History 7A Midterm I

Columbian Exchange

After 1492, the Spaniards precipitated the flow of goods, flora, fauna, people, information, and disease over the Atlantic Ocean. Caused the influx of around 300 000 Spaniards to the Americas, the overwhelming majority males who married indigenous women. By the end of the century towns and cities throughout Mexico and Caribbean held large numbers of mestizos. The most striking difference to the New World was mass death due to disease and guns. Goods to West: Europeans, Africans, Smallpox, measles, typhoid, horses, cattle, sheep, rats, clover, bluegrass, pig. Goods to East: Syphilis, tobacco, chocolate, corn, potatoes, tomatoes, pumpkins, peanuts

Haudenosaunee

Another name for the Iroquois League, comprised of the Mohawk, Onodaga, Cayuga, Seneca and Tuscaora tribes of northeastern North American continent. They describe themselves as an "ancient" league but many believe the Iroquois League was formed as a deterrent against the Europeans. The Iroquois frequently traded with the Europeans furs for European goods such as weapons. With firearms and iron swords, they were able to dominate Indian warfare and rise as the dominant Indian power of the region, assimilating the tribes of their fallen enemies into their ranks. Significance: The Iroquois League was the largest "opposing" force against European expansion, despite the huge damage caused by European diseases. By having a coalition of Native American tribes fighting for the benefit of one another, they were a formidable force in holding back European expansion onto Indian lands.

Reconquista

Armies of the Iberian Peninsula engaged in religious was from the 8th century onwards, these efforts to "reconquer" the peninsula from the Muslims were generally more successful than efforts in the Middle East. The Reconquista reignited in the 1400's with the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon with the goal of purifying the land of non-Christians. Spain also started the reconquest of the Canary Islands and the Inquisition to rid heretics and closet Jews.

Mississippian Civilization

Around 800-1500 CE, in the flood plains of the Mississippi River Valley, along Ohio and Arkansas Rivers, they occupied a vast stretch of the land in the eastern half of the continent. Transitioned to agriculture, and despite the difference in language, they were connected to a broader cultural complex. Most metropolitan centre was known as Cahokia.

Cahokia

At the center of the Mississippian civilization, bigger than Chaco Canyon. Had rich soil, dense woodlands, vast water transportation network. At it's largest had 10-20 thousand people. It was the largest city in North America before the 18th century. In 1300s, Cahokia began to decline, probably due to violence, warfare, natural disaster. Most likely affected by resource depletion and overcrowding.

Freedom Petitions

Def: The Freedom of Petition Clause guarantees that Americans can petition the government to redress their grievances without fear of retribution or punishment. This was an important principle valued by the Founding Fathers because of their experience of trying to get King George III and Parliament to redress their grievances. The Supreme Court has ruled that the right to petition the government includes the right to do such things as picket, mail letters, sign petitions, publish materials or use other types of communication to get a message across to the government. It is also generally combined with the right to free speech and the right of assembly to ensure that people can form groups or associations to get their messages across. The Freedom of Petition Clause played an important role in the Civil Rights fight for African Americans. The Court ruled in many cases that African Americans had the right to do such things as picket, protest and conduct peaceful sit-ins and boycotts.

Great Puritan Migration

Between 1620-1630, 20 000 Puritans wanted to establish a church since they believed the Church of England needed to be purified from Catholicism from within. They came in family units, and due to better climate, pop grew fast. By the end of the century, around 90 000 descendants of the migration lived in New England. Early English colonies were not driven by motives in fur trading empire or route to Asia, they were religious dissenters.

Chesapeake vs. Low country

Chesapeake had smaller slaveholdings and in Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina were white majority. They focused on tobacco plants and had a gang system, there was also natural reproduction of slaves. In contrast, in the Low country, places like South Carolina and Georgia, there was black majority and larger slaveholdings that operated with a task system supporting rice farming. The low country relied on importation of more slaves from Africa.

Somerset vs Stewart

Def: Somerset v Stewart was a case in Britain from 1771-1772 pertaining to James Somerset being forcefully taken from Britain to America by his former slave owner. And the courts ruled that it was illegal for the slave to be forcefully taken and sold abroad Significance: The case was significant because it distinguished Britain's slave policy to that of the colonies. Britain was less harsh when it came to slavery and didn't regard it in such a positive manner compared to the southern colonies of the US. Slavery wasn't as much of staple of British culture as it was in colonial culture. The case demonstrated another evergrowing divide between the colonies and mainland Britain.

Chunkey

A Cahokian version of an older hoop-and-pole game that involved throwing a stone disk across a clay playing field. This game became a prominent feature of Mississippian culture that served as a ritualized spectator sport and gambling, often used as a form of diplomacy and politics. Its spread and influence reinforced the power and cultural dominance of Cahokia.

Beringia

A region that included the land bridge from Siberia to Alaska as well as hundreds of miles of land on both sides. Early humans who migrated out of Africa arrived in North America from Asia using this area. Migrants to North America became the indigenous population of the western hemisphere and by 10000 BP, the land bridge submerged for the last time, separating the migrants from the rest of the human family.

Crusades

A series of religious wars in 1095-1291 designed to gain back the Holy Lands and specifically Jerusalem from Muslims. This was a representation of the unity of Latin Christendom of Southern Europe and briefly established a common European identity in Europe though securing no lasting presence in the Middle East. The Crusades provided a model for spreading Latin Christendom to other lands.

Medieval America

A term used to describe the changes in society and history due to climate change. The word has no timely resemblance to "medieval Europe," however, imagine medieval Northern Europe=Northern America as politically weak and underpopulated. As temperature increased, so did birthrate, causing greater economic, social, political growth.

Hendrick Theyanoguin

Def: He was the Chief of the Mohawk Bear Clan. Hendrick formed a close relationship with William johnson, the British Superintendent of Indian Affairs. At the start of the French and Indian War, Hendrick aligned the Iroquois Confederacy with the British. He was killed in the battle of Lake George, which resulted in a British and Iroquois victory against the French. Significance: Hendrick Theyanoguin was important in aligning the Iroquois League with one force, Britain. This marked a departure from the Balance of Power Diplomacy, where the Indians would align with France and the English to keep both colonial powers in check in the Americas. The Iroquois League's participation on behalf of the British was an example of Indian forces becoming fractionated in their support for either the French or the British.

Imperial Wars

Def: Included King William's War, Queen Anne's War, and King George's War. The ascension of King William III to the English throne led England to re-establish a rivalry with Catholic Europe; mainly France. The Wars were fought in Europe and the Americas. Starting with Queen Anne's War (1702), colonists and Native Americans were drawn into the war. Creek Indians fought for English forces and Mohawk Indians fought for France as the war carried out in colonies and Europe. The most notable event was the colonist's capture of the French-operated Louisbourg and the St. Lawrence River in New England. The British signed a treaty returning Louisbourg to the French, in exchange for land in Europe and India. Significance: The Imperial Wars highlighted the divide between Protestant and Catholic forces. It highlighted the decline of effectiveness in the Indians' strategy of fighting for the British and the French, as parts of the Iroquois League aligned with the losing French. The Imperial Wars strained the Covenant Chain.

Scots-Irish

Def: Included Scottish Presbyterian and Protestant whose ancestors had settled in Ireland in the 17th century, but the term refers more generally to migrants from all sides of the Irish sea. Significance: Driven mainly by poverty and land scarcity, they came from 1717 onward. Arriving as both free settlers and indentured servants... drawn by the promise of cheap farm land. Leads to a population growth → need more land → formed an identity over their want of cheap land and religion

Restoration Colonies

Def: Led to a new effort on the part of the Crown to expand its overseas empire and coordinate colonial affairs. A series of new colonies appeared in the Restoration era, mostly in the mid atlantic area between New England and the Chesapeake, attracting an overseas migration as great as any of the earlier ones. A few of the major restoration colonies include Pennsylvania and Carolina. NY NJ Significance: The formation of the Restoration Colonies marks a refocus on North American English colonization after a hiatus due to political unrest in England. With the Stuart Monarchy restored in 1660 under Charles II, a new campaign to wring more profits from North American colonies, to expand English North American presence, to boost English trade and diminish Dutch trade and to impose greater royal authority over the colonies was put into motion.

Letters from an American Farmer

Def: Letters from an American Farmer are a series of letters written by Crevecoeur from the point of view of James who is a simple farmer for Pennsylvania. Some of the topics covered in the letters deal with what it means to be an American and descriptions of cities in America. Crevecoeur highlights that the American society is ideal for all people where hard work and discipline will lead to a prosperous life. Although the story is largely fiction (Crevecoeur wasn't a farmer from PA), it was sold as an accurate account of what life was like in the colonies. His descriptions in the letters are serious and should be taken seriously. Significance: The significance of this is that it gave people living in Europe a taste of what it was like to live in the colonies. Most Europeans had no idea what it was like in such and unfamiliar world, so this was a good tool to connect the two.

Nonimportation Agreements

Def: Nonimportation agreements were boycotts of British imports by colonial merchants seeking to reverse Parliament's taxation and regulation. These boycotts were advocated by the Sons of Liberty because they were the best way to resist the empire's tax policies. Nonimportation agreements caught on only selectively among the leading colonial merchants; nonetheless, they cost Great Britain hundreds of thousands of pounds. Significance: The significance of these boycotts was that they ended up costing Great Britain hundreds of thousands of pounds. Ultimately, these boycotts led to Parliament to repeal all of the taxes for the one on tea, thus locking Great Britain in a political showdown with the rebellious colonists.

Treaty of Paris

Def: One of two treaties that ended the Seven Years war in 1763, which stated that France would cede Canada and all French territory east of the Mississippi River to Great Britain in exchange for the ceding of land in the Caribbean, Africa, and India. Significance: The significance is that it radically altered the geography of Great Britain, France, and Spain's empires. This expanded British North America to the entire eastern half of the continent, further solidifying their dominance in the area. However, this also lead to conflict with the Native Indians in the lands that were now under British control, leading to their migration and, most importantly, Pontiac's Rebellion which sought to purge the British from North America. [Also, the outcome signaled the end of imperial conflict on the eastern half of the continent that many Indian groups had exploited to maintain their political independence and hold onto their lands.

Neolin's Pan-Indianism

Def: Pan-Indianism is Neolin's, a Delaware Indian prophet, the belief that every indigenous person in North America share a common identity and a common a political difference. Through this ideological innovation, Neolin inspired indigenous people to ban together so that they may return to their common cultural roots. His messaged categorized all white people together and as the same. Significance: Neolin's Pan-Indianism inspired Pontiac's rebellion in 1763. It caused Indians to recognize their shared cultural roots and unite against the common enemy, whites.

Navigation Acts

Def: Parliament passed law which restricted the way commodities produced in English Colonies entered international markets and the way commodities produced elsewhere were brought into the colonies. These acts were in line with the prevailing economic theory of the time, later coined mercantilism, as these acts stipulated colonial export of raw material to manufacturing centers in England and discouraged colonial manufacturing. Significance: The main policy thrust behind this move to make England's American settlements more commercially profitable. They intended to make sure that English ships and English ports handled the commercial traffic generated by English colonial activity. In addition, these acts increased royal control over colonial affairs, and centralized power within the empire.

Phillis Wheatley

Def: She was born in West Africa but came to America where she was a slave in Boston. Her name attested to her being property(name of ship she came on was named "Phillis" and her owners last name was Wheatley. Her family was religious and encouraged her to read scripture, so she had a high level of literacy and became a devout Christian. Wheatley became a well know poet in the Boston area. The people she hung out with were the elites of Boston, such as the Earl of Dartmouth. Ultimately, in Boston she felt at home and connected to the British empire, and was even grateful that she had been rescued from Africa and brought over. (tie it in with the GREAT AWAKENING Significance: Although Phillis Wheatley was not the first educated black woman, she was the first to show that black people can be educated through her well-known poems. The significance of Wheatley was that she published poems. What I found remarkable about this is that during this time period, it was unheard of for something like this to happen. She was significant because she exemplified in her poems a common feeling amongst many colonists in the US. She was not a strong rebel but she understood the divide beginning to occur throughout the colonies. She was able to cultivate her skills because the people who bought her were Puritans and thus believed in spreading literacy in order to be able to read the bible (throwback to Massachusetts Bible, a different ID term) and once they realized her affinity for written word they expanded upon it. Luck, maybe, was what drove her to eventually become recognized as the first of her kind in this aspect?

Subsistence Farming

Def: Subsistence farmers produced goods for their own subsistence. They mostly bargained and traded other subsistence farmers for other products, rarely using money. They had very little reason to think of larger market forces. Subsistence farmers are in direct opposition to the farmers who produced for commerce. They were capitalists seeking to maximize profits and accumulate wealth by growing lots of crops to sell. Subsistence farming was succeeded by commerce farming as colonists began to long for consumer goods to show they were part of a higher class. Significance: This system of subsistence farmer was for the simple farmer but soon made way to the commercialization of most goods and led to the huge empire of goods where the british empire created a system of commercial exchange that bound the empire together.

Act of Union

Def: The 1707 Act of Union actually created "Great Britain", joining the English with Scotland. Significance: Colonies were British way before they were American, even though Great Britain did not exist in the mid 1600's. The colonists were part of a larger system of trade and communications that connected them to Britain, despite the irony that "Great Britain" did not even technically exist by that point. Seen as expanding empire, part of a greater GB identity

British East India Company

Def: The British East India Company was a chartered, joint-stock company centered in London. They would bring things to other parts of the british empire (i.e. spices). Significance: Things were going well for these guys, so the Tea Act was enacted to bail these guys out. This tax was not a burdensome tax, but it made the tea sold by the British East India Company the cheapest. This continued to aggravate the colonists because as british subjects, they should have the right to have a say in their taxes. The colonists were outraged because they saw themselves as British yet they were being treated as second class citizens. (Taxation without representation).

Enlightenment

Def: The Enlightenment, also named as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith and strongly influenced the American colonies. Using the power of press, thinkers and scientists spread new ideas about "openness, investigation and religious tolerance" through Europe and America (The American Enlightenment was influenced by European Enlightenment). Enlightenment is a major turning point in Western Civilization, an age of light replacing an age of darkness. Significance: Enlightenment provided the philosophical basis of the American Revolution which provided a blueprint for the organization of a democratic society. Enlightenment principles also guided the founding of the colony of Georgia (but those principles failed to be entrenched to the realities of colonial life). Eminent figures from Enlightenment in America include Benjamin Franklin who gained fame on both sides of the Atlantic as a polymath and stands as the embodiment of the Enlightenment in British America.

French Indian War

Def: The French-Indian War, part of the larger 7 years war between France and Great Britain, was a conflict that started in 1754 and stemmed from conflicts between French and British soldiers in Ohio. Significance: The significance is that the massive costs of the war lead to Great Britain seeking to make up the revenue from the British colonies through taxes such as the Sugar Act (1764) which the colonists resented. Those in Great Britain saw themselves as having fought and paid for defending the colonies and believed they were due to contribute. Further, the terms of the peace and general fear of conflicts with Native Americans led the British to issue the Proclamation of 1763, which angered many of the colonists, especially those from colonies which had large westward land claims.

Fort Duquesne

Def: The largest fort from a series of forts built by the French to protects its claim to New France from British settlers and speculators who were pushing from Pennsylvania and Virginia into the Ohio Country. Significance: The significance is that it was one of the principal French outposts in the northern Ohio Valley because of its strategic location, used by French traders to supply weapons to Delaware and Shawnee Indians who had been driven east by the British. It was the location where the French had big military victories over the British colonists (e.g. Surrender of Fort Necessity 1754, and Braddock's Defeat 1755). Marking what would become a line of victories for the French and their Indian allies for the next three years. The fort would later be destroyed by the French rather than letting it fall into the control of the British.

Liberty

Def: The official definition of Liberty is "the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views." In accordance with the course, liberty became the banner under which the patriot cause arrayed themselves. For example, the Sons of Liberty advocated for boycotts to reverse taxation. Significance: The significance of liberty is what it stood for. In the colonies there was a longstanding tradition of politcial freedom; however, with Britian's tax policies, colonists felt like they being treated as second class citizens. Specifically, they felt like slaves, which is the counterpart of liberty. (I find it ironic that the colonists were complaining about not having liberties yet they themselves were denying people in their own land liberties--the slaves.)

Labour Meritocracy vs Cornucopia

Def: These are two conflicting ideas how settlers and europeans described the new world. Labor meritocracy is the idea that if you come to america and buy some land and work hard, you will succeed economically and the land will provide you plenteous resources. The idea of america as a cornucopia is the idea that the colonists did not have to work hard to achieve success in the colonies, resources were readily available and the settler did not have strain to provide food for his family. Better than life in Europe (no gentility) → american dream & LAND → all this lead to an AMERICAN IDENTITY because of independence and freedom → belief that land will get you somewhere. Significance: The significance of this contradicting view of america is that this is the idea behind the double meaning of the american dream. Some people think the american dream is having the opportunity to work hard to provide for your family while others think the american dream is coming to a land of plenty where you are given what you need.

Empire of Goods

Def: Trade (transAtlantic commerce) triggered urbanization and colonial wealth. English sent woolens, hardware and especially luxury goods to colonial regions. From 1740 to 1770, there was 360% rise of English exports to colonies, especially to cities. Significance:Those goods linked a variety of people together (rich, poor, rural, urban, Indian, Europeans and Africans) into shared consumer culture. Ex. liquor that began to be traded amongst colonists/native populations began to be integrated into rituals, etc. It is also a symbol that signaled the emergence of capitalism in colonial regions and the growing dominance of market-oriented economy with accumulation of capitals. Because of this they gain a gentility → mansions, shirts, styles of dress. Derives from the navigations act that made it possible. Mostly took place in the cities philly, boston. Connects more the colonies to the british empire .

Earl of Dartmouth

Def: WILLIAM LEGGE, 2ND EARL OF DARTMOUTH. He was a member of English nobility that was very close with Phillis Wheatley. Evangelic Methodist; Interacted with Wheatley; In 1772, Dartmouth was appointed Secretary of State for the colonies; British statesman who played a significant role in the events leading to the American Revolution. Significance: The colonies want equality, philis was hopeful that they would have equality through the Earl William Legge was significant due to the fact that he had lots of contact with Wheatley which may or may not have influenced her perspective about the relations between Britain and the Colonies. He was pro-Britain and his appointment to Secretary of State definitely made tensions even tighter in the colonies.

Havana

Def: Was the central port of Spain's lucrative Caribbean empire, which became a British target after Spain joined the Seven Years war on the side of France in order to check Britain's imperial expansion and prevent a radical shift in Europe's political balance. Significance: The significance is that it was a strategically valuable city that was captured by the British 1762. The attack was made possible by the fact that British ships had captured Spain's mail ships, leaving Cuba unaware of it being at war with Great Britain.

Townshend Duties

Def: a tax bill passed in 1767 pushed by Charles Townshend which taxed importation of glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea. Townshend, which was responsible for colonial policy, aimed to reduce military budget (through increase in revenue) and establish complete parliament legislative authority over the colonies. Since the tax wasn't direct, it didn't attract as much attention initially as the Stamp Act, but merchants objected it since they recognized it was a way to increase revenue and not to regulate trade. Significance: All they did was to provoke the colonists and they led to even more protests. Combined with Stamp Act and Sugar Act, this led to violent in the colonies, culminating in the Boston Massacre in March 1770. Ultimately, Parliament relented and repealed most of the Townshend Duties.

Chattel Slavery in the New World and transition to slavery in Chesapeake

During the 1600's landowners began to transition from indentured servitude to a race based chattel slavery where humans can be bought and sold as property. This was due to the declining birthrate in England due to the civil war of the 1640s combined with the European desire to emigrate--this decreased the number of indentured servants. Meanwhile black slaves were more available in areas like Chesapeake.

Tainos

Inhabitants of Canary Islands that Columbus thought were inhabitants of Asia or East Indies. Columbus called them "Indians" and brought 20 back to Spain as examples of ones who needed salvation. He had discovered an indigenous labor force and enforced the gold tax upon the population. When they couldn't meet the demands, by 1496, over 100 000 Tainos were killed, the remaining 2/3 pop of Hispaniola subject to forced labor.

Gentility

Def: Gentry are people of social refinement and economic privilege, distinct from commoners even when both own comparable plots of land in the same vicinity. Colonials inherited these concepts of class from long standing tradition stemming from Europe, classing farm families into "better, meaner, and middling sorts," (95). Gentility refers to a refined style and elaborate manners that came to be highly prized among well-to-do English families after 1600. It indicated social status. From 1690 to 1790, American gentility learned from English nobility. After the Revolution, from 1790 to 1850, the emergence of middle class that selectively incorporated elements of upper class culture dominated. Significance: It is one manifestation of cultural system in colonial period and democratization of culture. It was a shift from aristocratic gentility of colonial period from European culture to the growth of middle class. Hallmarks of genteel culture are mostly in material possessions. Mansion houses, fine linen, gold buckles, Madeira wines, maple desks, porcelain plates and such are the marks of a genteel family.

George Whitefield

Def: George Whitefield was the most popular and effective of the revivalist preachers during the Great Awakening movement. His impassioned, extemporaneous oratorical style attracted a lot of people in the North American colonists. Crowds for listening George Whitefield's preaching in Philadelphia and Boston that were as large as the permanent population of those cities. Significance: As the american experience of pietism, the Great Awakening movement promoted rigorous religious observance and stressed intense emotional prayer experiences. George Whitefield, along with all the prominent preachers during the Great Awakening movement, contributed to the progress of commitment to personal atonement and individual conversion experiences.

Middle Colonies

Def: Growth of England's Colonies- New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were established on land that had been claimed and settled by the Dutch and then granted by Charles II to the Duke of York. Significance: The Middle Colonies were unlike English settlements in the Chesapeake or New England as these colonies were established on top of an established European colonial project and included diverse groups of European and African populations, and maintained strong cultural influences from those already established groups. Colonies on top of other colonies → diversity . they help unify the british colonial identity → establishes contact between the north and the southern colonies.

Jamestown

1607 was the year of founding for the first english speaking settlement. This was the second attempt of English colonist to settle the Chesapeake region. Received a royal charter to establish a settlement, they called it Virginia. Hoped to spread Protestant faith to population, thwart the expansion of Catholic Spain, discover gold. The area was dominated by Chief Powhatan and his people, the colony almost failed due to colonists being unaccustomed to the climate and farming, finally Powhatan allowed trading of corn as the English introduced tobacco. Powhatan kidnapped John Smith

Atlantic Slave Trade

16th to 19th century, the transport of slaves across the Atlantic from Africa to the Americas. Operated as part of the Triangular trade via the Middle Passage. Almost 4x as many Africans came to the Americas than Europeans. More than 12 million people ended up in West Indian sugar plantations or South American silver mines. Africans in British North America survived and reproduced, their descendants would eventually form the biggest African diaspora, a community joined by a remembered relationship with their homeland.

Pueblo Revolt

17 000 men from different Indian villages planned an attack on the Spaniards in 1680. Settlements razed, Catholic icons defaced, priests mutilated. Rebels besieged Santa Fe for nine days, cutting off all supplies. Spaniards did not repossess the New Mexico colony until 1692.

Pocahontas

Daughter of Powhatan who is said to have saved John Smith from execution from her father Powhatan. Pocahontas remained an influential player in the diplomacy between the english and the indians. IN 1613, she was captured and held prisoner in Jamestown, she converted to Christianity and married John Rolfe. This marriage ultimately sealed a diplomatic alliance between their peoples and allowed a brief peace for the Virginia colony. She was brought to England as evidence of the success of the Virginia colony.

Proclamation Line of 1763

Def: (reason: In response to Pontiac's Rebellion, the British Empire wants to make peace with the natives so they closed down the colonial expansion westward) a royal proclamation by King George III, in October 1763, which established the Appalachian Mountains as the western border of Euro-American settlement. Settlers could not purchase lands west of the proclamation line or make any agreement with the natives without special royal authorization. The proclamation didn't automatically remove settlers from western lands, it was simply heavily discouraged, and not supported by the crown. Settlers (including George Washington) viewed the proclamation as a temporary agreement to calm down the natives, and some simply moved west and protected themselves without support from the crown. -In an attempt to protect the colonists from the Indians after the bloodshed of Pontiac's rebellion occurred, the British government passed the Proclamation of 1763 which did not allow colonists to settle west of the Appalachian Mountains. Through the Proclamation, the British were to honor some of their treaty commitments and reduce their military spending. Significance: the difference of views between the settlers and the crown following the proclamation (demand to access western lands vs. demands to stop the wars and make peace with the Indians), pitted the settlers against the rule of the empire, and fueled a growing antipathy between Britain and the colonists. -The Proclamation indicated that the British government would not protect the colonists. It intensified a line of political conflict because the proclamation was a problem for certain people, many settlers were worried. The proclamation also influenced the Paxton Boys Massacre.

German Immigrants

Def: 37000 German immigrants entered British American between 1700-1750, more than twice and many as came from England in that period. Germans established communities in Pennsylvania then relatives, neighbors, and religious from Europe we more likely to join them. Significance: The immigration of German people greatly increased the diversity of the Middle Colonies and by the mid-eighteenth century, the Middle Colonies were even more diverse than the time of the English conquest of New Netherland.

Pennsylvania

Def: A colony formed to the south of New England, given to William Penn as a gift from the Crown. Pennsylvania attracted large numbers of immigrants in the eighteenth century, many from Scotland and northern Ireland. Pennsylvania especially attracted Quakers who were seeking freedom from religious persecution. Significance: Pennsylvania was a colony that attracted people of diverse backgrounds, including Quakers, Germans, Scots-Irish and etc. because of its religious tolerance. In addition, Pennsylvania ran on a system of government more democratic than any other colony of the time and also sought to maintain peaceful and honorable relations with the Native Americans. Pennsylvania would later play a major role in the American War for Independence and host the United State's first capital in Philadelphia.

Balance of Power Diplomacy

Def: A political strategy where nation(s) seek to stop any one nation gaining a majority of power within a region. The Indians in America engaged in Balance-of-Power Diplomacy when they fought on both the French and British sides during the Imperial Wars. The Iroquois League also controlled the fur trade in the colonies by creating bidding wars between the French and British. Significance: A tool of the Indians to maintain their control over regions throughout America by aligning themselves with the French and British in battles. Also, used as a tool for economic gains by pitting two sides against one another to drive up higher prices. The growing colonial powers forced Indians to create bargaining and alliance mechanisms by partnering with the local European powers.

Colonial Cities

Def: Colonial cities arose in societies that fell under the domination of Europe and North America in the early expansion of the capitalist world system, and were founded by colonialism and influenced by Western culture. The colonial relationship required altering the productivity of the colonial society in order that its wealth could be exported to the core nations, and colonial cities centralized this function. Significance: American colonial cities transferred civilization from the Old World to the New. Cities were the counterparts to and results of the exploitation of natural resources in the New World, and they facilitated the export of wealth to Great Britain. Commerce and centralized colonial administration were the primary functions fulfilled by colonial cities. Firstly, they were connecting points in a trans-Atlantic economy connecting North America, the Caribbean, western Africa and Europe. Secondly, they provided the rural population with specialized crafts and other services that could only thrive in an urban economy. Thirdly, some colonial cities were founded with a specifically religious intent. Later on, they became important as hubs of resistance during the revolution era. Because taxation was a big issue and colonial cities were usually centered around ports, they saw unfair taxation and the enforcement of it up close. Also, because cities indicate denser populations, public displays of resistance (Boston tea party, tarring and feathering, etc) were easier to coordinate because of the proximity.

Farm Households

Def: Farm households were the ways typical northeastern families organized their labor. Farm households were headed by a white, male patriarch who, along with his family and other dependents, lived in a rural area and used agriculture to sustain themselves. Otherwise known as a Yeoman farmer, they embodied the ideal american farmer who valued hard work, independence, virtue, and honesty. Significance: Farm households were significant because they became the traditional model of US farm families.

Covenant Chain

Def: Following the bloody events of 1676-1677 (king phillips war), when both New England and the Chesapeake were engulfed with violence, New York governor Edmund Andros initiated diplomatic negotiations with the Iroquoian Mohawks. These negotiations established a pattern of councils and treaties between New York and the Iroquois League known as the Covenant Chains. Significance: Iroquois claimed to speak for all the native groups that conducted trade oe interacted with British colonist. These treaties gave the Iroquois security on the eastern front and access to the weapons they needed to attack fur-trading rivals to the west. On the other side, British colonies benefited from more stable partners in the fur trade and relied on the Iroquois nations as buffers and allies in their wars against the French.

Freehold Property

Def: Freehold Property was the property that could be bought in the New World by settlers/colonists. Unlike in Europe where many laws dictated how someone can use land and who they had to pass their land down to, in America, a man could do whatever he wanted on his land. Buying and owning property was an integral part of the "american dream" and many viewed this free land as a way to leave the restraints of europe behind. Significance: The significance of freehold property was that this concept was the reason many chose to come to America.

Bacon's Rebellion

Def: an event in 1676, conflict between poorer and wealthier English colonist. A number of conflicts arose during this time. As life span for indentured servants prolonged, many of them wanted their own land as it was in their right to be granted land after having served their time of service to their owner. Colonist against Indians 1644 - the tribal group of Opechancanough mounted a failed attack against virginians. This resulted in another tribal group signing a treaty confining their land from settlers in the north side of the york river. The treaty failed and in 1646, The English came into contact with the Iroquois War Parties ( a tribal group that managed trade with settlers before) . Nathaniel Bacon comes into play in 1675 leading English Settlers into attacks on Foreign Indians. This was a fight for more land as the English Settlers were running out of land and began encroaching onto Indian lands. Indentured servants were not going to be a stable esupply of labor, they had no ladn to give them after their time of servie was up, this lead to colonists seeking another labor force Bacon's rebellion was an uprising in the late 17th century against American Indians and the colonial government in the Virginia Colony. The governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley did not want to have conflict with the indigenous Native Indians in their periphery. His decision prevented landless white farmers, indentured servants who finished their contract, from acquiring land. Nathaniel Bacon opposed this decision and led a rebellion, composed by landless white-men and black slaves, in 1676 until 1677. He increased hostilities from the Indians with the belief that the governor Berkeley would not provide adequate protection, and resented Berkeley for giving special privileges to his favorites which deprived the freemen of their rights. The rebellion ended up as a defeat for the rebels in 1677.

Stamp Act Controversy

Def: imposed in 1765, the Stamp Act was part of a program to raise revenue and assert parliamentary supremacy over colonial legislature. It imposed a direct tax, that had nothing to do with regulation of international commerce, on EVERY printed material (newspapers, books, pamphlets, liquor licenses, land conveyance, college diplomas, wills and decks of playing cards). Required every item to have a special stamp to show that the tax was paid - hence Stamp Act. the Act weighted most heavily on coastal colonies where printing presses were located. Almost immediately, the act ignited a major political crisis since colonies claimed that it's an assault on their traditional political rights and privileges as British subjects. They also claimed that it was imposed without their consent since they didn't elect representatives to the parliament (angry about the act, not about the price- which wasn't very high). Significance: the act led to the unification of the 13 oldest colonies and the formation of the Sons of Liberty group which defied the act and mobilized large group of supporters to take the streets. After heavy pressure (diplomatic and violent) the act was repealed in 1766. Even though the Act was repealed, its ignited crisis was alive. It successfully unified 13 of British colonies (which were very diverse in interests and histories).

Pontiac's Rebellion

Def: in April 1763, after the 7 year war, and as a response to the Treaty of Paris and to British colonists moving to their lands, (Reason: Native American living in former French territory found the new British authorities to be far less conciliatory than their predecessors) Pontiac (an Ottawa chief) convened an Indian war council of the Great lakes and the Ohio Valley area in April to encourage purging British lands. Pontiac's rebellion drew on Neolin's ideas to unify all Indians and differentiate them from the "white men". In a few month Pontiac and his people seized 9 British forts, besieged Detroit and killed hundreds of settlers and British soldiers. They reclaimed much of the land where the war began in 1754. In 1673, Pontiac, an Indian chief who was inspired by Pan-Indianism summoned a war council in the Great Lakes Region and Ohio Valley. They launched an attack on the British and attempted to kick the British out of the area but eventually the British regained the land that they lost. Overall, the rebellion had to remove British presence. Significance: the Rebellion established the key point that Indians regarded Ohio and the Great Lakes as their land, and led to the Proclamation of 1763 which established the Appalachian Mountains as the western border of Euro-American settlement. -As a result of Pontiac's Rebellion, the Proclamation line of 1763 would be formed to protect colonists from the Indians. The proclamation, however, made many colonists upset and caused tension in the colonies.

Great Lakes Region

Def:Pay d'en Haut, the French name of Great Lakes Region, indicated the strong influences of France in this large area. Significance:Although politically claimed by France, French colonists did not tightly control and dedicatedly cultivate the land. Unlike the British colonies in the east, French colonists enjoyed good relationship with Native American groups in Great Lake Region. Only sparsely resided, French colonists were more interested in trading the animal furs and skins with Native Americans rather than growing staple agriculture. The smaller number of French population made the Indian-French alliance more important. Further, Frenchman also chose to intermarry with native women, supplied Indian men with European goods (including weapons), and used these relationships to build a larger empire.

Competing Conceptions of Landed Property

Europeans and Indigenous Populations saw land from distinct perspectives that resulted in conflicts and disagreements in their interactions. Europeans saw land as private, fixed property that determined one's status and wealth, where land could be bounded and fenced. In contrast, indigenous populations saw land as movable property and a symbol of group sovereignty and collective identity. Land could not be owned. Natives also used land to its max potential, complete with deliberate tech innovations.

North Atlantic Warm Period

From 900-1300, higher average temperatures increased the number of frost-free days on much of North America. Growing seasons became longer and more reliable, making it possible to grow food crops that were originally from Mesoamerica. The warming period allowed the Agricultural Revolution to follow, leading to denser living patterns, and more substantial civilizations.

Cowrie Shells

From tropical regions in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, these were prized for their beauty and durability. During the 17-18th century, they were used as currency among slave traders in Africa. Merchants from Europe passing through Asia would stop and purchase these shells. Because of global commerce, these turn up in places like the Chesapeake region where slaves used to live.

Adelantados

In 1402, King Enrique of Spanish kingdom of Castile authorized conquerors to organize and fund raids on Canary Islands. They paid the monarch 1/5 of cuts, taxes, resources of the areas they conquered. They captured various parts of Canary Islands over the 15th century killing and enslaving many of the indigenous population.

King Phillip's War

Metacom, whom the colonists called Philip was in conflict with south New England Europeans. Metacon, Phillip, attacked the Plymouth town of Swansea in June 1675. More than fifty New England towns would face such assaults over the next fourteen months, and half of them were destroyed. Colonist would call this Kings Philip's War, but it involved mane more Algonquian Indians than just Metacom and the Wampanoags. King Philip's war stems from the conflict between land, resources, and political boundaries between the British and the American Indians. At first, Metacom also known as King Philip wanted to keep the harmony between the Wampanoags and the colonists of New England just as his father did. However, the steady encroachment of colonists from Plymouth led Metacom to resist their expansion. King Philip's war began after 3 Wampanoags were hanged in Plymouth in 1675. The colonist outnumbered the natives 30,000 to 20,000, but Metacom allied with neighbor tribes and attacked towns in New England. These attacks drove the colonists back towards the Atlantic Coast. Sustaining heavy losses throughout the majority of the war (1675-1678) the Iroquois Indians intervened by providing aid to the colonists. The colonists retaliated by destroying native villages, killing and selling the natives into slavery. The war ended in 1678 with the death of Metacom. Significance: King Philip's war reinforced the image of Indian "savages" in the eye's of the colonists. After the war Native American resistance decreased and allowed the colonists to resume westward expansion.

Chaco Canyon

Population of several thousand who lived in stone housing blocks, one especially was Pueblo Bonito with 700 rooms. Besides its physical grandeur, Chaco Canyon served as a metropolitan center in the Four Corners area of New Mexico with over 250 miles of roads that connected immigrants, produce, political supporters, religious pilgrims, and visitors who came to settle down or celebrate festivals.

Sao Tome and Principe

Portuguese were limited to the coastlines but claimed two islands in the Gulf of Guinea in 1471 which they colonized in 1485. Sao Tome was the beginnings of the large scale African Slave Trade since it became a sugar plantation complete with labour exploitation, increased economic activity, imported africans.

Middle Passage

Second leg of the triangle trade across the Atlantic that transported over 12M slaves. It brought slave ships of 200-400 slaves back to the Americas from Africa filled with human cargo in brutal conditions where the death rate was high. Upon arrival in the Americas, the slaves were resold, transported to plantations or farms to live under forced labor.

Slavery in the North

Smaller scale compared to the South. Key difference being that slavery in the north was more urban. In states north of Chesapeake, like New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, there were around 30 000 slaves as compared to 200 000 in the South in 1715. Lived in proximity to white people and aroused white suspicions of slave revolts.

Creolization

Someone born in a colony. North American slavery became creolized, this is different from other slave systems. Creoles were more immune to disease, the sex ratios gradually evened out an increased birthrates. This does not necessarily mean "assimilation", can still have strong African connection.

New Imperial Policy

The New Imperial Policy (1763-1770): the French and Indian war affected negatively the relationship between the British Empire and the American colonies. To pay off the Britain's debt for the war, British increase taxes, imposed higher import duties on sugar and tobacco, and enforced more strictly on Navigation Acts. Around 1765, 10 thousands British soldiers remained in North America and marked a shift in the Imperial Policy. After a long period of governing lightly from afar, Britain was now asserting its power overseas. Although welcomed in areas where British settlers faced rival European settlers and African-slave majority, in other areas of white-British majority the "Redcoats" appeared to be a massive police force. -The British government wanted to raise money and and alter behavior. There was a massive war debt as a result of the French and Indian war. The British government imposed taxes on the colonists to raise money. The British government had borrowed a lot of money and tried to pass the cost of the war onto the colonies. Significance: to the colonists the new policies (and laws that accompanied them, such as laws granting military access to private homes) signified a military state which imposed itself on the rights of private citizens - growing the colonists away from the British empire. The colonists were not happy of new imperial policy. It was the beginning of organized multi-colony opposition to British policy. The colonists were angry because they still has no representation in parliament. The new imperial policy caused polite petitions, nasty pamphlet attacks, printers were antagonistic, violent demonstrations.

Massachusetts Bible

The Puritan emphasis on reading Scripture produced broad literacy. 1638, minister John Eliot embarked on massive publishing project to translate the Bible to Massachusetts language to spread literacy. By 1660, New England was the most literate societies in the Americas, with the requirement by colonial law that parents teach their children how to read.

Paleo-Indians

The early indigenous Americans who settled areas in North America as well as Central America and South America. Major protein sources were hunted and gathered rather than harvested. Developed distinct languages, religions cultures that set the stage for larger civilizations. In warmer Central American, maize was first grown in 500BCE and over the next several millennia, maize became the foundation of agricultural societies throughout the region. Complex civilizations began to develop around 2000BCE in Mesoamerica, like the Olmecs in Mexico, Mayans on the Yucatan peninsula, and the Zapotecs in central America.

Santa Fe

With internal backlash against the harsh treatment of the Spanish conquistadors on the native population, the new "discoveries" were to be lead by Franciscan priests. A contract given to miner Juan de Onate by the king, however, allowed him to establish the colony of Santa Fe in New Mexico. Onate was able to secure fealty of many of the Pueblo chiefs but even then, violence broke out. 800 Pueblo indians were killed with Onate's nephew got into a dispute with one of the Pueblo tribes and was killed. This violence caused the king to to take back the contract and make Santa Fe a royal colony, under the leadership of the Franciscan priests. However, the priests also caused tensions to rise when they outright banned many of the traditional Pueblo ceremonial practices in order to convert them to Christianity. This lead to the Pueblo Revolt which would successfully overthrow the Spanish from Santa Fe and the New Mexico territory for 12 years. Significance: The Spanish colonization of Santa Fe and New Mexico ultimately failed because they were too forceful onto the native Pueblo Indians. By outright slaughtering hundreds and forbidding them from practicing their cultural ceremonies for a religion they hardly cared about, animosity against their Spanish rulers began to grow which would ultimately lead to the Pueblo Revolt where the Pueblo Indians, though distinct, would band together to overthrow the Spanish rule in Santa Fe and thereby, New Mexico.