history 13-4-5

calculus

a branch of mathematics in which calculations are made using special symbolic notations; developed by Isaac Newton

heliocentric

the belief that the sun is the center of the universe

Alchemy

Alchemy came before chemistry. Alchemists believed that any substance could be transformed into any other substance. some of their practices—especially the manipulation of metals and acids—set the stage for modern chemistry.

Luther antisemitism

At first, Luther hoped that Jews would be converted to his teachings. When they did not convert, he called for them to be expelled from Christian lands and for their synagogues to be burned.

Francis Bacon

Bacon stressed experimentation and observation. He wanted science to make life better for people by leading to practical technologies.

Medicine in the renaissance

Before the Renaissance Medieval physicians relied on the works of the ancient physician Galen, which were not accurate. Renaissance, physicians used autopsy to study what lay beneath the skin. Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body, the first accurate and detailed study of human anatomy. French physician Ambroise Paré developed a new ointment for preventing infection. He also developed new surgical techniques, introduced the use of artificial limbs, and invented several scientific instruments. William Harvey, an English scholar, described how the heart serves as a pump to force blood through veins and arteries. Dutch inventor Anton van Leeuwenhoek perfected the microscope and became the first human to see cells and microorganisms.

Witch hunts

Between 1450 and 1750, tens of thousands of women and men died as victims of witch hunts. Most victims were in German states, Switzerland, and France, all centers of religious conflict and most were women. When the wars of religion came to an end, the persecution of witches also declined. witches were seen as anti-Christian because witches often behaved in non-traditional ways. Often social outcasts, such as beggars. Midwives and herbalists were also targeted.

Francis Bacon and René Descartes

Both Bacon and Descartes, writing in the early 1600s, rejected Aristotle's scientific assumptions. Both argued that truth is not known at the beginning of inquiry but at the end, after a long process of investigation - the scientific method They also challenged the scholarly traditions of the medieval universities that sought to make the physical world fit in with the teachings of the Church (scholasticism)

Johannes Kepler

Brahe's assistant; German astronomer and mathematician used Brahe's data to calculate the orbits of the planets and prove Copernicus ideas; But contrary to Copernicus he proved that each planet does not move in a perfect circle but elliptic.

Tycho Brahe

Danish astronomer provided evidence to support Copernicus theory; observed the sky, Every night for years, he carefully observed the sky, accumulating data about the movement of the heavenly bodies.

Elizabeth

Daughter of Henry III. became queen after Mary died. During a long reign, Elizabeth used all her skills to restore unity to England. Even while keeping many Catholic traditions, she made England a firmly Protestant nation.

Discourse on Method

Descartes book

Elizabethan settlement

Elizabeth policy of compromise between Protestant and Catholic practices. The Church of England preserved much Catholic ritual, and it kept the hierarchy of bishops and archbishops. Unlike Henry, the queen did not call herself "supreme head" of the church, but supreme governor" over spiritual matters. Elizabeth restored a version of the Book of Common Prayer, accepted moderate Protestant doctrine, and allowed English to replace Latin in church services. Her sensible compromises, which satisfied most Catholics and Protestants, largely ended decades of religious turmoil.

Robert Boyle

English chemist; 1600's; refined alchemist's view of chemicals as basic building blocks; distinguished between individual elements and chemical compounds and explained the effects of temperature and pressure on gases

Isaac Newton

English mathematician; explained why the planets moved; as they did. Newton saw an apple fall from a tree. He wondered whether the force that pulled that apple to Earth might not also control the movements of the planets. Using mathematics, he showed that a single force keeps the planets in their orbits around the sun. He called this force gravity. Newton said that motion in the universe can be measured and described mathematically. He invented the 3 laws of motion and Calculus.

René Descartes

Frenchman; Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding. So he believed in using reason as opposed to Bacon who emphasized experiments. He explains how he decided to discard all traditional views and was l with only one sure thing: doubt. He said: "I think, therefore I am."

King Henry VIII

Initially a supporter of the church, but when the pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, he split from the church and created the church of England. Appointed Thomas Cranmer archbishop and confiscated property of convents and monasteries.

Mary Tudor

King Henry VII child; became queen when Edward died. She was determined to return England to the Catholic faith. Under Queen Mary hundreds of English Protestants, including Archbishop Cranmer, were burned at the stake for heresy.

Edward VI

Nine-year-old son of Henry VIII, inherited the throne, was Protestants and took steps to make England a truly Protestant country. Under Edward, Parliament passed new laws bringing Protestant reforms to England. Thomas Cranmer drew up the Protestant Book of Common Prayer, which became required reading in all of the country's church services.

Plato

Plato taught that man should look beyond simple appearances to learn nature's truths. He believed that mathematics, one of the greatest human achievements, was the key to learning these truths. His teachings were rediscovered by Renaissance scientists and helped shape people's view of the physical world.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish scholar published ON the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres; proposed a heliocentric universe; sun at center of universe; earth revolves around sun. Before him people believed the earth didn't move and it was the center of the universe.

Inqusition

Pope Paul strengthened the Inquisition to fight Protestantism. The Inquisition used secret testimony, torture, and execution to root out heresy.

Anabaptists

Radical sect, rejecting infant baptism because Infants are too young to understand what it means to accept the Christian faith. Some were radical and wanted to abolish private property. Others sought to speed up the coming of God's day of judgment by violent means. When radical Anabaptists took overMunster in Germany, protestants joined catholics in opposing them. Most Anabaptists were peaceful. Baptists, Mennonites, and Amish all trace their religious ancestry to the Anabaptists.

Old and New approach to truth

The church taught that everything people need to know about the world was based on church teachings. by the early 1600s a new approach to science had emerged, based upon observation and experimentation.

Council of Trent

a group of Catholic leaders that met between 1545 and 1563 to respond to Protestant challenges and direct the future of the Catholic Church. It declared that salvation comes through faith and good works. the Bible and catholic teachings are the source of truth. It provided stiff penalties for worldliness and corruption among the clergy. I It established schools to create a better- educated clergy who could challenge Protestant teachings.

Index of Forbidden Books

a list of works created by the inquisition, considered too immoral or irreligious for Catholics to read. The list included books by Luther and Calvin, as well as earlier works by Petrarch and other humanists.

compromise

an agreement in which each side makes concessions; an acceptable middle ground

Teresa of Avila

born into wealth Spanish family; entered a convent in her youth; establish her own order of nuns; dedicated to pray and meditation; she established her own order of nuns. They lived in isolation, eating and sleeping very little and dedicating themselves to prayer and meditation. She was asked to reform Spanish convents and monasteries. after her death the Church canonized her.

scientific method

careful, step-by-step process used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis; Collect and accurately measure data. Propose a logical hypothesis, Test the hypothesis with further observation or experimentation. Repeat the experiment at least once—and usually many times—to confirm the hypotheses Sometimes use Mathematical calculations

Thomas Cranmer

chancellor for King Henry VIII; was appointed as archbishop of Anglican church, wrote a book of prayers in English rather than Latin. Was executed by mary tudor because he refused to give up his views. Canonized after death.

gravity

force that pulls objects in Earth's sphere to the center of the Earth

Ignatius of Loyola

founder of Jesuits order; Spanish knight, whose leg was shattered; decided to become "Solider of God"; His school enforced discipline and absolute obedience to the church. Led by Ignatius, the Jesuits embarked on a crusade to defend and spread the Catholic faith worldwide.

Galileo Galilei

italian astronomer. he assembled an astronomical telescope to observe the planets.; he observed that the four moons of Jupiter move slowly around that planet—exactly, he realized, the way Copernicus said that Earth moves around the sun. The church was not pleased and in he was 1633 tried before the Inquisition and was kept under house arrest for the rest of his life, He was forced to say that the earth was motionless in the center of the universe under threat of death.

hypothesis

possible explanation to observed data that has to be proven by experiments.

canonize

recognize a person as a saint

sect

religious groups that had broken away from an established church

ghetto

separate section of a city where Jews were forced to live. First ghetto was in Venice. Jews in Italy were not expelled but forced into ghettos.

Jews persecution during reformation

some German princes expel Jews. In the 1550s, Pope Paul IV placed added restrictions on Jews. Even Emperor Charles V, who supported toleration of Jews in the Holy Roman Empire, banned them from Spanish territories and new American colonies. From the early 1500s on, many Jews migrated to the Mediterranean parts of the Ottoman Empire and to the Netherlands.