Globalization History

British Empire in China

The only port allowed open was in the city of Canton - "hong" merchants were permitted to deal with foreigners. China had been connected with British interests by the East India Company exporting tea and opium. Tea trade from China to England increased significantly in the middle of the eighteenth century, but on the other hand the British products had very little market in China. The British East India Company enjoyed the monopoly of British trade in China until middle of nineteenth century.

French Equatorial Africa

Established in 1910, extending from the Congo River to the Sahara. The governor-general was based in Brazzaville with deputies in each territory.

WW1

- 1908: Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovinaç 1911: Second Moroccan Crisis; 1911: Italo-Turkish War; 1912-1913: The Balkan Wars; German-British competition on world markets; Anglo-German naval race (dreadnought); Panslavism and Russian fears; Austro- Serbian rivalry; The system of alliances. - 28 June 1914: Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited Sarajevo and he and his wife were killed - By July 1914, the great powers of Europe were divided into two coalitions: the Triple Entente— consisting of France, Russia and Britain—and the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. - German invaded Belgium to get to France -> war officially declared against France, Britain. Ottoman Empire was at war. - Japan seized some Germany's Micronesia and Tsingtao colonies in the Pacific. The allied powers seized all German territories in the Pacific. - World War I was a significant turning point in the political, cultural, economic, and social climate of the world. The war and its immediate aftermath sparked numerous revolutions and uprisings. The Big Four (Britain, France, the United States, and Italy) imposed their terms on the defeated powers in a series of treaties agreed at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference.

Three types of Administration in Algeria

- Areas where Europeans were majority, colons elected mayors and councils for self- governing communes. ▪ In the "mixed" communes, where Muslims were a majority, the government was in the hands of appointed and some elected officials, including representatives of the grands chefs and a French administrator. ▪ The indigenous communes in not pacified remote areas remained under military rule.

British Raj Administration

- The rule by the British Crown in India between 1858 and 1947. It extended over almost all present-day India. - In 1876 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. - Consisted of 8 provinces administrated by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor - Assam, Bengal, Bombay, Burma, Central Provinces, Madras, Punjab and United Provinces. The Princely States were nominally sovereign entities with an indigenous Indian ruler. o The British Raj invested a lot in infrastructure: canals and irrigation systems, railways, telegraphy, roads and ports. The British India has a modern railway system. o By 1880, a new middle class had arisen because of the benefits of the education system and employment at the Indian Civil Services

Regulations in Algeria

-1831 - created by the French government required permission from the Interior Ministry to enter Algeria. Merchants with only trading interests and people planning to found agricultural enterprises were granted easy access. Indigents and unskilled workers were not allowed to pass.

Meji Restoration

1867; The policy of Japan to reverse its isolation and replace the feudal rulers of the shogun and increase the power of the emperor. - alliance of reformist leaders that supported the restoration of the Emperor to power.1867 Shogunate came to an official end and Emperor made a formal declaration of restoration of his power.

WW2

1939-1945 - Japan becoming more and more militarized - Civil war in China - nationalists vs. communists. - Japan takes advantage to take control of parts of China. - Second Sino-Japanese war. - Germany had to pay reparations for the previous war and that had a big impact on German politics. - The Nazi emerged and incorporated National Socialism with scientific racism and anti-Semitism. They promised social policies, agrarian policies were very important. - Began with the invasion of Poland by Germany.

Treaty of Versailles (18th C)

1st of May of 1756, was a diplomatic agreement between Austria and France. Idea was mutual assistance in case of an attack from Britain and Prussia. After the war Great Britain became the main commercial and maritime power.

From Cape to Cairo

A project to cross Africa from south to north by rail. Initiated under the vision of Cecil Rhodes - British businessman and politician in Southern Africa who served as Prime Minister of Cape Colony.

Berlin Conference

A series of negotiations (1884-1885) that occurred at Berlin, in which the major European nations met to decide all questions connected with the Congo River basin in Central Africa.

Napoleonic Wars

A series of wars fought between France (led by Napoleon Bonaparte) and alliances involving England and Prussia and Russia and Austria at different times (1799-1812). - 15 wars

The Cold War

By 1948 the Soviets had installed left-wing governments in the countries of Eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army. The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of Western Europe. The Soviets, on the other hand, were determined to maintain control of Eastern Europe in order to safeguard against any possible renewed threat from Germany, and they were intent on spreading communism worldwide, largely for ideological reasons. The Cold War had solidified by 1947-48, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to Western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in Eastern Europe.In 1949, the prospect of further Communist expansion prompted the United States and 11 other Western nations to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Soviet Union and its affiliated Communist nations in Eastern Europe founded a rival alliance, the Warsaw Pact, in 1955.

Mandates of the League of Nations

Colonial territories taken from the defeated states of World War One and entrusted by the League of Nations to the victors that was to prepare them for independence The Mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.A mandate was a legal status for territories transferred from the control of one country to another following the WWI. Territories which after the war were no longer ruled by their previous sovereign, but their peoples were not considered "able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world".These contained minority rights clauses that also provided for the rights of petition and adjudication by the International Court.The League of Nations decided the exact level of control by the Mandatory power over each mandate on an individual basis.The Mandatory power was forbidden to construct fortifications or raise an army within the territory of the mandate, and was required to present an annual report on the territory to the League of Nations.The mandates were divided into three distinct groups (A, B, C) based upon the level of development each population had achieved at that time. - Class A : territories formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire (Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia), where mandatory must provide assistance and administrative advice, until time as they are able to stand alone. - ADVISORY FUNCTION. - Class B: all former German territories in West and Central Africa, where Mandatory was responsible for the administration of the territory and should guarantee freedom of conscience and religion. - Class C: South West Africa and certain south Pacific Islands (former German Colonies) - where the mandates were considered as an integral portion of the Mandatory territory.

Congo issue

Congo was ruled personally by Leopold II and not by the government of Belgium. He was able to procure the region by convincing other countries at the Berlin Conference that he was involved in humanitarian and philanthropic work and would not put taxes on trade.There were many atrocities committed like the extraction of ivory, rubber and minerals to be sold on the world market, even though Leopold's apparent purpose in the region was to develop the area. The companies that extracted natural rubber were allowed to do whatever they wanted in the area without any judicial interference. There was forced labor and workers who refused to participate in rubber collection could be killed.

Russo-Japanese war 1904-1905

Ending in a Japanese victory, this war established Japan as a formidable military competitor in East Asia and precipitated the Russian Revolution of 1905. - the battle ended in favour of Japan and occupation of Sakhalin Island. - Both sides accepted the mediation process by Theodore Roosevelt in New Hampshire. While mediation Russia recognized Korea as part of the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia as well ceded the southern half of Sakhalin Island to Japan, including the naval base and the peninsula.

The Role and the Position of the City and the Countryside in the Process of Decolonization.

Even thought European influence was concentrated in the cities, it spread across the countryside as well and affected ecology significantly. Europeans didn't like the land the way it was. Their intention was always to change the environment to provide local approximations of what existed at home. The main interests for Europeans were local ecologies which can give more economic advantage and effective political control. The most obvious of products were cultivated and exploited in the colonial world countryside. As many critics have said, no successful protest movement was made without ideology and without peasant support. With migration Europeans started to colonized places. Europeans hold acres of lands and local inhabitants nothing -> nationalism -> rebellions. The drama was mainly in the city while decolonization, but Guerrilla warfare and terrorists were in the countryside - FLN in Algeria in 1962. Mau Mau in Kenya. The peasantry were concerned about the land problem, their alienation from their place of work and residence when land was converted into private property controlled by the colonialists.

The Seven Years' War

France and UK. UK attacked France position in north America in 1754. Meanwhile in 1756 Prussia and Austria were struggling for the domination for the power, outside the Roman Empire. In 1756 Britain and Prussia allied against the Austria and France.

French Colonialism

France began to establish colonies in North America, the Caribbean and India in the 17th century. In 1814, during the Congress of Vienna (to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe and settle critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars) France lost almost all its colonies. The second phase of the French Colonial Empire started with the occupation of Algeria in 1830.

Globalization Concept / Today

Globalization is the process of international interaction and integration that arises from the interchange of world views, products, ideas and other aspects of culture. Large scale globalization began in the 19th century when the world's connectivity grew very quickly.With the increased global interactions comes the growth of international trade, ideas, and culture. Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, and the natural environment.

What happened in Algeria?

In 1834 the occupied areas of Algeria were annexed to France. There was a governor general (a high ranking army officer) and a systemic use of torture.

China

In 1857 France joined together with Britain to form a military expedition toward China. Main objective was not to take territory, but to open the Chinese market to French commerce. In 1858 Combined French-British forces occupied Canton. China signed a treaty of Tientsin. On the second phase of the Second Opium War, French-British army captured Tientsin and then marched on Beijing and burned and pillaged the Old Summer Palace.

The Commonwealth of Nations

It is a unique political association of 53 member states, nearly all of them former territories of the British Empire.The Commonwealth developed from the Imperial Conferences which were conferences of British and colonial prime ministers that occurred periodically from 1887. In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, Britain and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". These aspects to the relationship were formalized by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. 1949: It was formally constituted by the London Declaration, which established the member states as "free and equal".The Queen is the Head of the Commonwealth as well as the monarch of 16 members, known as Commonwealth realms. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that, when it became a republic (January 1950), it would accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth".Member states have no legal obligations to one another. Instead, they are united by English language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights and the rule of law. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games.

Industrial Revolution

It is the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from 1760s to 1840s. In the second half of the 18th century there a small number of innovations, which are connected to the start of the process. Iron making, the steam power and the automation of textile production are the most important innovations. - increased the overall amount of wealth and distributed it more widely than before, helping to enlarge middle class. However, the factory system and mass production require a large number of people to work for several hours in tedious and often dangerous work for small wages. - new materials began being exploited. Materials like steel, synthetic products such as plastics, as well as new energy. It was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to US and Germany. (2nd one)

American Independence

July 4, 1776, Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Boston Tea party against taxation on tea. To protest British Parliament's tax on tea. "No taxation without representation."

Indian Rebellion, 1857-1858

Massive uprising of much of India against British rule; also called the Indian Mutiny or the Sepoy Mutiny from the fact that the rebellion first broke out among Indian troops in British employ. ▪ It was a widespread but unsuccessful rebellion against British rule in India, from May 1857 to June 1858. ▪ Started in Meerut as a munity of the sepoys, and soon spreade to Delhi, Agra, Kanpur and Lucknow. ▪ There was a lot of discontentment because the old Indian aristocracy was being replaced by British officials (Lord Dalhousie). ▪ Another concern was the increasing Westernization of Hindu society. For example, Lord Dalhousie made efforts toward emancipating women and to allow the remarriage of Hindu widows. The introduction of Western methods of education was a challenge too. ▪ The Bengal army was where the Indians were more organized (higher caste) and it's where the munity broke out - the Rebellion of Cartridges: the grease used to lubricate the cartridges was a mixture of pigs' and cows' fat; thus, to have oral contact with it was an insult to both Muslims and Hindus. ▪ The East India Company was abolished after the mutiny and India started being ruled directly by the British Government. Another significant result was the beginning of the policy of consultation with Indians. The insensitive British-imposed social measures that affected Hindu society came to an end. The new British Raj was based on a preservation of traditions and hierarchy.

Imperialism

Operates from the center, is an estate policy and is developed for ideological and economical reasons. Refers to the political and economic dominance

Brezhnev Doctrine

Soviet foreign policy - to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia and ended the Prague Spring. These interventions were meant to put an end to liberalization efforts and uprisings that had the potential to compromise Soviet hegemony inside the Eastern Bloc, which was considered by the Soviet Union to be an essential defensive and strategic buffer in case hostilities with NATO were to break out. In practice, the policy meant that only limited independence of the satellite states' communist parties was allowed and that no socialist country would be allowed to compromise the union of the Eastern Bloc in any way. That is, no country could leave the Warsaw Pact or disturb a ruling communist party's monopoly on power.

Shogunate

The japanese system of centralized government under a shogun, who exercised actual power while the emperor was reduced to a figurehead. was the last feudal Japanese military government.Japan was a closed country.

Bretton Woods System

The Bretton Woods conference was the culmination of years of planning for postwar reconstruction.A system of international payments that would avoid sudden currency depreciation or dangerous exchange rate fluctuations. July 1944: 730 delegates from all 44 Allied nations gathered in Bretton Woods (New Hampshire). Soviet representatives attended the conference but declined to ratify the agreementsThe new system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the US, Canada, Europe, Australia, and Japan. The first example of a fully negotiated monetary order (based on gold and the US dollar).The accords established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), today part of the World Bank.15 August 1971: the US unilaterally terminated convertibility of the dollar to gold, bringing the Bretton Woods system to an end.

British Empire

The Caribbean initially provided England's most important and lucrative colonies, however attempts at colonization failed.Maritime expansion, driven by commercial ambitions and by competition with France, accelerated in the 17th century and resulted in the establishment of settlements in North America and the West Indies. After the loss of the 13 colonies, the British government turned to the new discovery lands of Australia. This is also seen as the event defining the transition between the first and second empires - shifting attention from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. o With the industrial revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important. The Slavery Abolition Act, abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833.

FASHODA

The Fashoda Incident was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between Britain and France in Eastern Africa, occurring in 1898. A French expedition to Fashoda on the White Nile River sought to gain control of the Upper Nile river basin and thereby exclude Britain from the Sudan. o The French party and a British-Egyptian force met on friendly terms, but back in Europe, it became a war scare. The British held firm as both empires stood on the verge of war with heated rhetoric on both sides. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area. o It was the last crisis between the two that involved a threat of war and opened the way for closer relations in the Entente cordiale of 1904 - a series of agreements to improve Anglo-French relations, the most important being the granting freedom of action to the UK in Egypt and France in Morocco.

IMF

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of "189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world. It now plays a central role in the management of balance of payments difficulties and international financial crises.The organization's objectives stated in the Articles of Agreement are:[10] to promote international monetary co-operation, international trade, high employment, exchange-rate stability, sustainable economic growth, and making resources available to member countries in financial difficulty.

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming is occurring and (part two) it is extremely likely that human-made CO2 emissions have predominantly caused it.

Non-Aligned Movement

The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states that are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. As of 2012, the movement has 120 members.It was established in 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. An initiative of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito led to the first Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries. At its beginning the nonaligned movement consisted primarily of Asian and African states that were once colonies of the Western powers and were afraid of being taken into a new form of dependence by the West or by the communist bloc.The basic concept for the group originated in 1955 during discussions that took place at the Asia- Africa Bandung Conference held in Indonesia. Subsequently, a preparatory meeting for the First NAM Summit Conference was held in Cairo, Egypt from 5-12 June 1961.

Jamsetji Tata

The Raj did not provide capital, but aware of Britain's declining position against the U.S. and Germany in the steel industry, it supported the idea of steel mills in India promising to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not otherwise sell. The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), now headed by his son Dorabji Tata (1859-1932), opened its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar in 1908, becoming the leading iron and steel producer in India.

UN Bodies, when was it created?

The United Nations was established on 24 October 1945 with 51 member estates (now 193). During the Second World War Franklin Roosevelt initiated talks on a successor agency the League of Nations. UN's primary mandate was peacekeeping: participated in actions in Korea, in Congo and elsewhere. It has 5 main organs; General Assembly, Security Council, Secretariat, International Court of Justice, and Trusteeship Council.

Decolonizing the Mind

The disappearance of formal empire did not mean the end of the colonial experience in the opinion of many critics. For them decolonization required much more: a fundamental change of outlook and attitude, of heart and mind.The first postcolonial generation of writers and film makers developed a body of work that was largely social realist in approach and content, an examination of a landscape still contained within a European cultural context and of social and cultural attitudes that were derivatively European. This peculiar condition is what the Kenyan author Ngugi wa Thiong'o described in Decolonizing the Mind (1989) as the double colonial alienation: the distancing of oneself from reality, and the identification with what is external to one's environment.Domination, it has been argued, was reinforced by cultural acquiescence, an acceptance of the imposing culture principally through its written word. Africans ought to recognize that writing in European languages is tacit acceptance of a form of neo-colonialism.

The Bandung Conference

The first large meeting of Asian and African states, most of which were newly independent, which took place on 18-24 April 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia.The twenty-nine countries that participated at the Bandung Conference represented nearly one- quarter of the Earth's land surface and a total population of 1.5 billion people, roughly 54% of the Earth's population at the time. The conference was organized by Indonesia, Burma (Myanmar), Pakistan, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and India and was coordinated by Ruslan Abdulgani, secretary general of the Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The conference's stated aims were to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neocolonialism by any nation. The conference was an important step toward the Non-Aligned Movement.

Role of the Economy in the Empires

The post-Napoleonic economic depression causing considerable concern. This domestic situation, aggravated by unemployment and a fall in the rate of profits, gave rise to a new set of arguments for colonization. o All agreed that through colonization the glut of laborers would be reduced, even removed.o "Thus, employment for capital and labor would be increased in two places and two ways at the same time; abroad, in the colonies, by the removal of capital and peoples to fresh fields of production; at home, by the extension of markets, or the importation of food and raw materials."o Of course the ultimate purpose of colonies was Eurocentric: they were to expand metropolitan commerce, stimulate metropolitan industry, and "furnish to the inhabitants of the mother country, to its industrialists, workers and consumers, an increase in profits, wages or benefits." o Jules Ferry saw colonial enterprise as based on the exportation of capital and goods. He also endorsed the protectionist position - USA and Germany rivals - he feared France had not yet secured sufficient markets through colonial enterprise.

French Revolution

The revolution that began in 1789, overthrew the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons and the system of aristocratic privileges, and ended with Napoleon's overthrow of the Directory and seizure of power in 1799. - Financial Crisis in France during Louis XVI. France tried to attempt the financial unpopular taxation plan created of bad harvest and inflamed privileges, that led to the revolution Enlightenment period in 1789, "declaration of the rights of Man".

Justifications for Imperialism

The rhetoric of colonizers being racially superior and having technology and economy efficiency. ▪ Spreading the Gospel - by spreading their religion, the colonizers were also spreading Western cultural values. Typically, the missionaries would spread the imperial's nation language through educational and religious interaction. ▪ The White Man's burden: is a poem about the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), which strongly encourages the U.S. to assume colonial control of the Filipino people and their country. The imperialist interpretation of "The White Man's Burden" (1899) proposes that the "white race" is morally obligated to rule the "non-white" peoples of planet Earth, and to encourage their progress (economic, social, and cultural) through settler colonialism.

Treaty of Nanking

The war finished in 1842, and China was forced to sign. This treaty was an unequal treaty and had as main terms: 1. five ports were opened to British trade: Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shangai; 2. Hong Kong was ceded to Great Britain; 3. Westerners were exempt from local laws, meaning they were subject to their own civil and criminal laws of their home country and 4. China had to pay a large indemnity to the British.

Treaty of Tientsin

The war partly ended in 1858 with this treaty. it was signed by Britain, France, Russia and the US. The main points of this treaty were: 1. Six new ports were opened to foreign trade; 2. Britain, Russia, France and the US could establish diplomatic representation in Beijing; 3. All foreign vessels could navigate freely on the Yangtze; 4. Foreigners now had the right to travel in the interior regions of China and 5. China had to pay an indemnity of 4 million silver taels to Britain and 2 million to France.

The League of Nations

This was an intergovernal organization founded on 10 Jan 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first worldwide intergovernmental organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.In 1919, 44 states signed the Covenant including 31 estates that had taken part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente. Member estates were expected to "respect and preserve as against external aggression" the territorial integrity of other members. All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or juridical inquiry before going to war.The General Assembly represented all the member estates and functions included: admission of new members, periodical elections of non-permanent members to the Council, the election of the judges of the Permanent Court with the Council, and control of budget. Both sides accepted the mediation process by Theodore Roosevelt in New Hampshire. While mediation Russia recognized Korea as part of the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia as well ceded the southern half of Sakhalin Island to Japan, including the naval base and the peninsula. o The Council acted as an executive body directing the Assembly's business. Initially had 4 permanent members (Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan) and 4 non-permanent members which were elected by the Assembly for a three-year term. o Unfortunately the League failed miserably in its intended goal: to prevent another world war from happening (WW2 broke out only two decades later). The idea was for the League of Nations to prevent wars through disarmament, collective security and negotiation.

Third Carnatic War

a series of military conflicts in the middle of the 18th century in India. The conflicts involved numerous nominally independent rulers and their vassals, struggles for succession and territory, and included a diplomatic and military struggle between the French East India Company and the British East India Company. As a result the British East India Company established its dominance among the European trading companies within India

Plantation Colonies

method of colonization used for settlers in order to establish a permanent or semi-permanent colonial base, for example to plant tobacco or cotton. Frequently used to promote Western culture and Christianity among indigenous people.

UN Impat on Decolonization

When the United Nations was established in 1945, 750 million people - almost a third of the world's population - lived in Territories that were non-self-governing, dependent on colonial Powers.The Charter of the United Nations established in Chapter XI, the principles that continue to guide United Nations decolonization efforts, including respect for self-determination of all peoples. Since the creation of the United Nations more than 80 former colonies have gained their independence. Among them, all eleven Trust Territories have achieved self-determination through independence or free association with an independent State. There are 17 Non-Self- Governing Territories remaining today. Hoping to speed the progress of decolonization, the General Assembly adopted, in 1960, the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. Known as the Declaration on Decolonization, it stated that all people have a right to self-determination and proclaimed that colonialism should be brought to a speedy and unconditional end. In 1962 the General Assembly established the Special Committee on Decolonization to monitor implementation of the Declaration and to make recommendations on its application.In 1990, the General Assembly proclaimed 1990-2000 as the International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism and adopted a Plan of Action. In 2001, the Second International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism was proclaimed. In 2011, the General Assembly proclaimed 2011-2020 as the Third International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism.

Decolonization

Withdrawal from its colonies of a colonial power. To gain political or economic independence by such colonies. Process may involve either nonviolent revolution or national liberation wars by pro-independence groups. Decolonization was a political process. Frequently involving violence (War of independence, revolution, civil war). More often, there was a dynamic cycle: Negotiations, minor disturbances escalating into more violent revolts, further negotiations until independence was granted. In rare cases, the actions of the pro-independence movements were characterized by nonviolence (Indian Independence followed by an "Indian Civil War") and the violence came as active suppression from the occupying forces or from forces representing minority local communities who felt threatened by the prospect of Independence (minority groups). 1927 - Conference against imperialism and colonialism was held in Brussels and in 1929 in Frankfurt. There were few concerns: how those countries were going to develop individually? The elimination of imperialism, the sovereignty, how they could build a world, where big countries could coexist with small sized ones without putting them aside? During the Cold War, the Third World referred to the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the nations not aligned with either the First World or the Second World. This usage has become relatively rare due to the ending of the Cold War. In the decade since the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the term Third World was used interchangeably with developing countries, but the concept has become outdated as it no longer represents the current political or economic state of the world. The three-world model arose during the Cold War to define countries aligned with NATO (the First World), the Communist Bloc (the Second World, although this term was less used), or neither (the Third World). Strictly speaking, "Third World" was a political, rather than an economic, grouping. In the late 1940s, national success was achieved in much of Southeast Asia. In the 1950s, North Africa took its turn, and then in the 1960s the quickest, most intensive decolonization occurred in Sub-Sahara Africa.

Sino-French War (1884-1885)

a limited conflict fought from August 1884 through April 1885, to decide whether France would supplant China's control of Tonkin. - was a conflict to decide whether France would take control of northern Vietnam. The French won the war and took control of the northern Vietnam.

Democratic Globalization

a movement towards an institutional system of global democracy that would give citizens a say in political organizations. Economic expansion and development should be the first phase of democratic globalization, followed by a phase of building global political institutions.

Concordat

an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, signed on 15 July 1801 in Paris.It remained in effect until 1905. It sought national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics and solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France, with most of its civil status restored Emancipation of Jew. Napoleonic Code - base of the law system. Metric system. First industries in France.

General Act of the Berlin Conference

can be seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa. It coincides with Germany's emergence as an imperial power. - The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, which eliminated or overrode most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance. Behind on the European race for colonies, Germany started launching expeditions of its own, which frightened both British and French statesmen. Hoping to quickly soothe this brewing conflict, King Leopold II convinced France and Germany that common trade in Africa was in the best interests of all three countries.

Mercantilism

conomic theory and practice common in Europe from 16th to 18th century to promote government regulation of a nation's economy to increase the state power at the expense of rival nation powers. The nations should posses precious metals and trade balance should be favorable (exports more than imports. Colonies should serve as markets for exports and as suppliers for raw materials. No manufacturing was allowed in the colonies and all commerce between colony and mother country should be a monopoly of the mother country. It also motivated colony expansion.

The Second Opium War (1856-60)

derived from two incidents in 1856: the seizure of the Arrow a ship with British flag on suspicion of piracy and the execution of a French missionary. The British undertook military action initially alone, but British and French forces occupied the city of Canton in 1857. The war partly ended in 1858 with the Treaty of Tientsin signed by Britain, France, Russia and the US. The main points of this treaty were: 1. Six new ports were opened to foreign trade; 2. Britain, Russia, France and the US could establish diplomatic representation in Beijing; 3. All foreign vessels could navigate freely on the Yangtze; 4. Foreigners now had the right to travel in the interior regions of China and 5. China had to pay an indemnity of 4 million silver taels to Britain and 2 million to France.

Exploitation Colonialism

few colonists and focus on how to get resources to export.

The Code de l'indigénat

model of French colonial indirect rule. A set of laws that in practice created an inferior legal status for natives of the French colonies. Was first implemented in Algeria and then applied to the whole French Colonial Empire. The official final goal was to transform their colonies into integral parts of France (African, Arab or Asian Frenchmen). It enabled French authorities to subject a large, colonial population to their rule by legal separation and a practice of indirect institutions to supplement an often tiny French administration. A Cercle consisted of several cantons, each consisting of several villages. The Commandant de Cercle (governor) was able to use punishment for any infractions of the code. The officers could take advantage of the code and use forced labour, taxes, etc. Gradually, the Corvee system was reformed, both because of International criticism and popular resistance. There were two different court systems: ▪ Most legal matters were processed by the customary courts. These were courts convened by the chiefs of the canton or some other French authority or by Muslim Sharia courts. ▪ Africans with the status of French citizens or those originaires were subjected to a French court.

First Opium War (1839-1842)

had its onset when Commissioner Lin seized and destroyed large amounts of Opium and restricted the British in Canton. The surrendered drug was publicly destroyed in from of Canton port. The British had a big technological supremacy, thus winning the war. The war finished in 1842, and China was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking. This treaty was an unequal treaty and had as main terms: 1. five ports were opened to British trade: Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shangai; 2. Hong Kong was ceded to Great Britain; 3. Westerners were exempt from local laws, meaning they were subject to their own civil and criminal laws of their home country and 4. China had to pay a large indemnity to the British. ▪ After 12 years the British demanded China to renegotiate the Treaty of Nanking proposing their most favorable nation status. Most Favored Nation status is an economic position in which a country enjoys the best trade terms given by its trading ▪ The only port allowed open was in the city of Canton - "hong" merchants were permitted to deal with foreigners. China had been connected with British interests by the East India Company exporting tea and opium. Tea trade from China to England increased significantly in the middle of the eighteenth century, but on the other hand the British products had very little market in China. The British East India Company enjoyed the monopoly of British trade in China until middle of nineteenth century. 11. o Rhodes - British businessman and politician in Southern Africa who served as Prime Minister of Cape Colony. BRITISH RAJ ADMINISTRATION The rule by the British Crown in India between 1858 and 1947. It extended over almost all present-day India.In 1876 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. ▪ partner. That means it receives the lowest tariffs, the fewest trade barriers, and the highest import quotas (or none at all).

Security Council (UN)

has as primary responsibility the maintenance of international peace and security. Under the terms of UN Charter the SC has the power to make biding decisions that MS have agreed to carry out - UN Security Council resolutions. The SC is made up of 15 MS - 5 permanent and 10 non-permanent members. The permanent members hold veto power over UN resolutions - it can block the adoption of a resolution.

Triangular Trade

he trading system is the transatlantic slave trade. It used to carry slaves, cash crops and manufactured goods between West Africa, Caribbean or American colonies and the European colonial powers. The use of slaves was fundamental for the cash crops. The cash crops were exported to Europe and then the European good were used to purchase slaves.

Secretariat (UN)

headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil supporters worldwide. Provides studies, information and facilities needed by UN bodies for their meetings and also carries out tasks as directed by other UN bodies. Acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of UN.

Fashoda Syndrome

in French foreign policy, or seeking to assert French influence in areas which might be becoming susceptible to British influence.

White Man's Burden

is a poem about the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), which strongly encourages the U.S. to assume colonial control of the Filipino people and their country. The imperialist interpretation of "The White Man's Burden" (1899) proposes that the "white race" is morally obligated to rule the "non-white" peoples of planet Earth, and to encourage their progress (economic, social, and cultural) through settler colonialism.

Most Favored Nation Status

is an economic position in which a country enjoys the best trade terms given by its trading partner. That means it receives the lowest tariffs, the fewest trade barriers, and the highest import quotas (or none at all).

International Court of Justice (UN)

is the primary judicial organ of the UN. Composed of 15 judges with 9 years-term; appointed by the General Assembly and must be form different nationalities. The court's role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized UN organs and specialized agencies.

Overall mission of French Imperialism - The Civilizing Mission

it was Europe's duty to bring civilization. French colonial officials undertook a policy of Franco Europeanization. Slavery was abolished in most French West Africa. In Morocco French administration attempted to use urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and to uphold the traditional society. The main criticism was the high level of violence and suffering among the natives. France invested heavily infrastructure in Africa, especially focusing on schools and health facilities. However, these investments cost more than it was beneficial. But on the other hand colonization brought resources (personnel, minerals and oil) for the development of the French economy, and a political influence that still favours French to the exploitation of resources in Africa.

Settler Colonialism

large-scale immigration, often motivated by religious, political or economic reasons.

Abd Al Qadir

local opposition lead by this person. - He negotiated a favorable peace treaty (Treaty of Tafna). His regime was recognized, but the French broke the Treaty by invading Constantine, eventually he surrended.

Difference between French and British Colonial Empire - Values/Approaches to Colonization.

o o o o In Africa and Southeast Asia the protectorate was a largely used method to administrate the colonies in these regions. To adopt the policy and the administration of the protectorate means to maintain as much as possible the native governmental machinery, institutions and customs. Also to use the traditional leaders to govern. Indirect rule - meaning that the day-to-day government and administration of small and large areas were in the hands of a local ruler. This was particularly applied to Sub-Saharan Africa. There it was applied by both French and British empires.British system: ▪ British colonization had mainly commercial purposes. ▪ In their administration British have been seen as more pragmatic, allowing policy to fluctuate according to local conditions. ▪ They wanted to avoid any direct interference with the existing indigenous administration system, to the extent that it was compatible with British purposes - to work through it not impose. French system: ▪ France overseas interests were more political. Colonial activity allowed France to reassert itself internationally and to achieve a new national prestige. Sometimes the successful involvement abroad was used to divert the attention to the discontent at the home country. ▪ The French have been seen as centralists, replicating their national administration policies everywhere overseas. French administration had a military characteristic; the French military officer was really often included in the administration. This military form of policy was what subordinated local authorities directly to French purposes. In West Africa, the cercle became the basic administrative unit and the indigenous authority was converted into a minor French functionary, controlled by a French commandant.

Scramble for Africa

o Occupation, colonization and annexation of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism (1881-1914) o In 1870, only 10% of Africa was under European control; by 1914 it was 90% of the continent, with only Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Liberia still being independent o The Berlin Conference of 1884, which regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, is usually referred to as the starting point of the Conquest of Africa

Environmental globalization

refers to the internationally coordinated practices and regulations (often in the form of international treaties) regarding environmental protection

British Raj Agriculture and Industry

▪ Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920 and the population also grew at the same rate. ▪ Agriculture was still dominant, with most peasants at the subsistence level. ▪ Irrigations systems were built, motivating the growing of cash crops for exportation and raw materials for Indian industry. ▪ Most of the economic activity in British India was for the benefit of the British economy, even though with negative consequences for the Indians population.

French-Siamese Disputes

the French authorities in Indochina used border disputes to provoke a crisis. French gunboats appeared at Bangkok and demanded the cession of Laos and the Mekong River. The king appealed to London but the British government told him to settle on whatever terms he could get. Siam had to give up on the Thai-speaking region in Burma to the British and cede Laos to France.

Colonialism

the establishment, exploitation, maintenance and expansion of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory. A set of unequal relations (colonizers have much more power than the colonized) between the colonial power and the colony and between the colonists and the native population. Colonizers take and implement decisions that affect the lives of the colonized in pursuit of interests defined in a distant metropolis. They are also convinced of their superiority and reject the culture of the native population.

Syria and Lebanon (Spring 1860)

the fight in Lebanon between the Druze population and Maronite Christians couldn't be contained by the Ottomans and spread into Syria. This resulted in the massacre of many Christians. ▪ Napoleon II intervened, despite the British opposition. ▪ After the intervention Lebanon was put under the rule of a Christian governor.

Modern State

the four divisions of society were abolished. There was a rapid industrialization and modernization and massive increase in production and infrastructure. Japanese became consumers of western technology, producing items that were sold cheap in the international market. A modern railway and communication systems developed.The Meiji restoration provided Japan a form of Constitutional monarchy and the Constitution was based on the principle that the Emperor had full sovereignty. Japan used French model of Central state. Japanese Military played a key role in Japan's expansion abroad, in 1874 Japan launched a military expedition to Taiwan to assert its claims to the Ryukyu Islands. In 1894-1895, Japanese and Chinese troops clashed in Korea. First Sino-Japanese war: Japan defeated the more numerous Chinese forces. Island of Taiwan was ceded to Japan and government gained enough international prestige to renegotiate the "unequal treaties". The treaty of Shimonoseki - 1895, Emperor recognized the total independence of Korea and Japan annexed the uninhabited islands (Taiwan, Penghu, Peninsula Liandong, etc). In 1902 Japan signed a military alliance with the British Empire.In 1895, Pro-Russian Korean official tried to remove the King of Korea, they succeed a year after. In 1894 Seoul-Inchon railway granted to Japan was revoked and granted to Russia. Tension between Japan and Russia increased sharply, moreover China defeat against Japan.

Rebellion of Cartridges

the grease used to lubricate the cartridges was a mixture of pigs' and cows' fat; thus, to have oral contact with it was an insult to both Muslims and Hindus.

General Assembly (UN)

the main deliberative assembly of the UN, composed of all member estates. Meets in regular yearly sessions, but can have emergency sessions. Led by a president, elected from among the member estates and 21 vice-presidents. A 2/3 majority is required on important questions: peace and security; election of members and budgetary matters.

After 1848 (French Revolution)

the new government declared in 1848 Constitution the occupied lands an integral part of France - Alger, Oran and Constantine under civilian governments. The French citizens in the civil territories elected their own councils and mayors. Muslims had to be appointed, could not hold more than one-third of council seats and could not serve as mayors or assistant mayors. Outside the civil territories the administration was still under the French Army and local Muslim administration was allowed to continue under the supervision of the army. - European migration during this period stimulated the civilian administration to open new land for settlement. But when Napoleon III came to power he returned Algeria to military control. In 1858 a Ministry of Algerian Affairs was create to supervise administration of the country through a military governor assisted by a civilian minister. Napoleon III also issued two decrees that affected tribal land structure, land tenure and the legal status of Muslims in Algeria. This made some tribal leaders to immediately sell communal lands for quick gains.

Internal Colonialism

the source of exploitation comes from within the estate.

East India Company

▪ It drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. ▪ During the late 18th century the Crown began to increase its role in the affairs of the Company. ▪ The Charter Act of 1813 regulated the Company's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories it had acquired.

Trusteeship Council (UN)

was established to help ensure that trust territories were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and WORLD WAR II Japan becoming more and more militarized. security. The trust territories—most of them are former mandates of the League of Nations or territories taken from nations defeated at the end of World War II—have all now attained self-government or independence, either as separate nations or by joining neighboring independent countries.

French West Africa

was officially named and it consisted of 8 French colonial territories. There was a governor-general based first in Saint-Louis and later in Dakar.

Surrogate Colonialism

when a foreign power encourages and provides support for a settlement of a non-native group over land occupied by indigenous people.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified 4 basic aspects of globalization:

▪ 1. trade and transactions; ▪ 2. capital and investment movements; ▪ 3. migration and movement of people; ▪ 4. the dissemination of knowledge.

British Raj Railways

▪ British investors built a modern railway system in the late 19th century and the government was supportive because it had military and economic values. ▪ The funding and management came from private British companies and they were first privately owned and operated. There were British administrators, engineer and skilled craftsman. Unskilled workers were Indians. ▪ There were two railways companies - Great India Peninsular and East Indian Railway. ▪ In 1854 Governor-General Lord Dalhousie formulated a plan to connect the principal regions of India. Encouraged by the government guarantees there was a substantial investment and a rapid expansion of the rail system.

The British Empire in Africa

▪ Constituted during two periods 1821-1850 and 1866-1888. Economic development was mostly attributed to each region's agricultural developments. ▪Was divided into: Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and Northern Rhodesia East Africa was consisted Kenya and Uganda. ▪ In Sudan against the Mahdi - 1869 the Suez Canal was opened and became Britain's economic lifeline to India and the Far East. Mahdists attempted unsuccessfully to break Egyptian rule in the Sudan.

General Act from Berlin Conference pt. 2

▪ End the slavery by African and Islamic powers. ▪ The Congo as a free state was confirmed and keeps the country open to all European investment. ▪ 14 signatory powers would have free trade throughout the Congo. ▪ The Niger and Congo rivers were made free for ship traffic. ▪ A principle of Effectivity (based on effective occupation) - powers could acquire rights over colonial lands only if they possessed them or had "effective occupation": in other words, if they had treaties with local leaders, if they flew their flag there, and if they established an administration in the territory to govern it with a police force to keep order. ▪ Any fresh act of taking possession of any portion of the African coast would be notified by the power taking possessions. ▪ Definition of regions where European power had an exclusive right to pursue the legal ownership of land.

Mexico

▪ In 1861 the conservative Mexican government was overthrown by Benito Juarez and he established a secular state and refused to pay the internal and external debts of the old government. ▪ France, being the largest owner of the Mexican debt, organized a joint military force with Spain and Britain and arrived at Mexico. ▪ Napoleon III had been intensively lobbied by Mexican immigrants in Europe, who proposed that France establish a new conservative government in the country, under a European monarch. ▪ US was unable to prevent the French attack because of the Civil War, so after some clashes an assembly of notables proclaimed the Mexican Empire and invited Maximilian I to rule. ▪ The fights continued until 1865 when Washington demanded that France withdraw its forces from Mexico. Maximilian stayed and was captured, judges and shot.

Korea and Japan

▪ In 1866 French priests were arrested and executed in Korea so the French attempted retaliation. ▪ Meanwhile, in Japan the Shogunate and his enemies sought French military training and technology in their struggle for power. Shogunate approached both Britain and France to ask for military assistance. ▪In 1867 Napoleon II dispatched 19 French Military experts to Japan. This mission played a key role in modernizing the Tokugawa forces.

Indochina

▪ Napoleon III acted to increase the French presence in the South-Eastern Asia (Indochina). The main reason was the belief that France risked becoming a second-rate power if they did not expand to East Asia. ▪ French missionaries had been active in the Vietnam since the 17th century - Alexandre de Rhodes. In 1858 the Vietnamese emperor tried to expel the missionaries and a Spanish bishop was executed. As a result, the port of Da Nang was captured and occupied. In 1859 Saigon was captured and Vietnam was forced to give three provinces to France and to offer protection to Catholics. ▪ The agreements were not completely fulfilled by the Vietnamese emperor and the French returned to Vietnam. The emperor was forced to open treaty ports and all Cochinchine became a French territory. ▪ The Thai king granted authority ever Cambodia to France.

Colonization of Senegal

▪ Senegal was part of French West Africa and its economy was based on slaves' trade. After the abolition of slavery in 1848, Napoleon III decided to expand and modernize the colony. ▪ There were four Quarters (Communes): Saint-Louis, Dakar, Goree and Rufisque - the oldest colonial towns in the French West Africa. In 1848, the French Republic extended the rights of full French citizenship to the habitants of these cities. In reality only the few Africans who could pursue higher education and willing to renounce their legal protections were nominally granted full citizenship (Évolué). Despite having French citizenship, they still faced a lot of discrimination. ▪ The Four Quarters could elect a deputy to the French Parliament (right given and taken away until the fall of the French third republic in 1940). Blaise Diagne was the first African deputy elected.

Decolonization of Algeria (1954-1962)

▪ Started by members of the National Liberation Front (FLN) - Battle of Algiers (1956-57). They successfully applied guerrilla tatics. ▪ By 1956 there were more than 400 thousand French troops in Algeria. ▪ The French tactics ended the revolt by 1958, but they earned international condemnation for the use of torture and violent acts. Fear of international opinion and pressure from oil companies convinced the French government to agree to peace negotiations. But after negotiations failed, the French launched a new offensive in 1959, using new tactics. ▪ After major demonstrations in 1960 and a UN declaration recognizing Algeria's independence, Charles de Gaulle decided to open a series of negotiations with the FLN. ▪ The negotiations resulted with the signing of the Evian Accords (to end the Algerian War), and this was approved by a referendum in 1962. ▪ The Accords was subjected to a new referendum in the same year and more than 99% voted for independence. ▪ Around 900 thousand European Algerians (Pied-noirs) fled to France.

The Boers

▪ The Boer Republics were independent, self-governed republics created by the Dutch- speaking inhabitants of the Cape Province and their descendants. ▪ Two of the Republics achieved international recognition and complete independence: the South African Republic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. ▪ 1806: The British took over the colonial power from the Netherlands at the Cape. ▪ Subsequently, a number of Dutch-speaking inhabitants trekked inland, first in smaller numbers, then in larger groups. ▪ December 1880-March 1881: The First Boer War was fought between the British and the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic). October 1899-May 1902: The Second Boer War was fought between the British Empire and the two independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic. The Treaty of Vereeniging ended the existence of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State as Boer republics and placed them within the British Empire (in 1910 the Transvaal Colony incorporated into the Union of South Africa).

British Raj Economy

▪ The British Raj became the centre of the British trade in the East and had a crucial role in the development of a British industrialized economy. India was quite urbanized in the 17th century and was the world's main producer of cotton textiles, with substantial exports to Britain and other European countries. ▪ In the 18th century the British cotton industry experienced a technological revolution and as a consequence the Indian industry stagnated. Industrialization in India was delayed until the beginning of the 20th century. Under British rule India did not operate in a free and competitive environment and the British dismantled India's textile production because it was in direct competition with British industry.

Administration of the British Raj (3 parts)

▪ The Imperial Government was in London and provided a cabinet-level Secretary of state for India and 15 members Council of India (members were required to spend no more and less of 10 years in India). ▪ Central Government was in Calcutta, where the Viceroy was responsible to the Secretary of State and parliament. ▪ Provincial Governments - legislative councils located in Calcutta, Madras or Bombay. But final assent was required from Secretary of state in London. Laws enacted by the Legislative Councils (whether by central government or provincial government) required the final assessment of the Secretary of State in London.

Madagascar

▪ There were two interventions in Madagascar. ▪After a first war, a treaty gave the French the control over Malagasay foreign policy and the French government used this to increase control over the territory. ▪ Later, the Franco-Hova wars resulted in the fall of the Merina Kingdom and the establishment of a French protectorate (1896) that became a colony one year later.

Academic literature commonly subdivides globalization into three major areas: economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization:

▪Economic Globalization: Economic globalization is the increasing economic interdependence of national economies across the world through a rapid increase in cross-border movement of goods, services, technology, and capital. Process of increasing economic integration, leading to the emergence of a global marketplace. ▪ Cultural Globalization: The transference of ideas, meanings and values around the world in a way that extends and intensifies social relations. Involves the formation of shared knowledge with which people associate their individual and collective cultural identities. Religions were among the earliest cultural elements to globalize. ▪ Political Globalization: Globalization may reduce the importance of nation states. Supranational institutions like EU, WTO, G8 or the International Criminal Court may replace or extend national functions to facilitate international agreement. This could ultimately lead to a global union, based on the EU model.