Hinduism

​How are images worshipped?

How Are Images Worshipped? Images are honored as one would honor a superior or a guest in one's home. The images are given food, flowers, fine clothing, a refreshing bath, etc.

Avidya

Ignorance

Maya

Illusion In the Vedas, refers to the magical power the gods used to make the world

What does puja mean?

In Hindu worship (puja) 1. the devotee sees the divine image and 2. the devotee is seen by the deity present therein.

What are the roles of Krishna?

In the Bhagavad Gita One does not need to give up action to achieve Moksha Rather, one must give up the fruit of action

What does twice born mean?

In the Hindu social system, members of the three upper varnas, or social classes—the Brahmans (priests and teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors), and Vaishyas (merchants)—whose sacrament of initiation is regarded as a second or spiritual birth (Britannica.com).

What is Shaktism?

Is a major tradition of Hinduism, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered feminine and the Devi (goddess) is supreme. It includes a variety of goddesses, all considered aspects of the same supreme goddess (Wikipedia). See pg 113

Jnana

Knowledge or religious knowledge

Krishna

Krishna: The 8th avatar of Vishnu Usually portrayed as a child and a prankster Often shown playing the flute

Lakshmi

Lakshmi: Goddess of wealth and prosperity Vehicle: owl Wife of Vishnu Usually shown bestowing coins and flanked by elephants

Moksha

Liberation from samsara

​Shiva and his forms:

Lingham, Nataraja and Ardha-Nari-IshvaraLingham, Nataraja and Ardha-Nari-Ishvara Shiva is often depicted as the lingham. Shiva, depicted as the Lord of the (cosmic) Dance, is called Nataraja in South India. Shiva is also depicted as Ardha-Nari-Ishvara (Half-Woman-God)

Some Upanishads also identify OM with what?

Four states of consciousness: A - waking consciousness U - dreaming consciousness M - deep sleep without dreaming consciousness AUM - oneness with Brahman In later Hinduism tbensludns are associated with the trimurti gods and the creating, preserving, and destroying of the universe...

Atman (Hinduism)

From "at" which means "to breathe" The True self (in Advaita Vedanta, the true self identical with Brahman) The eternal souls; one's true nature; God with in (Bhakti/devotion)

Brahman

From "brh" which means "to expand" ; "greater than all greatest" The ultimate principle of the universe: impersonal; above the Gods The absolute reality or all-pervasive supreme principle of the universe

Ganesha

Ganesh(a): God of the intellect and the remover of obstacles Vehicle: mouse Son of Shiva & Parvati Has an elephant's head Shiva's son - elephant-headed God who removes obstacles Ganesha is one of the most popular Gods in Hinduism. For the devout Hindu, no new project or venture is begun without paying homage to Ganesha.

What are the essential teachings of Hinduism?

God is one and many The many gods are all manifestations of the supreme Brahman, which is pure consciousness and pervades all things God is manifest in nature Realization that the soul or Atman is one with god is the basis of enlightenment

Dayananda Saraswati

Hindu reformer who focused on the purification of Hinduism by returning to the vedas Rejected the epics and the Puranas as departures from the purity of the Vedas and spoke out against all aspects of Temple tradition, image worship, and pilgrimage Founded the Arya Samaj (the Noble Community) which condemned child marriage and untouchability, and promoted equality of women Rejected social hierarchies as Jati and thought Varna should be decided based upon one's character in a public examination

Ramakrishna

Hindu that proclaimed oneness of all religions A devotee and temple priest of the goddess Kali As a young man, RK prayed for and then experienced a vision of Kali as an ocean of blissful light Devoted himself to spiritual exercises drawn frommmany religious traditions: Vaishnavism, Advaita Vedanta, Tantrism, Islamic Sufism, & Roman Catholicism All of which deepene his sense of identity with the divine and served as the basis for teaching that all religions are directed toward the experience of a god who creates religions to suit spiritual needs and tastes of different peoples

Know that with Bhakti, the ultimate with attributes, Ishvara (usually translated ​​​ God or Lord) is available not only as avataras, but also in images.

Historically, with the onset of image worship, the ultimate with attributes, Ishvara, God, is available, not only as avataras, descents (what Westerners call incarnations), but also in images.

How do Hindu regard the divine images?

How Do Hindus Regard Divine Images? Two principal attitudes regarding images: 1. Focusing on images is a means of concentration; a device for focusing in meditation. 2. The properly consecrated image is the real embodiment of the deity. During the Temple pujas, the God or Goddess is invited to take a seat in the image.

What are the Ramayana and Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita?

Ramayana: the journey of Rama Pg 108 Dharma Mahabharata: composer of over 100,000 verses, longest epic poem in the world Deeply concerned with issues of Dharma Bhagavad Gita: regarded as the most significant philosophical work in Hinduism - one does not have to give up action to achieve Moksha, rather, one must give up the fruit 🍉 of action "desireless action" Emphasizes the concept of Bhakti (devotion)

Samsara

Rebirth/reincarnation The cycle of life and death The cosmic rat 🐀 race That which is ruled by karma Transmigration of souls

There are four Vedas:

Rig, Sama, Yajur, & Atharva

The Vedic Age

Ritual was the ultimate importance in Vedic times - rites of sacrifice were performed to sustain cosmic order and please gods Pouring of offerings in a sacrificial fire 🔥 as Vedic hymns were recited fore altars were quite elaborate but it was a very mobile or portable religion with no fixed buildings or icons, and with sacred knowledge maintained by priests Fire considered a god 🔥 Agni - mouth of gods and gateway to celestial realms, offerings magically transported to whichever god invoked Indra - god of thunder and lightning 🌩 and the virile god of fertility Later addressed as comical Many of the Vedic gods continue to play a part in the later Hindu pantheon (but endure only in subordinate status) Later on, philosophy vegan supplanting Vedic sacrifice - hymns began to go from emphasis on myth, cosmology, and sacrifice to philosophy and introspection Late Vedic hymns mark the transition to what would be the philosophical revolution of the speculative texts known and the Upanishads (An era when contemplative and philosophical reflection became more widespread - wandering, ascetic, simpler lives...)

What is the problem portrayed in the Advaita Vedanta?

The problem is that: we think we are entrapped in samsara, but this is false, an illusion (maya) caused by ignorance (avidya) Actually we are entrapped by our ignorant perceptions about the nature of reality - the problem is a mental error I.e. driving on a hot, dry, sunny day ☀️ and see water 💧 ahead... this is a mirage and if turn our car 🚗 around we act out of ignorance bc we are mistaking an illusion for reality

Gandhi and the Struggle for Indian Independence

Mohandas Karamchand Ghandi, a towering religious, political, and social reformer in India, recast many Hindu ideas in the service of the fight for Indian independence English educated lawyer and deeply religious man Gandhi's political career began in South Africa, where he worked as a lawyer Characterized nonviolent resistance as satyagrapha "grasping the truth" and explained hatntis strength lay in converting wrongdoers to justice rather than striving to coerce them 1915 - joined Indian independence movement Influenced by Henry Thoreau he advocated Civil Disobedience Fasting and celibacy to discipline the body Established an Ashram or place of religious seclusion to train freedom fighters Criticized certain Hindu beliefs and practices in particular the Varnasharma Dharma Worked to abolish untouchability, calling them Harijans "children of god" & sought to improve status of women Revered as a saint or Mahatma "great soul" Sought to reconcile Hinduism and Islam murdered by Nathan Godse in 1948 bc he was "too accommodating of Muslims" Godse later executed despite Ghandi's sons pleas... Indian independence in 1947 - India and Pakistan

What does "All is one" refer to?

Monism The Brahman/Atman of which we are a part Such is the true nature of reality When we know this, all karma and samsara will cease and we will have achieved the ultimate goal of Moksha (liberation)

Advaita Vedanta

One of Hinduism's philosophical schools; the emphasis is on the oneness of reality Diagnosis of the human situation is that we think our Reality involves endless suffering, when this is actually an illusion fueled by our ignorance The pathways to liberation are action (karma), knowledge (jnana), and devotion (Bhakti) Our goals are moksha or simply a better rebirth...

Whist is the earliest of the Vedas compositions?

The hymns of the Rig Veda Rig means the verses of praise Veda means knowledge in the sense of 'true religious knowledge' The Rig Veda contains over 1,000 (1,028) hymns of praise to the gods and goddesses of the Aryan Pantheon, such as Indra (the warrior deity and god of thunder and rain 🌧 ) & Agni (the god of fire 🔥 and sacrifice)

​Know that Karma Yoga/Marga is?

The pathway of unselfish action and the goal is usually a better rebirth.

Brahma (Do not confuse Brahma with Brahman or the Brahmins.) and

Brahma: The Creator Vehicle: swan Has 4 heads, 4 arms, and a reddish complexion Not commonly worshipped Not to be confused with Brahman (the ground of all being) or the Brahmin (priestly caste) (1) Brahma = Creator (no longer very important) His wife Sarasvati, Goddess of wisdom and learning, is still important.

Saguna Brahman

Brahman with attributes; called Ishvara = Lord The manifestations of the ultimate as personal gods and goddesses Although words cannot define what Brahman is, they do describe its glorious attributes as: Absolute existence (sat) Absolute knowledge (cit) Absolute bliss (ananda) Satcitananda

Brahman Nirguna

God without attributes and formless. Of Nirguna Brahman one can only say: Neti Neti = Not this, Not that Indescribable in human language and concepts According to the Taitiriya Upanishads, to know Brahman is to enter a new state of consciousness; this state cannot be described

Goddesses are often called?

Goddesses are often called Devi (Goddess) or Shakti (power or female cosmic energy).

Gods are called?

Gods are called Deva.

Hanuman

Hanuman: An ape-like god known for assisting Rama

What did Ghandi call the Dalits?

Harijans or "Children of God"

The Advaita Vedanta holds that?

Our mental error is in thinking that what is unreal is real and what is temporary and short-lived is eternal and everlasting, and that what is only one reality is many... We think we are independent selves (another maya based on avidya)

Parvati who is also known as Uma, Durga or Kali

Parvati: The Divine Mother Vehicle: lion The reincarnation of Shiva's first wife has many forms, such as the popular Durga and Kali Often shown together with Saraswati and Lakshmi as the tridevi ('triple goddess')

What are the two principal attitudes regarding images among Hindus?

Two principal attitudes regarding images: 1. Focusing on images is a means of concentration; a device for focusing in meditation. 2. The properly consecrated image is the real embodiment of the deity. ***During the Temple pujas, the God or Goddess is invited to take a seat in the image.***

Monism (all is one)

That Art Thou Non-Theistic Advaita (non-dualistic) Vedanta (End of the Vedas; that is, the final meaning of the Hindu scriptures) Advaita Vedanta is the philosophy that dominates all the other religious philosophies in India. This pathway is primarily based on the Upanishads. The goal of this pathway is the coming to awareness that Atman is Brahman (the cosmic oneness). Such awareness brings knowledge of the true nature of the self (Atman) and of the true nature of reality, the Brahman/Atman of which we are a part. All is one (Monism). When we know this, all karma and samsara will cease. We will have achieved the ultimate goal of moksha (liberation). The problem is ignorance (avidya). Mental error is at the root of human suffering and evil. The solution is transforming knowledge (jnana). Such knowledge is the direct experience of ultimate reality (Brahman/Atman).

A Jati is?

A further classification of the caste system... thousands of subcastes called Jatis Jati literally means "birth group" Usually, a Jati is composed of an endogamous group.... One can marry within Jati communities that are equal in social and ritual status but not into a Jati above or below one's own position

Dharma comes close to our Western concept of religion, but it does not cover the entire ​​tradition of what we call Hinduism. Why?

Although the word dharma comes close to our western concept of religion, it does not cover all that is sacred to Hindus. For Hinduism, Dharma can mean law, duty, righteousness, or even "religion," all of which have to do with living in a way that upholds cosmic and social order Dharma is traditionally believed to have been divinely revealed to the Rishis, the poet-sages who composed the Vedas Most Hindus are tolerant of other religions. At times, other religions are made a part of Hinduism. For example, many Hindus consider the Buddha an avatara (descent) of the God Vishnu. According to the Vedas, Truth is one; sages call it by different names.

Who was Vivekananda?

Among RK's disciples was Narendranath Datta, a former law student 👨‍🎓 who took monastic vows during RK's last days and then known as Swami Vivekananda - the founder of Ramakrishna Math, an order for monks devoted to the teachings of RK Swami Vivekananda had an enormous impact on the representation of Hinduism in the West, particularly the US In 1893, he visited the US to speak on behalf of Hinduism at he world parliament of religions in Chicago He quoted the Bhagavad Gita and represented Hinduism as a tolerant and universal religion Like his teacher Ramakrishna, Vivekananda asserted that al religions are true and his stirring speech was a milestone in changing Western attitudes toward Hinduism His speech also ensured fame and popularity and he went on to establish the Vedanta society of NYC

What is an avatar?

An incarnation of a God, a Descent... God descends to the earth with the specific goal of aiding the world *Avatar(a) comes from "tri" = to cross and from "ava" = down; hence descent.

The Four Stages of Life

Another main aspect of the Varnashrama Dharma system: Ashrama - "stage of life" 1) The Student 2) The Householder 3) The Forest-Dwelling Hermit 4) The Renouncer (Sannyasi) Repay the 3 debts of life: - To the ancient seers (By studying the revealed texts known as the Vedas) - To the gods (by making offerings as a householder) - To the ancestors (By having a son - again, as a householder - who will continue the ancestral line) Student - main duty is to acquire a sufficient understanding of the Vedas; - Clothing, subjects, length of schooling differ for each casteClothing, subjects, length of schooling differ for each caste Housholder - upon getting married; duties include supporting those in the other 3 stages of life; - All are obligated to marry and to start a household (main goals are Dharma, Artha, Kama) Hindus in the last 2 stages are concerned with attaining Moksha by first detaching from, and then renouncing the world - Retired Person - "Forest-dweller"; Hermit - Sannyasin = to give up Ascetic or Renounced One Not really a stage as in today's Hinduism. Anyone at any time may become an ascetic or renounced one.

Tantra

Another new system of thought and practice Made use of symbols, rituals, yogic postures, breathing techniques, mantras, and other spiritual practices - sometimes in shocking and forbidden ways - tantra offered liberation from samsara Tantra means loom and assumes an. Interweaving and interconnected was of all things Spiritual practices are said to give them he ability to manipulate or channel the energy associated with pure consciousness in order to gain liberation For them, Moksha can be found in the midst of everyday experience Transgressive rituals and ritual consumption of meats, fish, & wine, and ritual sex with lower caste members (to break through the narrow confines of what one assumes the self to be) Became increasingly secretive as it gained popularity

Bhakti is available to:

Anyone, regardless of caste or gender, admits only requirement is devotion

Caste and Bhakti

Bhakti mvmt had a far reaching impact bc it was egalitarian, revolutionary, and frequently anti-Brahmin Bhakti poet saints represented a variety of caste backgrounds Used other languages rather than Sanskrit (language of Vedas and priestly authorities) Used Tamil, Kannada, Marathi (early form of Hindi) Bhakti poets asserted caste order and circumstances of birth did not determine ones access to god - the quality of ones surrender to god is what mattered Bhagavad Gita has similar ideas except that it emphasized the persons duty to their caste... Bhakti says ones sole duty is perfect surrender to god

What is Darshana?

Darshana = Seeing

Why is the sound OM important.

Divine Reality as Sound: The primordial sound OM (or more literally AUM) is constituted of three sounds of he Sanskrit language: A, U, & M - the first two vowels, the last a consonant OM therefore encompasses all words and all things they represent OM is the sound through which the universe is manifested and thus the very expression of Brahman

Know the two main holidays -Divali (Diwali) and Holi

Diwali - 5 Day Festival of Lights celebrated in October Oil lamps set on doorsteps and window ledges, floating lamps as offerings in rivers and reservoirs to signify triumph of good over evil Fireworks on the night of the New Moon - when Lakshmi is worshipped 3rd day marks the end of the Harvest Seasonand Lakshmi Puja is performed to thank the goddess for the abundance she has given New clothes are worn and gifts exchanged Holi - Spring Festival - always celebrated at the vernal equinox Hinduism's most colorful Holiday Feb or March - 2 days 1st night: bonfires lit, coconuts offered as sacrifice 2nd night: carnival celebration with social and gender hierarchies temporarily inverted... crowds of young and old in streets... spraying colored water and staining one another with brightly colored powders

Durga

Durga: A fiercer form of Parvati Vehicle: tiger Has ten arms holding many weapons

You do need to learn what is under E. Yoga. NEED TO KNOW THIS:

E. Yoga • A mental, moral, and physical discipline that aids one in liberating the self by assisting the mind in an effort to concentrate. It consists of ethical principles such as ahimsa (non-injury), special postures, breath control, repetition of mantras, and meditation. Raja Yoga contains eight steps. Note: Usually the way of knowledge is practiced with yoga, asceticism, and study with a guru

Early Hindu Encounters with Islam and Rule Under the Mughal Dynasty

Earliest encounter was initiated by the raids of Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan) in the early 11th century Repeatedly raided the subcontinent's day annexed states headed by Hindu, Buddhist m, and Jain Kings Looted and destroyed the temple of Shiva on Somnath (1025) more than 50,000 of the Temple defenders were killed, and it wealth taken to Ghazni... Hindus forced to convert to Islam ... centuries of oppression and persecution under Muslim rule Under the Mughals.. a complex relationship existed between Hinduism and Islam... Some Mughal emperors were hostile while other encouraged dialogue (ie Akbar who understood non Muslims as subjects rather than infidels, coutned Hindu kings 👑 among his closest advisors and married their daughters to cement political alliances Under the Mughals conversion of Hinduism to Islam did not appear forced also some Muslims converted to Hinduism Tulsidas wrote the Ramacharitmanas - epic retelling of the original Sanskrit Ramayana in Hindi Kabir composed poetry that combined Hindu and Islamic philosophical ideas while at the same time critiquing the social policies of Hindu and Muslim rulers

Rama

Rama: The 7th avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu The central figure in the epic story Ramayana

Karma

Actions; deeds The law of karma determines one's rebirth

What does Sanatana Dharma mean, and how is it used?

Sanatana Dharma = The Ancient or Eternal Pathway It is used for an Ethical Society and the Realization of the Ultimate

What is the solution portrayed in the Advaita Vedanta?

The solution is religious knowledge Jnana

What is the principle issue of the Advaita Vedanta?

"How can our Atman (our true, eternal nature) escape samsara?"

Bindi:

"drop" Decorative mark on the forehead signifying auspiciousness Additional dot for married women Shiva mark - 3rd eye Vishnu V - w/ Red drop of grace for Lakshmi

Who is Vishnu?

(2) Vishnu = Preserver, God of love, compassion, and forgiveness. Devotion to Vishnu [Ramayanas] includes his wife Lakshmi (also called Sri and in South India, Bhu, the Goddess Earth) and his avatars*(descents) such as Krishna and Rama. Krishna's consort is called Radha. Rama's wife is Sita. Vishnu's devotees are called Vaishnavites.

Shiva

(3) Shiva = Destroyer (also Creator in the sense that an egg must be destroyed for a bird to be born) Of these three deities, Shiva is the most popular. Worshippers of Shiva are called Shaivites. Shiva is often depicted as the lingham. Shiva, depicted as the Lord of the (cosmic) Dance, is called Nataraja in South India. Shiva is also depicted as Ardha-Nari-Ishvara (Half-Woman-God) Devotion to Shiva includes his wife and his two sons. Shiva's wife Parvati is also called Uma, Durga, or Kali. Goddesses are often called Devi (Goddess) or Shakti (power or female cosmic energy). Shiva's sons are Ganesh(a) (elephant-headed God who removes obstacles) and Kumara. Ganesha is one of the most popular Gods in Hinduism. For the devout Hindu, no new project or venture is begun without paying homage to Ganesha.

What does the word trimurti mean?

*Trimurti comes from the word for three and from the word "murt" = to form or make solid; hence embodiment.

What is the key to action?

1. The Way of Action [Karma Yoga or Marga] The Way of Action (participation, works) [Karma (action) Yoga (discipline) or Marga (way or path)] is based on Laws of Manu, 200 B.C.E.-200 C.E. The Laws of Manu are a part of the Dharmashastras, books of moral duties, rules, or laws. This is the pathway of unselfish action. Usually, the goal of this pathway is a better rebirth gained by fully participating in religion and society. According to the Bhagavad Gita, persons must fulfill their dharma (duty) as set forth in their caste and stage in life. Krishna tells the warrior Arjuna that he must fight for what is right because that is his duty as a Kshatriya (a member of the warrior caste). Because human beings cannot avoid acting, the key is to act in such a way that one is not attached to the results of one's actions. One should do one's duty (dharma), not out of fear of punishment or hope of reward, but simply because it is one's duty.

Karma Marga/Yoga

1. The Way of Action [Karma Yoga or Marga] The Way of Action (participation, works) [Karma (action) Yoga (discipline) or Marga (way or path)] is based on Laws of Manu, 200 B.C.E.-200 C.E. The Laws of Manu are a part of the Dharmashastras, books of moral duties, rules, or laws. This is the pathway of unselfish action. Usually, the goal of this pathway is a better rebirth gained by fully participating in religion and society. According to the Bhagavad Gita, persons must fulfill their dharma (duty) as set forth in their caste and stage in life. Krishna tells the warrior Arjuna that he must fight for what is right because that is his duty as a Kshatriya (a member of the warrior caste). Because human beings cannot avoid acting, the key is to act in such a way that one is not attached to the results of one's actions. One should do one's duty (dharma), not out of fear of punishment or hope of reward, but simply because it is one's duty. One's dharma or duties in life are determined by one's a. Caste (varna)* and subcaste or birthgroup (jati)* b. Stage in life c. Goals to be achieved The caste system, once flexible, was inflexible by about 500 BCE

There are two phases. What are they?

1. The worship of a personal God, [Brahman with attributes (saguna), Ishvara, the Supreme in its concreteness]. This worship brings spiritual reality into focus. It is the place to begin one's spiritual quest. 2. The move beyond a personal God to the higher experience of oneness with Brahman, the all pervasive principle of the universe, absolute or ultimate reality, (Brahman, nirguna, without attributes or qualities; beyond human conceptualization).

​Where and when did Bhakti begin and to whom was it open?

118 Under The Guptas in Southern India during the 6th and 9th centuries TO EVERYONE!!

The way of knowledge—What is the major issue between the various philosophies?

2. The Way of Knowledge [Jnana (knowledge) Yoga or Marga] Major Issue: How closely linked are the Ultimate and the visible world?

Bhakti Marga/Yoga

3. Way of Devotion [Bhakti Yoga or Marga] The Way of Devotion [Bhakti Yoga or Marga] is based on the Bhagavad Gita (500-200 BCE) and on other devotional writings such as the Puranas and the Ramayanas. With the Bhagavad Gita, there is a shift in Hindu religious thought. Whereas the sages of the Upanishads were reluctant to describe Brahman, in the Gita, Krishna reveals himself to Arjuna. Here Krishna (avatara of Vishnu) is the ultimate. Personal, caring, and filled with love for humankind, Vishnu descends to earth periodically to protect human beings. The Bhakti movement began in the Tamil speaking region of South India around the sixth century. It is the most widely practiced type of Hinduism in the modern period. Bhakti is open to women and people of all castes.

​Learn why, with the Bhagavad Gita, there is a shift in Hindu religious thought.

3. Way of Devotion [Bhakti Yoga or Marga] The Way of Devotion [Bhakti Yoga or Marga] is based on the Bhagavad Gita (500-200 BCE) and on other devotional writings such as the Puranas and the Ramayanas. With the Bhagavad Gita, there is a shift in Hindu religious thought. Whereas the sages of the Upanishads were reluctant to describe Brahman, in the Gita, Krishna reveals himself to Arjuna. Here Krishna (avatara of Vishnu) is the ultimate. Personal, caring, and filled with love for humankind, Vishnu descends to earth periodically to protect human beings. The Bhakti movement began in the Tamil speaking region of South India around the sixth century. It is the most widely practiced type of Hinduism in the modern period. Bhakti is open to women and people of all castes.

Forms of Puja (Worship):

Arati: offering lightlamp fuled with ghee or camphor lit and waved in closkwise manner in fornt of the deity 5 flames - 5 elements: earth, water, fire, air, ether Return object to auspiciousness At end of ritual: wave hands over fire and touch foreheads - taking divine light into their innermost being Mantra: recitation of mantras to produce spiritual effect Reasons: to heighten awareness of God, to enhance efficacy of an offering, to aid in practice of meditation, to produce some magical effect Usually but not always in Sanskrit OM is prominent throughout Hinduism Sacrifice: Fire sacrifice - an essential component of Hinduism since Vedic times... Usually involves building an altar, kindling a fire, feeding it with Ghee, and casting auspicious offerings (milk, cereals, fruits, flowers, etc) into the fire while chanting mantras Usually performed by a Brahmin priest but can be any married upper-caste man In Vedic period, sacrifice was essential to maintaining cosmic order Upanishads diminish importance of sacrifice... Bhagavad Gita assures surrender of the fruit of action as the true meaning and purpose fo sacrifice... *Once animals, then fruit (pumpkins & coconuts as substitutes for animals)

The human situation is characterized by suffering because we think that our true self or eternal soul called ______________ is entrapped in the cosmic rat race called __________________________ which is fueled by _____________________ . This, however, is an illusion called ______________. We are deluded by our ignorance called ______________________. What we need is religious knowledge called _________________ .​ According to Advaita Vedanta, the true nature of reality and of our self is that our true self is one with the ultimate principle of the universe called ____________________ . Once we know this, we reach liberation called ____________________.​​

Atman Samsara Karma Maya Avidya Brahman Moksha

​Be aware that there are dualistic non-theistic, theistic, and monotheistic ​pathways with different goals and understandings of the universe: You do not ​​need to learn them

B. Dualism - That Art Not Thou - Non-Theistic Samkhya ("discriminative knowledge"), non-theistic School of Philosophy One of the earliest schools of Philosophy, it diverged both from the Vedas and from the Upanishads. In this school of thought there are two categories of being: 1. Matter or the material world (prakriti) 2. Souls or spirits (purusha) that are constantly transmigrating throughout the cosmos • Both are real (neither is maya) • Souls are not part of the Brahman-Atman, but independent and eternal. • The universe is filled with an infinite number of independent souls. • Souls (purusha) are permanent, the material world (prakriti) is not. • When the human intellect comes to see (in a moment of insight or awakening) the essential difference between the soul and the material world, liberation is achieved. • Then the soul or spirit (purusha) is free to pass into an eternal, unearthly existence spoken of as "final isolation."

Be able to match the names of the castes and the goals in life to their Sanskrit transliteration.

Brahmin - Priests - Teachers - Advisors to Rulers Kshatriya - Rulers - Kings, princes, - Warriors Vaishya - "The People" - Agriculturalists, - Merchants - Traders Shudra: Servants of the Upper three castes - Gardeners - Musicians - Artisans - Barbers

Colonial Critique and Hindu Reformers

British East India Company - took over Irish general in Bengal Army Charles Stuart - aka Hindoo Stuart Wrote "vindication of the hindoos" To discourage support for British missionaries seeking to convert Hindus to Christianity Allegorical piety, morality tales, moral allegory Many felt Hinduism was a primitive and backward religion Hindu reformers Ram Mohan Roy - believed that British rule offered India considerable opportunity for progress Devoted his life to religious, social, and educational reform Particularly concerned with polygamy, dowry, and practice of Sati (immolation of widows) Abolition of Sati - illegal in 1829 (Brahmo Samaj - community of Brahman worshippers)

cont.

C. Ramanuja's qualified Non-Dualism [Vishisht-Advaita], Theistic, That Art Thou but. . . . Ramanuja objected to two features of Shankara's system: 1. His absolute monism 2. His doctrine of maya (illusion) • A real relationship with God, implies some differentiation between the individual and God. • How can one worship something identical to one's self? The God, Vishnu, to which Ramanuja was devoted was the sustainer of the universe with attributes such as compassion and grace. • God could not be seen, therefore, as nirguna Brahman (The Ultimate without qualities. ) • Ramanuja used an analogy of body and soul to express both the underlying unity between God and the world while at the same time leaving room for a crucial difference. • The physical world, individual souls, and ultimate reality are each real (not maya) though indivisible. • They are the forms through which a personal Ultimate Reality, the God Vishnu, manifests himself. • God is the Inner Controller who brings the individual to liberation, a proximity to God in the entire universe. • For Ramanuja, Vishnu is Brahman, "omniscient, all-pervading, all-powerful, all-loving, and merciful" • The goal of those who devote themselves to Vishnu is not absorption into an impersonal absolute but an enjoyment of Vishnu's presence in heaven.

cont.

D. Madhva's Dualism (Dvaita) Vedanta - That Art Not Thou, Monotheistic • This view is monotheistic. There are distinctions between souls and between souls and God. • The individual soul, therefore, is not one with the ultimate. • The cosmos is likened to a huge group of fish, each swimming independently, yet under the overall guidance of God. • Liberated souls will enjoy eternal bliss with God (Others are doomed to hell or endless transmigration).

Why do Westerners need to understand darshana in order to understand​ Bhakti?

Darshana = Seeing For Westerners to understand Bhakti, devotional Hinduism, we need to understand the concept of darshana, seeing (religious). In Hindu worship (puja) 1. the devotee sees the divine image and 2. the devotee is seen by the deity present therein. Worship is not just prayers and offerings, but it is seeing and being seen by God. Seeing the image is an act of worship in which the person gains the blessings of the divine. • The divine is visible everywhere; in images, people, nature, etc. Understanding the context, helps Westerners, appreciate the great variety of images one sees in devotional Hinduism. • India is filled with many different colors, sounds, odors, and tastes (variety of foods). India is a place where all of one's senses are awakened. • In worshipping, the devotees use their many senses: one sees and touches the divine image, one rings or hears bells, smells incense, offers oil lamps, present and the eats consecrated food. How Do Hindus Regard Divine Images? Two principal attitudes regarding images: 1. Focusing on images is a means of concentration; a device for focusing in meditation. 2. The properly consecrated image is the real embodiment of the deity. During the Temple pujas, the God or Goddess is invited to take a seat in the image. Historically, with the onset of image worship, the ultimate with attributes, Ishvara, God, is available, not only as avataras, descents (what Westerners call incarnations), but also in images. How Are Images Worshipped? Images are honored as one would honor a superior or a guest in one's home. The images are given food, flowers, fine clothing, a refreshing bath, etc.

The Indus River Valley Civilization

Developed on the River Indus which flows through modern Pakistan 2300-2000 BCE Had thriving cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro - high standards of living Trade with regions far away like Mesopotamia - Vast number of stone seals * ProtoShiva seal is most important (male figure, buffalo headdress, yoga ‍♂️ posture, surrounded by animals , appears to have 3 faces) Sudden decline in Indus Valley Civilization... collapse in 1300 BCE Climate change disrupting agriculture as well as migration of the Aryans

What is the Harappa Civilization?

Developed on the River Indus which flows through modern Pakistan 2300-2000 BCE Had thriving cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro - high standards of living Trade with regions far away like Mesopotamia - Vast number of stone seals * ProtoShiva seal is most important (male figure, buffalo headdress, yoga ‍♂️ posture, surrounded by animals , appears to have 3 faces) Sudden decline in Indus Valley Civilization... collapse in 1300 BCE Climate change disrupting agriculture as well as migration of the Aryans

The Development of the Bhakti

Devotional aspects of Hinduism became increasingly popular under the Guptas but took on a new life under the form of the ecstatic movement of Bhakti - spread all over India By the 12th century Bhakti had taken on a new role: becoming a weapon wielded against caste and gender prejudice Often rejected 🙅 ritual and temple based worship, insisting that the body itself is a temple and that God dwells in every individual

Be able to match the names of the castes and the goals in life to their Sanskrit transliteration. cont.

Dharma - From "dhr" = to sustain - That which sustains the divinely ordained society - Virtue, Morality, - Caste related duties -- both social and ritual Artha - Material success - The attaining of wealth and power Kama - Pleasure - Aesthetic enjoyment of art, music, sex, dance, poetry, drama Moksha - Release through: Knowledge, Discipline (yoga), Devotion to God, - Liberation or release from: samsara and earthly suffering

What can dharma mean?

Dharma can mean righteousness, justice, faith, duty, and a religious and social obligation.

The Four Aims of Life

Dharma: From "dhr" = to sustain That which sustains the divinely ordained society Virtue, Morality, Caste related duties -- both social and ritual Artha: Material success The attaining of wealth and power Kama: Pleasure Aesthetic enjoyment of art, music, sex, dance, poetry, drama -------------------------------------------- Moksha: Release through: - Knowledge, Jnana - Discipline (yoga), Action - Devotion to God, Bhakti Liberation or release from: samsara and earthly suffering Pure freedom into an indescribable existence.

​What are the Dharmashastras and the Laws of Manu?

Dharmashastras = (earliest may date from 400 B.C.E.) teachings regarding dharma or social and ritual duty Manava Dharmashastra or Laws of Manu ( 200 B.C.E.- 200 C.E.) Codes of conduct concerning every important aspect of life in ancient India -------------------------------------------- The Way of Action [Karma Yoga or Marga] The Way of Action (participation, works) [Karma (action) Yoga (discipline) or Marga (way or path)] is based on Laws of Manu, 200 B.C.E.-200 C.E. The Laws of Manu are a part of the Dharmashastras, books of moral duties, rules, or laws. This is the pathway of unselfish action. Usually, the goal of this pathway is a better rebirth gained by fully participating in religion and society. According to the Bhagavad Gita, persons must fulfill their dharma (duty) as set forth in their caste and stage in life. Krishna tells the warrior Arjuna that he must fight for what is right because that is his duty as a Kshatriya (a member of the warrior caste). Because human beings cannot avoid acting, the key is to act in such a way that one is not attached to the results of one's actions. One should do one's duty (dharma), not out of fear of punishment or hope of reward, but simply because it is one's duty.

The Gita says that:

It is possible to achieve Moksha by being active in the world, provided that, through selfless devotion, one surrenders clinging to the expectation of any particular result

Kali

Kali: Goddess of time and death Another form of Parvati Vehicle: donkey Usually portrayed as dark and violent

Essential teachings of Hinduism

Karma: law of cause and effect Samsara: endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth Moksha: liberation from samsara through realization that god is all things Renunciation: giving up attachment purifies oneself and helps one realize the true relationship between soul and god

Based on the Advaita Vedanta, What is the nature of our Atman or true selves?

Our Atman, (our true, eternal self) is one with all other true, eternal selves and all, in turn, are one with Brahman, the ultimate principle of the universe

Hindus are devoted to numerous manifestations of other deities (Some say 330 million).

Names vary in different parts of India with its many different languages. Remember all of these Gods and Goddesses are all manifestations of the one God, Brahman, the Ultimate with attributes.

According to the pathway of unselfish action, one's dharma or duties in life are determined by one's (1 point per line) 1. _____________________________and ____________________ 2. _______________________________________ 3. _______________________________________

One's dharma or duties in life are determined by one's 1. Caste (varna)* and subcaste or birthgroup (jati)* 2. Stage in life 3. Goals to be achieved

What determines one's dharma or duty in life?

One's dharma or duties in life are determined by one's a. Caste (varna)* and subcaste or birthgroup (jati)* b. Stage in life c. Goals to be achieved The caste system, once flexible, was inflexible by about 500 BCE

The Age of the Guptas

Period of remarkable creativity The Guptas ruled much of Northern India, and patronized the arts, sciences, religion, and literature Relative peace and prosperity called the Golden Age of India 🇮🇳 The epics took on their definitive forms and the Puranas were compiled Religious tolerance Guptas were Hindus and promoted Hinduism and sought to organize society in accordance with Hindu beliefs Vishnu and Shiva worship became more popular Shift form open air sacrificial altars to worship in temples Spread of Bhakti and the emerging devotional sects With the Sanskrit epics, very significant religious development of the rise of devotional Hinduism

Hindu Forms of Worship:

Puja - commonly used to describe worship in Hinduism - making an offering to the deity - simple or elaborate - washing, clothing, greeting, prostrating, similar gestures - offered almost anywhere - home shrine, tmep,e, pilgrimage sites, sacred trees/rivers, roadside shrines, within temporary structures specially made for a specific rite Rituals carried out for: - love for the deity - rite of passage - holiday or festival celebration - asking for blessings - to create an atmosphere of peace and harmony - to propitiate the gods in times of trouble

Vedas and Upanishads

Sacred writings of Hinduism Vedas: "knowledge" (1500-500 BCE) Uncreated knowledge brought to India by the Aryans It became the infallible, eternal authority in all matters of teaching and practice Rig Veda: Mantras and Hymns 1,028 lyric hymns & prayers to one of 33 gods (devas) and goddesses (devi pr Shaktis) Upanishads (800-500 BCE) "Sitting near the foot of the guru devotedly" The secret or esoteric teaching of transcendental knowledge in speculative and philosophical treatises, also referred to as Vedanta (or the concluding sections of each of the four Vedas) which are preserved in 108 philosophical books

In what language are the Hindu scriptures written?

Sanskrit

Saravati

Saraswati: Goddess of knowledge, music, and the arts Vehicle: swan Wife of Brahma Sits on a white lotus playing a veena

Be aware that there are a number of Hindu ceremonies marking life's transitions.

See Pages 130 - 132 Rites of Passage: Boy's initiation Girl's first menstrual period Marriage Death

​Who was Shankara and how he did he see the path to liberation?

Shankara (788-820 C.E.), a Shaivite, was the most influential person in Vedanta. In order to deal with the problem of how to relate the self to the ultimate, Shankara spoke of truth and knowledge in terms of the ordinary or lower lever and of the higher level. It is on the lower level that maya and avidya operate. Maya causes one to think that the unreal is real, the temporary and short lived is eternal and everlasting, and the one reality is many. It is ignorance (avidya) regarding the true nature of reality that keeps one entrapped in samasara. Higher knowledge (jnana), however, rids one of avidya and maya and enables one to come to the awareness that reality is not samsara, but rather Brahman/Atman, the cosmic oneness. Such an awareness is compared to a vivid dream, which upon wakening, we know was not real. For Shankara, the path to liberation has two phases 1. The worship of a personal God, [Brahman with attributes (saguna), Ishvara, the Supreme in its concreteness]. This worship brings spiritual reality into focus. It is the place to begin one's spiritual quest. 2. The move beyond a personal God to the higher experience of oneness with Brahman, the all pervasive principle of the universe, absolute or ultimate reality, (Brahman, nirguna, without attributes or qualities; beyond human conceptualization).

Shaivism 112

Shiva is the destroyer while at the same time a benefactor He embodies the idea; of ascetic renunciation and a full and sensual participation in the material world Beyond being the god of spiritual insight and of yogis and ascetics, he is the god who destroys the universe at the end of time before a new cycle of creation can begin Most Shaivas worship Shiva as god with no beginning or end Some emphasize Shiva as a family man, to be venerated with his queen Parvati amd their two sons, Ganesha and Skanda usually depctied in mediation on a mountain with a tiger skin wrapped around his waist and wearing serpents for jewelry - His 3rd eye is turned inward in meditative contemplation - He waers a crescent moon and the holy river Ganges in his matted hair - Lingham - an abstract phallic symbol representing his creative potential

​What are the four stages of life?

Student - Clothing, subjects, length of schooling differ for each caste Householder -All are obligated to marry and to start a household Retired Person - "Forest-dweller" - Hermit Sannyasin = to give up - Ascetic or - Renounced One Not really a stage as in today's Hinduism. Anyone at any time may become an ascetic or renounced one.

From the Upanishads:

Tat tvam asi = That Art Thou Satya = Truth Atman = Self

Be sure that you are aware that there is no such thing as Hinduism. What do I mean?

That the term never existed originally • India is a country of many cultures and languages as well as many dharmas or religious pathways. • The term Hindu, taken from the word for the Indus River, was imposed upon the many different religious pathways of the Indian sub-continent by outsiders. • There is no single religious creed or dogma, religious leader, religious authority, or religious practice for the entire tradition that Westerners call Hinduism. • Although the word dharma comes close to our western concept of religion, it does not cover all that is sacred to Hindus. • Dharma can mean righteousness, justice, faith, duty, and a religious and social obligation. • Most Hindus are tolerant of other religions. At times, other religions are made a part of Hinduism. For example, many Hindus consider the Buddha an avatara (descent) of the God Vishnu. • According to the Vedas, Truth is one; sages call it by different names.

What does Shruti mean?

That which is heard or revealed The Shruti are texts of divine origin; they are still passed down orally today The sound itself is considered sacred Includes the Vedas and the Upanishads

What does Smirti mean?

That which is remembered or recalled Texts of human origin Reflection of the Vedas Includes the Dharmashastras The Laws of Manu The Puranas & The National Epics - Ramayana: the Epic of Vishnu as incarnate Rama who battles the demon King Ravana with the aid of Hanuman the monkey 🐒 god - Mahabharata: the Epic battle of the Abha rays families in which relatives dispute for political control over Northern India - Bhagavad Gita: "song of the Blessed One" book six of the Mahabharata; arranged in 700 2-line stanzas of 18 chapters in the form of a teaching dialogue between Lord Krishna and Arjuna

Who were the Aryans? What did they bring with them?

The Aryans (from the Sanskrit for "Nobles") Migrated between 2,000-1,500 BCE, from Central Asia through the mountains of Northern India between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea They were nomads and they rode horses 🐎 The Hindu traditions are thought to have developed from both indigenous religions that existed in India before Aryan migrated and the religious traditions that the Aryans brought The Aryans brought (in oral form) at least portions of what are called the Vedas, probably composed between 1,500-600 BCE

What are the Vedas?

The Aryans brought (in oral form) at least portions of what are called the Vedas, probably composed between 1,500-600 BCE The Vedas are still transmitted orally today by the priests who recite them on specific occasions The Vedas are the most sacred of Hindu scriptures

Who are the Dalits? What is their situation?

The Dalits = The Oppressed Outcastes, Untouchables Street-sweepers Leather workers Deal with dead bodies Clean toilets Pariah = Tamil

The Ganges is:

The Ganges (Ganga—a Goddess) in Varanasi The Most Sacred site for Hindus who are devotes of Shiva

Through the centuries Hindu texts have set forth ritual and social obligations that define a good life, explain:

The Laws of Manu, a classic juridical text from the period 200 BCE to 200 CE, contains detailed prescriptions for correct behavior in all aspects of life The Ramayana and the Mahabharata depict the simultaneous particularity and universality of Dharma Both epics present heroes that must resolve conflicts between social or family obligations and their own personal sense of what duty demands from them

The Caste System

The Sanskrit term Varna (lit. color) commonly translated as "caste" refers t a system of hierarchical social organization A more accurate way of expressing the meaning of Varna is through the English term "class" There are 4 main classes in Hindu Society: 1) Brahmin - the priestly class - Priests - Teachers - Advisors to Rulers 2) Kshatriya - the warrior and administrator class - Rulers - Kings, - Princes, - Warriors 3) Vaishya - the producer class (farmers and merchants) "The People" - Agriculturalists, - Merchants - Traders 4) Shudra - Servants of the Upper three castes: - Gardeners - Musicians - Artisans - Barbers Varna is determined at birth and is propagated through endogamy, or marriage only within a particular group The caste system and Varnashrama Dharma generally had traditionally been most important to the males of the 3 higher classes, the "twice-born" castes Outcasts...untouchables... 5) Dalits = The Oppressed Outcastes, Untouchables - Street-sweepers - Leather workers - Deal with dead bodies - Clean toilets Pariah = Tamil for drummer

Why does "Truth is one; sages call it by different names" tell us a great deal about Hinduism?

The Vedas say: Truth is one; sages call it by different names Hinduism has existed for centuries alongside of Jains, Buddhists, Parsees, Muslims, Sikhs, and Christians. Hindus see the various major religions as alternative pathways to the same God A major 19th century saint, Ramakrishna, says, "God has made different religions to suit different aspirations, times, and countries. All doctrines are only so many paths; but a path is by no means God... One can reach God if one follows any of the paths with whole-hearted devotion."

Jnana Marga/Yoga

The Way of Knowledge [Jnana (knowledge) Yoga or Marga] Major Issue: How closely linked are the Ultimate and the visible world? The Way of Knowledge [Jnana Yoga or Marga] is the philosophical pathway based largely on the Upanishads. The Upanishads, however, are not homogeneous works. Strands that supported a monistic view provided the basis for Advaita Vedanta. Theistic strands formed the basis of the theistic Vedanta of Ramanuja and Madhva.

​What is the major point of the box, "the West and India"?

The West and India One of the difficulties some Westerners have with the many images of Gods and Goddesses is what one psychologist has called our "monotheism of consciousness." Our thinking has been so shaped by the idea of singleness, one God, one Bible, one Christ, etc. that it carries over to our thinking about other things. Thus the independent personality is considered healthy, single-minded decision making is considered a strength, and the independent ego as "number one" is considered normal. One scholar observed that in part, the unity of India is its cultural genius for embracing diversity. In India, diversity usually unites rather than divides.

Purusha Sukta?

The first mention of the Varna in a poem known as the Purusha Sukta, an early Sanskrit poem in the Rig Veda Describes the primordial sacrifice of the Cosmic Man, and ascribes a mythological origin to the varna system 👄 ~ Brahmin 💪 ~ Kshatriya Thighs ~ Vaishya Feet ~ Shudra The Varnas are organized along a continuum of purity and pollution A person's sense of purity or pollution is determined by the degree of contact with substances that are considered polluting Caste system more prominent among those living in rural areas

​What are the Upanishads?

Thenupanishads, also known as Vedanta (end of the Vedas) are so distinctive from the earlier Vedic texts and so important as to deserve their own treatment in the book... Vedanta - the concluding portion of Vedic literature - implies for some Hindus - that the Upanishads contain the culmination of the Vedas Philosophical speculation on the nature of the divine, the self, and the world, and relationships between en them Upanishads also mark a new stage in the development of religious texts, having been composed in part by people for non-Brahmin backgrounds Describe for the first times the concepts of karma, samsara, reincarnation of the soul, and the souls immortality, which were initially closely guarded secrets

​Know the Hindu Pathways in English and Sanskrit Transliteration. ​​​​ For example "the Way of Action-- Karma Yoga/Marga"

Three paths to liberation: Karma Marga - For those engaged in the activities of family and career, emphasizes ritual and ethical works. Bhakti Marga - For the vast majority of Hindus who regularly worship in temples and in their homes Jnana Marga- For those privileged to devote time and energy on study and contemplation Focus on spiritual insight

The Sects of Hinduism

Vaishnavas, Shaivas, & Shaktas

Know what the words varna and jati are and why they are important.

Varna means "color" and refers to the caste or class to which a Hindu belongs there are 4 Jati can be any of 1000's of birth groups... one marries within their birth group. *Varna means color and may reflect the subordination of the dark-skinned indigenous India peoples by the light skinned Aryans. *Jati comes from "jan" which means "to be born."

Vishnu

Vishnu: The Preserver Vehicle: garuda (bird) Has 4 arms, a blueish complexion, and rests on a snake Was incarnated (born as an animal or human) nine times with one more still to come Is the main god of Vaishnavism

According to the Advaita Vedanta Reality is:

We suffer bc we think life is entrapped in samsara (cosmic rat race) which is fueled by karma (good or bad actions) Good karma: better rebirth Bad karma: worse rebirth No karma: no rebirth (Moksha: liberation)

Vaishnavism 111

Worship of Vishnu and his consort (wife) Lakshmi as supreme Vishnu mercifully intervenes in the world through his avatars (Rama in the Ramayana & Krishna in the Mahabharata) - Inseparable from Lakshmi the Goddess of auspiciousness and good fortune - Vishnu is the source of all existence and the "All pervading one" - Often depicted reclining with Lakshmi on a 1000 headed serpent Part of the Trimurti - the Preserver - For Vaishnavas, Vishnu is more than just preserver, he is the supreme god who performs all 3 roles of creator, preserver, and destroyer... Holds objects: in upper right hands, flaming discus - sun and omniscience upper left hand, whtie conch shell - moon and creativity lower RH, mace - power lower LH, lotus - purity Most Vaishnavas have a special devotion for Vishnu's avatars, Rama and Krishna

One's dharma or duties in life are determined by one's?

a. Caste (varna)* and subcaste or birthgroup (jati)* b. Stage in life c. Goals to be achieved The caste system, once flexible, was inflexible by about 500 BCE

Swastika:

p 126 Ancient solar symbol and denotes harmony, balance, and good fortune Venerated by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains

Shaktism 113

see page 113

OM

see page 126 for symbol

Yantra and Mandala

see page 127 for symbol...

The Aryans

semi-nomadic people from Europe, migrated south into India where the two cultures blended together. Sir William Jones described how Sanskrit, Latin, & Greek and several other ancient languages shared a common linguistic ancestor- these languages referred to as "Indo-European" and come from language called Proto-Indo-European Ancient speakers of Sanskrit moved to India around 1500 BCE and called themselves the Arya (those who are noble, cultivated, & civilized) Today are called Indo-Aryans or Aryans Horse and chariot, Warlike and nomadic, well prepared to call themselves the dominant elite Organized society into a 3 part structure - Established the Caste System - still fundamental in India today Eventually settled across northern India - left texts composed in Sanskrit - The Vedas