sugarcane had doubled from 1975 area - Total government investment: US$3.8 billion • 1985 - 85-90% of new cars sold in Brazil burned ethanol - Investment now totaled US$7 billion
sugarcane- ethanol
• 40 percent of passenger car fuel consumed in brazil • 15 percent brazil energy consumption (= hydroelectricity)
characteristics of political energy systems
• Appropriations (control) of energy -> who controls access to energy • Consumption of energy-> who consumes energy • Energy rent: wealth produced (for whom)
wood in human history: England
• Charcoal supplied iron furnaces for weapons
polygeneration
• Coal synga sturbine s(electricity) and liquidfuels • Sulfur removed in gasification • But, CO2 emissions would increase
surface strip mining
• Compared to deep mining: greater safety, increased rate of recovery, lower cost of recovery ... but destruction of surface (remediation?
conversion of energy problems
• Energy at right quality • Energy in place • Energy right time
coal -> liquid form
• Examples - Heat anthracite to produce syngas, then converted to liquid fuel; - Heat lignite into liquid • Approx 60% energy efficient
efficiency of cane
• Five cuttings after planting, with 10% yield reduction • Two-thirds of sugarcane mass is used in producing ethanol bagasse burned to generate the electricity
EROI
• How much energy does it take to make things? To make energy? - Energy expended to extract crude oil, move, refine; overall (conventional) gasoline EROI = 20 - Unconventional EROI...low (increased GHG emissions, increased water use); Alberta, ~6-7
importance of ethanol in IOWA
• In 1973 US gets cut from OPAC and IOWA became successful to make ethanol
household fuel choice?
• Income : increasing incomes -> move up energy ladder • Urbanization : limited firewood or dung ; distribution for LPG or electricity • Aplliances costs : stoves are expensive • Relative fuel costs : cost of obtaining wood or dung vs purchasing kerosene or LPG
theory of energy ladder
• Increasing income -> change in fuel type, increase in energy use • From dung or wood kersone , then LPG, natural gas or electricity
characteristics of stability in energy systems
• Investments required to sustain energy systems • Unique dynamics of energy systems
brazil cane in 1980s
• Late1980s-mid 1990s - Democratic regime +decline in oil prices program described as "resounding economic flop" because subsides for ethanol more expensive than purchasing oilsubsidies removed by late 1990s - 1994: only 17% of new cars burned ethanol
characteristics of ecological energy systems
• Location of energy source • Application of technology to obtain energy • Extraction and transport • Conversion of energy • Interaction of components (site , technology, extraction , conversion)
nuclear and hydro power
• Low-carbon, low emissions - Role in stabilization wedges
coal tranport
• More expensive to transport than fluid or gas, because it has to be "pushed" • Less energy content per mass than oil or gas
deep mining
• Remove "overburden" and follow coal seam contour • Used to extract hard coals • Cave-in problems; mine safety
carbon capture and storage
• Sites: (former) oil and gas fields • Several examples, major energy companies involved • Stabilize CO2 concentrations ...at a price...paid by whom?
five facts on OIL
• US consumption ~19M b/d (21% global, 92M b/d) • US production ~11.6M b/d (13% global), shortfall imported • 40% of oil consumed was traded internationally ...oil is easily transported • Oil is a dense source of energy • Several products result from oilseveral uses are possible from oil
wood in human history : classical rome
• Wood for silver ore smelting.... Struggles to maintain silver output -> output limit by
2.7 people rely on biomass as primary source of domestic energy
• location : mainly less developed countries • technology : 3 stone open fire • implications ... gender inequity , labor demands , land use change , human health
