HIST 380 Quiz

Tanzimat Era

A "re-ordering" of the Empire, between 1839-1876, to try to make Empire appear more stable in light of "Eastern Question", carried out by bureaucrats rather than by Sultan, such as Mehmet Fuad Pasha, accepted contractual relationship with Ottoman subjects, introduction of uniform law. Introduced: Secular courts and state-run schools, Ottoman officials and soldiers change to European style dress. All in the aim of being accepted into European world of empire

Tax Farming

A means of Ottoman government to collect tax and raise quick revenue, sold to individuals the right to collect taxes from a particular area for a period of time and keep the revenue, led to decentralization of empire

Pan-Islamism

A movement that advocates that the entire Muslim world should form a unified political and cultural entity, this was used by Abdulhamid, who proclaims himself Caliph, sees this as a good counter to European imperialism, only way to unite all Ottomans, in context of lots of Islamic revivalism during 19th century

Young Turk Revolution (1908)

A revolt against Abdulhamid, forcing him to return Ottoman constitution, this in turn triggered many more local revolts across the Ottoman Empire, which leads to a violent response

Janissaries and Devshirme system

A slave soldier system used in the Ottoman Empire, beginning in 14th century boys taken from Christian villages as tribute, raised as Muslims in Ottoman court. trained for service of the Ottoman court, became Janissaries, an elite infantry, full time soldiers loyal to the Sultan, over time would gain more freedom, would stage multiple coups in order to protect their own interests

Hamidian Era (1878-1908)

Abdulhamid II more authoritarian, against representative institutions, centralizes empire, promotes pan-Islamic ideology, invests in transport projects, Hijaz Railway (opened in 1904), Berlin-Baghdad Railway (started in 1903), tram lines in Istanbul, Ottoman public spaces

Syrian Scientific Society (1857)

Academic society of Druze, Muslims and Christians, first time these conflicted parties brought together by national interest

Fly Whisk Incident

Algeria had been a largely self-governing region with entrenched Ottoman rule, Algeria supply grains to french in 1790s paid on credit, 1806 fiscal crisis in Algeria, they want repayment, 1827 visit by French emissary to Hussein Dey to talk about debts, Dey strikes the emissary over disagreements, this is used as excuse for French invasion in 1830, Algeria turned into a settler colonial state, many undesired French people (prisoners, dissidents, trouble makers) emigrate to Algeria

Deed of Agreement (1808)

Alliance between Ayans and Central State to aid each other in event of foreign invasion, Sultan recognizes power of Ayans, New Order army restored, first attempt to overhaul very centralized state, cooperation between Ayans and Sultan, reflects balance of power, would not last long due to another Janissary revolt

Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti

An Egyptian historian who records the attempts by the French during Napoleon's invasion to conciliate with the Egyptians by appealing to Islam, and the subsequent rejection by the Egyptians of this French effort

Ottomanism

An ideology developed by Ottoman government during Tanzimat era that all Ottoman subjects belonged to a collective Ottoman identity, regardless of religious or ethnic backgrounds, i.e they are loyal to Sultan and above national identities, Modern Standard Arabic developed as part of an Arabic cultural movement in this time, this was supposed to reduce nationalist movements within empire, stabilize empire and make it look stronger in eyes of Europe, rejected by non-Muslims who believed they were trying to take away their identity, rejected by Musims who believed they were taking away their privileged position

Timar/Tiyul System

Another source of soldiers for the Ottoman Empire, whereby the Sultan grants a local notable the right to collect revenues from the harvests of an area for a period of time, in return the these holders will use some revenue to provide soldiers to royal court for seasonal service. The Persian version is called "Tiyul"

Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad

Army created by Mahmud II following expulsion of the Janissaries, a New Order army, European style, loyal to the Sultan

Anglo-Qajar Agreement (1841)

Commercial agreement betweenBritain and Iran to ensure same tariffs as applied to Russia applied to British subjects, one cause of downfall of Iranian textile industries

Balta Limano Treaty (1838)

Commercial agreement with Britain, abolishes Ottoman government monopolies, allows free trade for British subjects with Ottomans, cripples their ability to industrialize, floods Ottoman markets with cheap British goods

Ottoman Public Debt Commission

Costs of Tanzimat, building projects, and Russo-Ottoman War 1877-1878 required borrowing at high interest, this created to collect payments from Ottomans for European lenders

Crimean War (1853-1856)

Dispute arising over disagreements of who should control Christian holy sites in Ottoman Palestine, French believes it should be them (Catholic), Russia believes them (Orthodox), threatens territorial integrity of Ottomans, an alliance of Britain, France, Austria against Russia forms, Treaty of Paris recognizes Ottoman territorial integrity, all about preventing Russian expansion at expense of Ottomans

Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri

During French invasion and conquest of Algeria (1831-1841), al-Qadir leads resistance movement

Mirza Taqi Khan, Amir Kabir

Early Iranian reformer under Naser al-Din Shah, in mid 19th century, set up the Daral-Fonun Polytechnic Institute to train a new Iranian elite, set up first iranian newspaper (state owned), financial cuts to princes stipends, also facilitated move towards dedicating more land to pro cash crops

Crisis of the 17th Century

Economic crisis which strained finances and administration across Eurasia which results in collapse of Safavids, influx of Spanish silver leads to inflation, money replaces carter system or payment in kind, resulting in many peasants ensuring themselves, a rise in banditry as people cannot feed themselves, more revolts, the state must spend to spurred revolts, discovery of maritim e routes to India meant Silk Road no longer as important, this lucrative trade meant less revenues for Ottomans and Safavids

Ottoman-Egyptian Civil Wars (1831-1841)

Egypt powerful under Mehmet Ali, control Crete and much of Arabia and Sudan, challenging Ottoman control, European intervention on behalf of Ottoman Sultan, territories returned to Ottoman and Egyptian military reduced in size, shows power of European powers over Ottomans and Egyptians

1860 Mount Lebanon War

Egyptian occupation of Lebanon by Mehmet Ali 1831-1841 upset social order, previously had had autonomous local households, communal violence between Maronite Christians and Druze emerges as power vacuum following civil war appears, both Druze and Maronites fill vacuum, try to create government based on religious-communal terms, however boils over into sectarian dispute, spreads to Damascus, seen as a backward conflict requiring intervention by Europe

Sectarianism

Emerges particularly in Lebanon in 1850s, Christian merchants had been favored by European countries, following Gulhane Decree and Islahat Fermani, religious groups begin to think of themselves as distinct group and therefore work to protect their own distinct interests, European policy tended to support Christian interests in Lebanon, which triggered small scale sectarian conflict to explode into large scale conflict (Mount Lebanon War 1860)

Russo-Ottoman War (1768-1774)

Ends in Treaty of Kuchuk-Karja, Ottomans lose the Crimea to Russia, Russia claims right to protect orthodox christians in Istanbul and other Ottoman lands, Ottomans now begin to think of reforming military

Young Ottomans

Exiled intellectuals reject Ottomans, want liberal constitution that is grounded in Islam, not Western ideals, revolt in 1876 would end Tanzimat era, a brief parliamentary government established

Selim III (1789-1807)

Following defeat to Russia in Ottoman-Russo wars of 1768-1774, where Ottomans lost Crimea, Selim III beings program of reform to centralize and modernize Ottoman Empire, early signs of Defensive Developmentalism, creates New Order Army which is based off European armies, tries to eliminate power of Ayans, Tax Farms admisntered directly instead of by locals, greater engagement with Europe, embassies set up, sets up 28 provinces which would each have a vizier which would report directly to Sultan, difficult to enforce

Russo-Ottoman War (1877-1878)

Forceful put down of Bulgarian uprising by Ottomans widely condemned by European powers, Russian intervene in Bulgaria, as they pursue movement of widespread support for Slavic speaking and Orthodox nationalist movements, Britain do not come to aid of Ottomans, a decisive Russian victory, Treaty of San Stefano results in a powerful Bulgaria emerging, revised at Berlin Conference in 1878, Ottomans lose Serbia, Romania, Bosnia and Bulgaria

Abbas Mirza Qajar (1789-1833)

Founder of Iranian reform movement, introduces military reforms to counter Russian victories, introduced modern factories and printing in Tabriz

Osman I

Founder of the Ottoman Empire, has strong European foothold by 1350s

French Invasion of Egypt (1798-1801)

French invasion to threaten British position in Egypt, try to appeal to Egyptians by appealing to Islam, call ruling Mamluks foreign, this is rejected by Egyptians, Egyptians are defeated by Ottomans at Sidon, a power vacuum is created into which Mehemt Ali steps to begin forming autonomous state of Egypt within Ottoman Empire

Gülhane Decree (1839) and Islahat Fermanı (1856)

Gulhane Decree - promise subjects security of life, honor and property, implement a regular system of tax, equally regular system of conscription, Islahat Fermani - aimed to reassure European powers and renew Tanzimat, declared freedom of religion and equality in education and justice across all religions

Brutus al-Bustani & Nasif Yazeji

Important figures in an intellectual revival of the Arabic language and Arabic literature in period of Ottomanisation, influential in formation of Arabic intellectual societies such as Syrian Scientific Society

Jamal al-Din Afghani

Iranian born pan-Islamic and modernist advocate, believed in Islamic unity to counter British Empire, founds newspaper "Urwat al-Wuthqa" in 1884 in Paris to take on Orientalist thinkers, believed Islam the closest religion to science and knowledge

Safi al-Din

Leader of Safavid Empire, which by 1500s had conquered Persia, proclaimed Shia the official religion of Persia, had numerous wars with Ottomans which resulted in present day borders between Iran and turkey

Ayans

Local landed administrators (elites) which have been in charge of tax farms of a particular area, control Ulema, soldiers, merchants of local area, have a lot of local influence, Janissaries and Ayans support each other

Mehemt Ali

Macedonian officer, sent to bring Egypt back under control of Ottomans, fills power vacuum left by Mamluks in 1811 (he kills all remaining Mamluks), undertakes massive Defensive Developmentalism projects (standing army, Navy, building projects in cities, schools and hospitals built etc),

Auspicious Event (1826)

Mahmud II, having appointed loyal commanders, provoked Janissary revolt, then issues a Fatwa calling all Muslims to fight against Janissaries, Janissaries defeated, Sultan is now free to form his own European style army, the Ulema lose crucial leverage against Sultan, a large bureaucracy now created

Islamic Modernism

Movement of Islamic cultural revival across Middle East, South Asia, parts of Russia and parts of Africa. Calls for parliamentary constitution grounded in Islam, not Western ideals, new ideas with regards to education, constitutional governments and sciences, increased use of press to talk about these ideas, popular with Young Ottomans

Great Eastern Crisis

Nationalist uprisings in Balkans in 19th centuries, Ottomans default on their debts, Eastern Europe very unstable, William Gladstone writes "Bulgarian Horrors and Question of the East", would European powers come to aid of Ottomans? Concert of Europe destroyed following Unification of Germany, balance of power in Europe unstable, which means Britain and France allow Ottomans to lose Balkan states

Sayyad Ahmad Khan

North Indian intellectual, says Islam is compatible with Western ideas of modernity, says idea that a modern parliamentary government grounded in Islam is possible, which is popular with Young Ottoman

Rose Chamber Edict (1839)

Ottoman statement of intentions, marks beginning of Tanzimat era, declared universality of new laws, would put in place a new system of representation however still excluded ethnographic-religious groups from key decision making

Defensive Developmentalism

Policy adopted by Middle Eastern territories as a solution to reduce European imperialist ambitions in the area, involved strengthening the military by European standards, improving tax collection, introducing Western styles of education, expand sources of revenue, involved modernization and centralization so central governments could have greater control over provinces, reduce power of local warlords and notables, to reduce conflict in empire so as to not give Europeans reason to invade, invested in infrastructure projects which often required borrowing from European banks, would grant concessions to European countries

Hijaz Railway

Railway from Damascus to Medina, a symbol of pan-Islamism and Islamic Modernism, funded by donors who wanted greater pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina

Caucasus and Circassian War

Resistance to Russian rule in Caucasus, massacres and deportations of North Caucasians, particularly Circassians in 1864-1867, Ottomans resettle 595,000 Circassians in Bulgaria, Bulgarians not happy about this, this is at time of nationalist movements in Bulgaria, supported by Russia, one reason for Bulgarian uprisings

Greek Wars of Independence (1821-1829)

Revolt led by Orthodox Greeks in 1821, Ottomans call on Mehmet Ali to help put down revolt, joint British-French-Russian intervention in 1827 to help create independent Greek state

Russo-Persian Wars (1804-1813), (1826-1828)

Russian annexation of Georgia starts war, Russian victory in 1813, they get South Caucasus, calls for second war with Russia, Russia win a decisive victory, Iran loses all Caucasus territories in Treaty of Turkmanchai, must pay full war indemnity which bankrupts Qajars

Alemdar Mustafa

Selim III wants to test New Order Army in Serbian Revolt, local Ayans (Alemdar Mustafa) negotiates New Order Stand down at Edirne Incident in 1806, during a second Russo-Ottoman war 1806-1812, there is a great food shortage in Ottoman lands due to Russian invasion, Janissaries depose Selim and expelled New Order Troops West. Mustafa now welcomes the New Order Troops, and marches on Istanbul. Mustafa IV is deposed, and Mahmud II put on throne

Silistra (1854)

Significant Ottoman victory against Russians in the Crimean War, Ottomans significantly outnumbered however still one, became Ottoman nationalist symbol, Namik Kemal wrote a play based on the battle which became a call for the Young Ottoman Movement to revolt

The Great Game

The diplomatic and strategic rivalry between Britain and Russia with regards to rerrirotires in Central Asia, most notably Afghanistan, but also Persia

New Order Army

The modern Westernized army created by Selim III, based off of European armies, threatened position of Janissaries and Ayans, resulting in the Edirne Incident and the deposition of Selim III in 1807

Reuter Concession (1872)

Turn to cash crop economy and concessions for revenue in Iran, one concession to Baron Paul Julius de Reuters to build railroad and ALL RELATED INDUSTRIES, cancelled after a year by Naser al-Din Shah, however Shah subsequently forced to give control of Central Bank to Reuters, they lose control of monetary policy

Qajar Iran

United Iran formed at end of 18th century, following much conflict after the fall of Safavids left a power vacuum, Afghan invasion led to capture of Isfahan in 1722, Qajars emerge from Northern region, protected from conflict elsewhere in the territory, very fertile land, Aga Mohammad Shah rises to influence, distributes wealth from Caspian trade to build alliances Fath Ali Shah becomes shah in 1797, claims to be restoring what Safavids had built, builds Tehran as capital, sends out sons to rule in provinces, very decentralized.

First Saudi State

Wahhabi movement in central Arabia forms, a religious revival started by Muhammad ibn And al-Wahhab,united with Hous of Sa'ud, very strict interpretation of "Oneness of God", start expanding in 1780s, take Mecca and Medina in 1804, First Saudi State destroyed by Egyptian forces in 1818, Mehmet Ali now controls Red Sea

Ottoman Constitution of 1876

Young Ottoman Revolution in 1876 led to deposition of Abdulaziz I and Murad V, Abdulhamid II put on throne, a constitution developed by Midhat Pasha, which created a legislature with 2 houses and codified law, press and religious freedoms guaranteed, property rights and equal standing in courts guaranteed, provincial level elections and parliaments (however Arab regions not well represented). It lasts for only two years, during Russo-Ottoman War Abdulhamid calls state of emergency and cancels elections, begins more centralized rule