History of International Relations

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

Led the country during the *Great Depression*, a reorganization of the American political system and consciousness under the *New Deal Coalition, and WWII*. 1945 His early foreign policy was first to stay uninvolved through a quarantine strategy, then to make the USA the "Arsenal of Democracy" and provide weapons, e.g. through *Lend-Lease, while remaining officially neutral* and to be militarily prepared while managing isolationist sentiment. When *Pearl Harbor* was attacked, the US gladly entered the war and *cooperated with the Allies and China*. At the *Tehran and Yalta Conferences*, he indicated his belief in Stalin's trustworthiness. With the *1941 War Powers Act*, he increased the powers of the executive branch. Many of his ideas were instrumental in establishing the *UN and the Bretton-Woods system. Used the UN to prevent the U.S. from retreating back into isolationism.*

Détente

Literally means "the relaxing of tense relations." Charles de Gaulle and Kissinger. The term is used to define the period of improved relations between the Soviet Union and the U.S. starting in 1971 between President Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev. The idea was to increase trade and decrease the threat of nuclear war by limiting arms races. Pretty Realist. Nixon was the first POTUS to visit Moscow, and there, he and Brezhnev signed seven agreements regarding the prevention of military force and cooperation of trade and space exploration. ABM Treaty. Nixon and Brezhnev were also involved in the SALT talks (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), which represented the continuation of peace between the two nations. Detente more or less ended after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan and under President Reagan, who ran on the platform of anti-detente. START/SDI (1980)

Cardinal Richelieu

Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624-1642. He was highly influential in French politics. He is most well known for reforming the navy and army, crushed rebellions and promoted royal absolutism, and supervised a foreign policy that was supposed to make France the greatest power in Europe. By his death he had made France a serious player in Europe and was responsible for the capturing of strategic Western European cities. Wanted all of France's allies included in the Peace of Westphalia, and intervened to negotiate the Treaty of Hamburg.

Mexican-American War

Occurred from *1846-1848 under James K. Polk and General Santa Anna, as a result of the annexation of Texas in 1845*. The US refused to allow Texas into the Union due to its label as a slave state, but after Polk was elected, he called for the re-annexation of Texas a result of his expansionist interests/ *manifest destiny*. Polk attempted and failed to buy the land of the present-day Southwest, which enabled his decision to move troops into the disputed zone and ultimately steal the territory from Mexico. Resolved by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in a decisive USA victory, which gave Alta California/New Mexico/Texas to USA. However, this brought the issue of slavery back into question again (see the Compromise of 1850). *Some scholars—as well as future US presidents like Ulysses S. Grant—see the war as a cause of the Civil War.*

America First Committee (1940s)

One of largest anti-war groups in USA history, it was *a major voice against intervention/involvement in WWII, a response to Lend-Lease* (when FDR was giving weapons to Europe, while remaining neutral). Started at Yale in *1940, dissolved 3 days after Pearl Harbor in 1941*. The Committee advocated these ideas: • The United States must build an impregnable defense for America. • No foreign power, nor group of powers, can successfully attack a prepared America. • American democracy can be preserved only by keeping out of the European war. • "Aid short of war" weakens national defense at home and threatens to involve America in war abroad.

Reasons for America's 'Rise to Globalism'

Reference to the textbook from American Foreign Policy, highlight *how dramatic the 200 year arc of history has been for the US foreign policy*. Historical context for *american feel of vulnerability*, America has exceptionalist character but in turn has developed a sense of vulnerability because everyone feels threatened by us so they would want to hurt us. Can be traced back to 1519 when Cortez arrives. *Preferred term for describing the sweeping arc of history from fragile network of colonists to the powerful world actor that it is today.* Powerful world actor by the end of the 19th century but world power by 1945.

Prerequisites of Peace (Holsti)

Says that some peace agreements are simply badly designed and therefore fail. *Having good settlement mechanisms will prevent system-destroying wars such as WWI.* Governance Legitimacy: all parties must be legitimate Assimilation: mechanism to bring all parties back into the system (losers & winners) Deterrence: work by early identification of guilty party Procedures for Peaceful Change: if all problems are not solved with war, there needs to be another way to change the system through mechanisms Anticipation of Future Issues: look for future areas of conflict (have yet to truly accomplish this) Conflict Resolution: if not guilty party is identified Consensus on War: should be seen as a bad outcome (established in treaty at end of war)

Roosevelt Corollary

See Monroe Doctrine

William Henry Seward

Served as Secretary of State under President Abraham Lincoln beginning in 1860. *Firmly opposed to slavery and to foreign intervention in the Civil War (didn't want Europe trading with the Confederacy)*, keeping UK and France out. As Johnson's SoS, he tried to *end UK-French-Spanish military intervention in Mexico* that was violating the Monroe Doctrine but could not due to the Civil War. Also purchased *Alaska* from the Russians.

Treaty of Paris

Signed 1783, it ended the Revolutionary War and delineated American borders: Canada to the north, Florida to the south, and the Mississippi River to the west.

Treaty of Versailles

Signed 1919 to end WWI between Germany and the Allied Powers; *however, it took six more months of negotiations to fully conclude the Paris Peace Settlement. * The most controversial part of the treaty was Article 231, the *War Guilt Clause, which placed the blame of the war on Germany*. Terms of the treaty include: *surrender of all German colonies as the League of Nations mandates; return of Alsace-Lorraine to France; cessation of German territory to Poland; occupation of the Saar by French forces; demilitarization and occupation of the Rhineland; greatly reducing the size of the German army; war reparations.*

French Revolution (c. 1789-1799)

Significance: *The French Revolution was a turning point for the sovereign state system.* *While previously sovereign states were led by rulers who either inherited the throne or had to go to war in order to win the throne, now leaders were elected based on popular sovereignty and ideals.* The French Revolution set a precedent in Europe for a new form of inter-state relations within the international system. Inspired by the American Revolution. *Wars would be fought among states/peoples rather than within them or over them.*

Vladimir Lenin

(1870-1924) He was the founder of the Russian Communist Party and the *leader of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. He was the first head of the Soviet Union.* The Bolshevik's consolidated power by privatizing all aspects of Soviet economy, cracking down on dissent through secret police and instituting the *Red Terror aiming at destroying monarchist and anti-Bolshevik sympathizers* during the the Russian Civil War. He aimed at shaping the future of the Soviet Union warning against unchecked power of party members (including Stalin). Obviously, his warning was unheard and Stalin emerged as the next leader.

Alien and Sedition Acts

(Pretty controlling) Stemmed from the pro-UK vs. pro-French political divide at the times. A series of laws passed by the Federalist Congress in 1798 and signed into law by President Adams. The laws included the power to deport foreigners and the ability to make it harder for immigrants to vote. These Acts are a response to the threats Congress believed new immigrants posed to American security. The Sedition Act included laws allowing government control over individual actions, in an effort to maintain control over the government (control dissenters in the Federalist party) and, in their opinions, guarantee the survival of the new nation. The Alien Enemies Act remained in existence through WWII, when it was used to detain/deport Japanese, German, and Italian Americans. In 1917 the USA passed the *Espionage Act*, used to charge the Rosenbergs and Snowden. In 1918 the USA passed the Sedition Act of 1918 to extend the 1917 legislation to cover speech that cast the government or war effort in a negative light or interfered with the sale of government bonds. It was repealed in 1920.

Spanish-American War (1898)

*1898 conflict between Spain and USA as a result of USA's involvement in Cuban independence war* thanks to yellow journalism. *USA also attacked Spanish holdings in the Philippines, leading to the Philippine-American War* and conquest of that territory. The 1898 Treaty of Paris also gave USA control of Guam and Puerto Rico. Aside from being the *end of the Spanish Empire*, it was one of only 5 wars declared by Congress. During the war, the U.S. annexed Hawaii. The Spanish-American War allowed the U.S. to establish its predominance in the Caribbean region as well as pursue its economic and strategic interests in Asia. *Musgrave: this is the start of the USA's colonial empire formed by Teddy Roosevelt and Henry Cabot Lodge.*

Philippine Insurrection

*1899-1902 was a war between USA and Philippines (Aguinaldo), arising from USA victory in the Spanish-American War* and the 1896 Philippine revolution. USA at first allowed for very limited governance, then slightly expanded Filipino power under *Wilson*. In 1946, following Japanese occupation, the USA finally granted independence under the Treaty of Manila. Also, the Americans probably committed a lot of atrocities. *Representative case for the American era of colonialism in which the US pressed its idea of civilization on the Philippines.*

Lusitania

*1915. Sinking of British Submarine*. Germany justified attacking the passenger ship by saying it was carrying munitions and was therefore an enemy ship. 128 Americans died in the attack which prompted President Wilson to send a strongly worded letter to the German government demanding an apology and that Germany cease U-boat attacks and compensate the victims. Germany apologized but resumed unrestricted U-Boat warfare in 1917, and the sinking of the Lusitania became an *eventual motivation for the USA's entrance into WWI*.

The Concert of Europe

*A balance of power system* that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of WWI. Consensus among European leaders to *preserve territory and status quo*. The Great Powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain, France admitted later) assumed the *right/responsibility to intervene and impose their collective will on states threatened by rebellion*. Sometimes known as the Age of Metternich, due to the influence of the Austrian chancellor's conservatism and the dominance of Austria within the German Confederation, or as the European Restoration because it returned to pre-Napoleon Europe. Significance: Trying to restructure the international system in the wake of the Napoleonic Wars.

Pearl Harbor Attack

*December 7, 1941.* Hundreds of *Japanese* fighter planes attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. The attack lasted two hours, but with devastating outcomes. The Japanese destroyed 20 American naval vessels and 200 airplanes. Over 2,000 American soldiers and sailors died and another 1,000 were wounded. *The day after the assault, President Roosevelt declared war on Japan, which entered the US into World War II*. *Judged to be a war crime due to lack of advance warning.* Significance: U.S. entrance into WWII

Napoleon III

*First President of Second French Republic 1848-1852, Emperor of France 1852-1870*. Was leader of France during the Franco-German War of 1870. He wanted to assert France as a European decision maker, *going against the European system set up by the Congress of Vienna* which he felt did not sufficiently include France. In foreign policy, he wanted to restore France's role and supported sovereignty and nationalism (e.g. creating new state of Italy based on nationalism). Allied France with UK to defeat Russia in the Crimean War 1853-1856. Assisted Italian unification. Expanded French empire overseas. *Had to face rising Prussian power under Otto von Bismarck; in 1870, France entered and lost the Franco-Prussian War*. Overall, he wanted to assert France's power as a European decision-maker, which he felt was not significantly recognized in the Concert of Europe.

The Franco-Prussian War

*France felt threatened by the possible enclosure of Prussia* (united with German states) and Spain because there was a Prussian Prince in line for the Spanish throne. France reacted by pressuring the Prussian-related prince to withdraw his eligibility for the throne which he eventually did. Prussia did not want to cave so easily and so they provoked the French into declaring war. *The current leaders of the time were Prussian Kaiser Wilhelm I (w/Chancellor Otto von Bismark) and French Emperor Napoleon III.* Germany had a quick and crushing defeat of France. This war reinforced Prussian military power and uniting all Germanic states except Austria under Bismarck. *The war was ended with the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt, which gave Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and forced France to pay large reparations.* Significance: The rise of Prussian dominance and the end of a powerful French empire. Reinforced nationalism and threatened the international system by strengthening Germany.

Glasnost and Perestroika

*Glasnost* is openness and Perestroika is restructuring. Glasnost was instituted by Gorbachev in 1986 to end government corruption/abuse of power and to lead to societal openness—for example, a letter criticizing him was published in a major newspaper. Also led to openness about the past e.g. the Purges, which therefore led to negativity about the USSR's socialist project. *Perestroika* was the restructuring of political and economic systems, also announced in 1986. Political elements: Democratization policy, threw out old and brought in new members of the Politburo (cabinet), ended monopoly of the Party, multi-party elections, and in 1989 convened the first Congress of People's Deputies (popularly-elected representatives). However, he maintained government price controls, government monopolies, and other policies, which severely screwed up the economy when central planning diminished. He wanted to preserve the economy but it collapsed instead—compare to China's reforms under Deng Xiaoping, which were more bottom-up.

Louisiana Purchase

*Purchase of Louisiana Territory from Napoleonic France in 1803* for 15 million USD. France had controlled the territory until 1762, when as a result of the Seven Years' War it was ceded to Spain. Napoleon got it back in 1800, but that remained secret and was only revealed a few weeks before the USA got it—in the meantime, in 1798, Spain had signed a treaty preventing the US from trading via New Orleans. *Important for protecting US trade access to New Orleans and Mississippi.* Also in 1803, France withdrew troops from St. Domingue, giving up its foothold in the New World. *Louisiana Purchase double size of U.S.* Part or all of 15 states were eventually created from the land deal, which is considered one of the most important achievements of *Thomas Jefferson*'s presidency.

Great Game

*Strategic rivalry and conflict between Russia and Britain over supremacy in Central Asia.* Took place approximately *from the Russo-Persian Treaty of 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907.* *UK thought Russian expansion in Asia would eventually reach India and take the crown jewel*, so it launched a war in Afghanistan in 1840s to impose its own puppet regime. Failed. Tried it again in 1878, did better. In the early 1900s, with Russia having annexed Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, the game shifted to Tibet, Mongolia, and China. *Alarmed by German work in the Middle East, the two signed a convention, the Anglo-Russian Entente, 1907 and ended the period of competition, yet another foundation of WWI.* End product became part of the Triple Entente. *The Convention divided Persia into a Russian-controlled northern zone, a nominally independent central zone, and a British-controlled southern zone*. Also specified border between the two empires running from the eastern point of Persia to Afghanistan, and declared Afghanistan an official protectorate of Britain. Lesson: The great powers were comfortable with the peace on the European continent post-1815 because of conflict elsewhere; *at the 1885 Congress of Berlin, Bismarck tries to mute European conflict by divvying up Africa.*

Open Door Policy

*U.S. policy of promoting equal opportunity for international trade and commerce in China as well as respect and recognition of China's administrative and territorial integrity*. American and British policies towards China had always operated under similar principles but were never officially documented until Hay wrote them down, which became known as the "Open Door Notes." Became the official U.S. policy towards the Far East for the first half of the 20th century. Significance: *Was based in part of the most favored nation clauses established in the Treaties of Wangxia and Tianjin*. *The Open Door Notes served the purpose of outlining the U.S. policy towards China and the U.S.' desire for cooperation with the other foreign powers that also had an interest in the region*. This Policy also represented growing U.S. interest in the region. For China, it serves as a symbol of national humiliation because everyone ignored its sovereignty.

French and Indian War

1754-1763, the North American theater of the *Seven Years' War* between France and UK. Pitted UK and Iroquois and Cherokee against France, Wabanaki Confederacy, Algonquin, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Shawnee, et al. Began with a dispute over present-day Pittsburgh; conflict spanned from Virginian frontier to Nova Scotia. The American fighting ended with the 1763 Treaty of Paris and European fighting ended with the Treaty of Hubertusburg. Significance: In result, France ceded territory east of the Mississippi to UK, west of the Mississippi to Spain, and lost much of its presence in the Caribbean, cementing *UK's role as the dominant North American and global power*. One of the most significant French-UK conflicts of its time. *Because the colonists were no longer threatened by French or Indians, they no longer needed UK protection (nor to pay for it), and so instigated the Revolution.*

Talleyrand

1754-1838, Prime Minister and other roles of France in 1815. Known for crafty, cynical diplomacy. As Napoleon's chief diplomatic aide, he focused on guaranteeing peace with Austria and UK, but then he began working against Napoleon, with Tsar Aleksandr and Metternich in order to protect the French people. He worked via the Congress of Vienna to restore the Bourbons to the throne in France. He negotiated a favorable settlement while undoing Napoleon's conquests by allowing Prussia to control the Rhine's left bank, which had implications for WWI and WWII.

American Revolution

1776-1783. Elites wanted to make America independent because it was more populous and richer in natural resources and no longer needed the UK. The beginning of America. Began with the Shot Heard Around the World at Lexington and Concord in 1775. The Continental Army was under the control of George Washington and during the first few years of war, suffered humiliating defeats. The Battle of Saratoga was a turning point for the Continental Army as their first major defeat of British forces. *In 1778, France officially recognized American independence and formed an alliance with the new nation. In 1778, France allied with USA, leading to conflict between UK/Spain/Netherlands vs. France/USA.* *Significance*: Demonstrated the first successful revolution against an imperial, colonial European power during this age of Monarchies. Arguably French support could be seen to have resulted in an early example of blowback, in that revolutionary success in the British colonies helped inspired France's own revolution in the next decade.

The Holy Alliance

1815-1853. A coalition formed by Alexander I with the monarchs of *Austria, Prussia, and Russia with the ultimate goal of defeating Napoleon* and preserving Europe. *Had its basis in the "divine right" of kings to rule in Europe*—the monarchs promised to uphold Christian principles of peace and charity (combined Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant monarchs). Ended with the Crimean War. It was a major force and symbol of conservatism and repression in Central/Eastern Europe, comprised solely of autocracies. However, it was also the most effective of the alliances to prevent wars in Europe that existed between 1815-1914.

John Quincy Adams

1825-29. 6th president of the U.S. Important policies authored during his time as SoS include the acquisition of Florida, the Rush-Bagot Treaty with Britain concerning the Great Lakes, the Treaty of 1818 with Britain concerning Oregon Country, and the *Monroe Doctrine*. The Erie Canal was completed while Adams was in office, linking the Great Lakes to East Coast and enabling a flow of products such as grain, whiskey and farm produce to Eastern markets.

Great Depression

1929-late 1930s. Started in USA and spread around the world, affecting Western Europe very hard while the USSR and Japan were relatively untouched. A global economic slowdown in the 1930s which was precipitated by several factors: *1)* shifts in international balances of power after WWI, *2)* the disposal of the Gold standard in order to pay for WWI and the subsequent attempts to revive it (causing financial markets to become inflexible and less agile) and *3)* a confluence of financial breakdowns, including the 1929 U.S. stock market crash and European financial difficulties. Persisted throughout the 1930s because of lacking international cooperation among governments and central banks. *This led to relative isolation of the United States from the international system.*

Marshall Plan

1948-1952. In 1947 Truman's SoS George Marshall proposed the Marshall Plan, which provided aid to 16 European countries to rebuild their economies after WWII, lift trade barriers, and industrialize. It was offered to the Soviet bloc but the USSR refused, because they wanted to prevent the US gaining power over communist countries, and thus this fits with the policy of containment and helped lead to the Cold War.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

1949, headquarters in Brussels. Collective defense system whereby members agree to mutual defense if a member is attacked by an external party. Now 28 states. Warsaw Pact was formed in 1955 in opposition to NATO. Important military operations: Bosnian War (enforced no-fly zone in 1993), intervention in Kosovo (led bombing campaign in 1999), Afghanistan War (operations began in 2001), Libya intervention (no-fly zone and arms embargo in 2011). FYI: I think Article 6 is the most important because NATO members are calling it into question right now. Should we use NATO to intervene in areas not protected by NATO? Article 3: All nations will strengthen their military capabilities to protect themselves from armed attack Article 4: The Parties will consult together whenever, in the opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened. Article 5: Core article of the North Atlantic Treaty that says that any attack on a NATO member state is an attack against the alliance and therefore each member state will assist the party or parties being attacked. Only invoked in Afghanistan in 2001. Article 6: defines the areas in which an armed attack can invoke Article 5: on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian Departments of France (2), on the territory of or on the Islands under the jurisdiction of any of the Parties in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer; (3) on the forces, vessels, or aircraft of any of the Parties, when in or over these territories or any other area in Europe.

Korean War

1950-1953 (Truman--part of Truman Doctrine of Containment). It was a war between North Korea (with the aid of China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (with the aid of the UN backed primarily by the United States). *After the Second World War*, the Soviets had occupied Korea from the 38th parallel and up, while the U.S. occupied everything south of that, but neither side respected the border. North Korean forces (backed by China and Soviet Union) crossed the border in 1950 and the UN recognized it as an act of aggression/invasion. *This was considered the first military invasion of the Cold War.* Significance: The U.S. had feared that the Korean War symbolized more than a border dispute, but rather, that communism was gaining too much of a foothold in the East, which might then spread elsewhere. Containment.

Vietnam

1955-1975. A war between Northern Vietnam (backed by China and the Soviet Union) and Southern Vietnam (backed by the U.S.). Primarily guerilla warfare, the North ends up victorious after troops take Saigon in 1975, highly protested war in the U.S., Vietnam is reunified after the war. Began under Eisenhower in 1954 with his treatment of Vietnam as fulcrum of balance of power (i.e. communist proxy war/domino theory). Continued under JFK, who wanted the South Vietnamese to do the bulk of the fighting against the Viet Cong. *LBJ signed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which authorized unlimited US combat involvement.* *Tet Offensive: a series of attacks in 1968 on over a hundred towns in Southern Vietnam by North Vietnamese troops. The offensive marked a turning point in the war and the start of the U.S.'s withdrawal of troops.* In 1973, *Nixon withdrew the USA from Vietnam as part of his Vietnamization* (aka "expand, equip, and train South Vietnam's forces and assign to them an ever-increasing combat role, at the same time steadily reducing the number of U.S. combat troops"). The Viet Cong ultimately won when the war fully ended in 1975. Reagan recognized the war as a syndrome. Significance: We're still feeling the effects of this war on the American FP/mil psyche.

Monroe Doctrine

A 1823 doctrine enacted by President Monroe (articulated by then-Secretary of State John Quincy Adams). This doctrine stated that should European or any other states colonize or attempt to interfere in North or South America, it would be viewed by America as an act of aggression. Simultaneously, the USA would not interfere in Europe or with existing European colonies. (lol ok) This doctrine worked because the British backed it, with the hopes of keeping other European powers out of the Americas. Significance: Invoked later by Roosevelt, JFK, Reagan, et al. The doctrine brought tones of moralism and self-righteousness into USFP. (Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine 1904 allowed for U.S. intervention in Latin American Affairs-->big stick policy Significance: Relevant to the Cuban Missile Crisis, where communism expanded into the Western Hemisphere, and to Iran-Contra, when CIA Director Robert Gates argued that failing to intervene in Nicaragua would mean abandoning the Monroe Doctrine. Thus it is also relevant to other presidents' actions in Central America, e.g. Eisenhower's covert ops.) BASICALLY we have made a rule for ourselves that we can do whatever we want in Latin America and LA just has to deal with it.

Dawes Plan (1924)

A US-sponsored attempt to solve the reparations problem posed by the Dawes Committee, made up of representatives from Belgium, France, Italy, UK, and US after it became clear that the Treaty of Versailles terms were not sustainable. The plan recommended: *The Ruhr area was to be evacuated by Allied occupation troops*; Reparation payments would begin at one billion marks the first year, increasing annually to two and a half billion marks after five years; The Reichsbank would be re-organized under Allied supervision; The sources for the reparation money would include transportation, excise, and customs taxes; *Germany would be loaned 800 Million Marks from the USA.* *While the plan helped the German economy, it also tied that economy to the US, so the Great Depression greatly affected Germany too.* The plan was replaced by the Young Plan in 1929.

Appeasement

A foreign policy strategy of making concessions to an adversary in order to avoid direct military conflict. The tactic was made infamous by British *Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain* during the interwar period, as his strategy backfired after attempting to implement it against Nazi Germany. *His policy of appeasement towards Adolf Hitler culminated in the Munich Agreement in which Britain and France accepted that the Czech region of the Sudetenland should be ceded to Germany.* This fear led to the adoption of deterrence policy by the United States, who currently uses hard power capabilities to influence other actors in the international system. *While appeasement allowed concessions to adversaries to avoid military conflict, deterrence threatens hard power conflicts should an actor not be well behaved*.

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

A pact signed between German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov *(Hitler-Stalin)* in August 1939 which provided that German manufactured goods would be traded for Soviet raw materials. This was coupled with a non-aggression pact. The pact also included the partition of *Eastern Europe into spheres of influence*, allowing Germans and Soviets to take control of these territories without opposition from the other party. The Pact was breached in December 1940 when Hitler invaded the Soviet Union. *Shows how Germany and Russia each viewed each other as their biggest threat.*

Isolationism (1930s)

A phase which the United States went through politically during the 1930s, during which time *public opinion was so broadly opposed to American military and economic involvement beyond its borders that both Presidents Hoover and Roosevelt were forced to focus on domestic economic issues* and had to avoid several military engagements abroad. Arose from the combination of the Great Depression and WWI. *Although intervention in Latin America continued, public opinion sought to keep the USA out of conflicts in Europe and Asia (despite things like Lend-Lease with the UK)*. Influential shapers of this movement include the Nye Report, which claimed that American industry and bankers found WWI in their interest, and the book Merchants of Death. Hawley-Smoot Tariff was isolationist and led to the Great Depression.

Entente cordiale

A series of agreements between *France and UK* signed August 1904, marking the start of their *alliance against Germany and Austria-Hungary*. Focused on *managing colonial expansion* (UK got Egypt, France got Morocco), but its larger significance was that it *ended centuries of UK-French conflict* and formalized the peace that had existed between them since the Congress of Vienna. Along with the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1892 and the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907, *it was part of the Triple Entente that led to WWI*.

"Eastern Problem"

AKA "Eastern Question." *The eternal question of how to deal with the declining Ottoman Empire*, whose decline led to rising nationalist movements e.g. in *Greece and the Balkans*. Generally stretches from Turkish defeat in *1774* Russo-Turkish War to the division of the Empire *after WWI*. The European powers engaged in a power struggle to safeguard their military, strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. *Any internal change in the Turkish domains caused tension among the European powers*, each of which feared that one of the others might take advantage of the political disarray to increase its own influence. The eventual distribution of the Ottoman territories was as follows: the Balkan provinces emerged in the course of the century as independent states, often under the influence of Russia or one of the other great powers; Britain occupied Cyprus in 1878 and Egypt in 1882 and acquired Palestine and Iraq as mandates after World War I; and France took over Syria and Lebanon in 1920. Turkey, the heart of the Ottoman state, won recognition as an independent republic in 1923.

Castlereagh

AKA Robert Stewart, Viscount Castereagh, he served as British foreign secretary from 1812-1822. *He played a major role in gathering the alliance (via the Treaty of Chamount) that defeated Napoleon and was heavily involved in the subsequent Congress of Vienna.* He also was the virtual *creator of the concept of the Concert of Europe*, and proposed the congress system of collective security for Europe at the Congress of Vienna. *He wanted to eliminate future revolutions*.

Atlantic Charter

After Allied forces (Britain, Greek and Yugoslav) had suffered defeat in the Balkans, which placed the Suez Canal in danger of Nazi takeover. If the Nazis took it over, it would restrict British access to its Indian possessions. August 1941, *Churchill and FDR state Allies' common aims for post-war period*, although USA had not yet entered war (December 1941). *Outlined 8 common principles that US/UK would apply to post-war order; a step towards the UN*. Principles included that *victors would not take new territory; free trade; free seas; self-government; labor standards*.

George Kennan

American diplomat to USSR in 1952- one of the first trained as a Soviet specialist- made famous for his "Long Telegram," his anonymous Foreign Affairs article "Sources of Soviet Conduct," and his advocacy for a containment policy against the USSR although he later argued that he had been misunderstood.

Woodrow Wilson (president 1913-1921)

As a result of the *Zimmerman Telegram*, which revealed a potential German-Mexican alliance, and several ships being sunk by Germans, Congress declared war and entered WWI in 1917. Wilson's *Fourteen Points* speech in 1918 laid out his program for a League of Nations that would promote peace. All nations were to have free trade, stop secret diplomacy, and have national self-determination. His main goal was to angle for American dominance politically and economically by the end of WWI. Significance/legacy: Global mediator, saw democracies as morally superior. Wilson sought global influence for the US based on soft power and the spread of a new world order based on American ideals. *Wilsonianism*, a foreign policy style popularized first by him, promoted democracy, interventionism, capitalism, and national self-determination. {Neo-conservatives --think Bush/Cheney-- are called Wilsonians in combat boots} While the *League of Nations* was founded in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, it failed to prevent World War II, leading many to criticize Wilson in the 1930s.

Prince von Metternich

Austrian statesman, minister of foreign affairs (1809-48), and a champion of reactionary conservatism, who helped form the victorious alliance against Napoleon I and who restored Austria as a leading European power, hosting the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15. Significant because it showed the nature of power politics and how alliances were formed during this era.

Neville Chamberlain

British Prime Minister from 1937 to 1940, infamous for his adoption of appeasement against Nazi Germany in the interwar period. The strategy allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia without British opposition which was agreed upon in the Munich Agreement. Chamberlain believed that this would satisfy the Nazi conquest and help Europe avoid war, however within a year German forces had claimed the rest of Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland. Chamberlain's strategy allowed Nazi Germany to grow large enough to threaten Western Europe and the United States, leading to the beginning of World War II.

Cold War

During World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union fought together as allies against the Axis powers. However, the relationship between the two nations was a tense one. Americans had long been wary of Soviet communism and concerned about Russian leader Joseph Stalin's tyrannical, blood-thirsty rule of his own country. For their part, the Soviets resented the Americans' decades-long refusal to treat the USSR as a legitimate part of the international community as well as their delayed entry into World War II, which resulted in the deaths of tens of millions of Russians. After the war ended, these grievances ripened into an overwhelming sense of mutual distrust and enmity. Postwar Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe fueled many Americans' fears of a Russian plan to control the world. Meanwhile, the USSR came to resent what they perceived as American officials' bellicose rhetoric, arms buildup and interventionist approach to international relations. In such a hostile atmosphere, no single party was entirely to blame for the Cold War; in fact, some historians believe it was inevitable. Major regional proxy wars include Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan, as well as proxy wars in technology e.g. the space race. No war was actually fought between US/USSR. Fall of the Berlin Wall signified end of Cold War and USSR.

Utrecht

Dutch city. Treaty of Utrecht in 1579 unites the Dutch Republic against the forces of Spain. Temporarily fell to the French in 1672. In *1713*, it hosted the 1713 *Treaty of Utrecht to end the Wars of Spanish Succession* among Spain, UK, France, Portugal, Savoy, Dutch Republic. *The treaty marked the end of France's hegemonic ambitions* as expressed in the politics of Louis XIV (l'etat c'est moi) and *preserved the Westphalian System*. Confirms balance of power > unified Europe.

Tsar Alexander I

Emperor of Russia from 1801-1825. He alternately fought and befriended Napoleon I during the Napoleonic Wars (1813-15) but ultimately helped form the coalition that defeated Napoleon 1. He took part in the *Congress of Vienna* (1814-15). *He formed the Holy Alliance with Prussia and Austria in 1815, a sign of his increasing conservatism and imperialism*, although in the *first half of his reign he had introduced liberal domestic reforms*. Notable events include the 1825 Decemberist Revolt, wanted to work on freeing the serfs. Believed in freedom with limits—aka increasing conservatism later on, under influence of Metternich perhaps.

San Francisco System

Established under Truman in 1952, it was a hub-and-spoke system of bilateral alliances between the United States (the hub) and several Asian states (the spokes) to protect against communist expansion and the emergence of a regional hegemon in Asia. Term particularly refers to two treaties signed then, one between the US and Japan, and one between Japan and 48 allied nations. Significance: *Solidified that the US was the financial and military center of world.* However, it has also created a divide between Japan and China or Japan and the rest of the system.

Hapsburgh Empire

Existed from 1526-1804 as part of the Holy Roman Empire (HRE), from 1804-1867 as the Austrian Empire, and 1867-1918 as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Never really existed as a formal country; included various parts of Central and Eastern Europe, even Spain, Italian bits, etc. Following various revolutions in 1848, the government sought more centrality and to anchor everything around the Vienna capital. In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise set up the two as a dual monarchy. The system as a whole and its many constituent nationalities, etc. collapsed with WWI. Major issues in its time include fighting against Napoleon, the period of Metternich. Significance: Old world order that was characterized by empires and feudal system until Westphalia.

Otto von Bismark

First German Chancellor from 1870-1890, known as the *unifier of Germany*, who ensured that Germany was strong enough to hold its own but not so strong that its strength threatened the security of its neighbors (military Prussia that excluded Austria). Under Kaiser Wilhelm the I, Bismarck used BoP diplomacy to maintain Germany's hegemony. Led several decisive victories against Denmark, Austria and France. Known also for Realpolitik in his diplomatic decision making. Usually classified as *Machiavellian, realist outlook*, instead of idealism, which would include a degree of morality. Fought the *Franco-Prussian war in 1870-71*. Significance: Didn't seek colonies, which limited Germany's overall influence. Brilliant at unifying Germany. *Rise of Germany = major upset to Congress of Vienna system*. France now wants support from UK and Russia.

Warsaw Pact

Formed in 1955, the Warsaw Pact was a mutual defense treaty between eight communist states of Eastern Europe (Soviet Bloc) in existence during the Cold War. It was a reaction to NATO in 1949 and further divided Europe. The European states were stuck in between two great powers afraid of a possible conflict that would erupt between the two. Brezhnev Doctrine states that no country can attempt to leave the Warsaw Pact.

Franco-Russian Alliance

From 1892-1917, this *alliance between France and Russia (Aleksandr III) ended France's diplomatic isolation following its losses in the Franco-Prussian War*, thereby *undermining Germany's absolute dominance over Europe*. *France remained Russia's main ally* till 1917 (even though one was a republic and one an absolute monarchy) in exchange for the promise that it would *receive support against Germany and would give Russia support against Austria-Hungary*. Obviously this *led to WWI. Part of the Triple Entente.*

Causes of War since the 16th Century (Holsti)

Holsti believed you could see how the following three factors interact at a particular time for causes of war. You can also look at this to create the most effective post-world order. -*Issues*: things that pop up between countries that were not forseen when the last peace agreement was reached. The problems prior to the peace an example of this of this is when Europe and the US face economic issues due to the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany and Communism in Russia. -*Attitudes*: Relations between the countries that might prevent war as well as World views. Once again the example would be the fundamental disagreement about what to do with German using the Kellogg Briand bandaid over problems -*Orders*: The structure of the international system at a particular time and the ability to mitigate conflict. The examples for this might be League of Nations (not powerful) & the US was not involved.

Berlin Conferences

In 1878, leaders of the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire met to reorganize the Balkans in the wake of the post recent Russo-Turkish War (Russia won). *Otto Von Bismarck* led the conferences with the *goal of stabilizing the Balkans while balancing the interests of UK, Russia, A-H, especially diminishing Russian gains*. In result, Romania lost land, Bulgaria was broken up, A-H was permitted to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, UK gained Cyprus, and the straits were not closed. The results show that Austria and UK still were powerful despite Bismarck, and led to rising nationalism in the Balkans as well as trans-European alliances that contributed to WWI. In 1884, a conference allowed for the major *european powers that were in play colonizing Africa* to gather and not only legitimize the *colonization of Africa*, but also develop a formalized map of all the colonial territories. This meeting included the countries of *Belgium, France, Portugal, Britain, Germany and Italy*.

The "Sick Man of Europe"

In 1914, this was a term used to describe the crumbling Ottoman Empire as it lost a lot of territories and became very weak. Since then, the term has been used more generally to describe a European country experiencing a period of economic difficulty and impoverishment, such as Greece today.

Panama Canal (1903-1914)

Started by France and taken over by Teddy Roosevelt in 1904. Created a quicker passage than going around the Straits of Magellan. *The USA found it convenient to work with Panama, which in 1903 broke away (with help/coercion?? of US) from Colombia, the canal's former organizer*. Essentially the USA's seizure of the canal was an act of war against Colombia—an example of gunboat diplomacy in Latin America. Panama became a US protectorate from 1903-1939. One of the greatest engineering feats of its time. The canal was finished in 1914 at a cost of over $8 billion. *Please note that the USA basically creates Panama for economic gain.*

War of 1812

Started in 1812 that lasted for two and a half years. *The US declared war on Great Britain, for reasons related to trade and to what America viewed as national humiliation, over American-French trade relations, as well as to the UK supporting Native American groups*. Early on in the war, *the British were occupied by the wars with Napoleon*, but later send more powerful forces to attack America. The British were eventually expelled from the US, resulting in a victory for America. After, UK-US relations became an amicable partnership, confirmed by the UK's enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine.

Containment (1940s)

Strategic foreign policy pursued by the United States in the late 1940s and the early 1950s in order to check the expansionist policy of the Soviet Union. In an anonymous article in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs, George F. Kennan, diplomat and U.S. State Department adviser on Soviet affairs, suggested a "long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies" in the hope that the regime would mellow or collapse. The Truman Doctrine of 1947, with its guarantee of immediate economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey, was an initial application of the policy of containment.

Hitler's March to War (1933-1940)

Synopsis: *Hitler withdraws from League of Nations and the Geneva Disarmament conference*. Hitler reveals his military programs to Europe. He was aiming for an expansionist approach towards the East. Needed *Poland to be either a satellite state or be neutralized*, in order to secure the Reich's eastern flank and to evade the effects of a potential British blockade. But, Poland didn't co-operate, so Hitler saw no other way other than completely wiping them off the map. 1933: Introduced idea of Lebensraum and issued a set of German demands including rejecting the requirements placed on it by the Treaty of Versailles. Withdrew from the League of Nations. 1936 Reoccupied the DMZ of the Rhineland, illegal under the Treaty of Versailles 1937 Signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Declared an "Axis" with Italy, which soon signed the pact as well. 1938: Ended Sino-German Alliance and allied Germany with Japan. Declared unification of Austria with Germany. 1938: Positioned his troops on the border of the *Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, and within the next year had taken it over. Chamberlain* ceded it to him in the *Munich Agreement* in September 1938—aka appeasement!!! 23 August 1939: *Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact* with Russia. Divided Baltics and Poland for *Germany and Soviet spheres of influence in Eastern Europe*. Promises that neither would attack the other. In violation of the Munich Agreement, Hitler invaded Prague. Ordered invasion of Poland on 1 September, and France and UK declare war. 1940: Invaded Denmark and Norway; conquered Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg; invaded France. In September, the three Axis powers signed the Tripartite Pact. 1941: *Operation Barbarossa: invasion of USSR by Hitler, led to UK-USSR alliance, Hitler defeated because he opened the Eastern Front*.

Long Telegram

Telegram sent by Diplomat *George Kennan* which first articulated the policy of containment in order to prevent the spread of communism. 5-part *telegram on Stalin and the Soviet* regime written by Kennan, explaining that he believed that the *Soviet regime was fundamentally insecure and unstable, and could internally destruct*. He argued that if the US could have a *non-provocative containment of the USSR, they would eventually internally collapse*. This directly influenced the *Truman Doctrine (containment)*, and was a fundamental policy for future Cold War policies.

Zimmerman Telegram

Telegram sent to Mexico by Germany insinuating that if Mexico helped Germany invade the US, it would get Texas and other former land back. As a result of this communiqué, which revealed a potential German-Mexican alliance, and several ships being sunk by Germans, Congress declared war and entered WWI in 1917.

American Civil War

The American Civil War defined what type of nation the U.S. would be. The Civil War began as a result of uncompromising differences in belief between the slave states and the free states' over the issue of slavery and the national government prohibiting it in territories that had not yet become states. 1861-1865. 7 Southern states seceded from the 34 whole to form the Confederacy under Jefferson Davis. Confederates assumed Europe was so dependent on King Cotton that it would support them, but thanks to India etc. this was not the case—instead, a European crop shortage led to Northern grain exports gaining them a foothold, alongside Lincoln and Seward working to prevent UK or France from stepping in as mediators. Confederacy was not diplomatically recognized. Many were killed and the South's infrastructure destroyed before the war ended. An early industrial war foreshadowing the equipment etc. used in WWI.

Yalta Conference

The February *1945* Yalta Conference was the second wartime meeting of British Prime Minister *Winston Churchill, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt*. During the conference, the three leaders agreed to demand *Germany's unconditional surrender* and began plans for a post-war world. *Stalin also agreed to permit free elections in Eastern Europe and to enter the Asian war against Japan*, for which he was promised the return of lands lost to Japan in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. Although most of these agreements were initially kept secret, the revelations of the conference particulars became controversial after *Soviet-American wartime cooperation degenerated into the Cold War*. Significance: Also divided Germany into occupation zones. Berlin was also divided into Eastern and Western zones.

Mikhail Gorbachev

The General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991 and President from 1990 to 1991. Gorbachev is associated with the fall of the Soviet Union due to his efforts to democratize the country and decentralize its economy. He is also associated with the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), aimed at ending the Cold War. These policies were aimed at restoring the fortunes of the USSR through reform, rather than ending the Cold War, per se. They contributed to the end of the Cold War, along with other factors: the costs of the war in Afghanistan; arms racing (SDI etc.); and, *critical to mention here, the series of summits Gorbachev held with Reagan, in Geneva, Reykjavik, Washington, and Moscow, leading to INF treaty significantly reducing medium-range nuclear missiles.*

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964) gave broad congressional approval for expansion of the Vietnam War. The Resolution was established after the USS Maddox was attacked twice by northern Vietnamese torpedo boats within the same week. The Resolution gave Johnson the legal capability of expanding force in Vietnam, but was the source of much controversy in the U.S., and was later terminated in 1970 under the Nixon presidency.

Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars (c. 1803-1815) were a series of major conflicts that pitted Napoleon (who seized power in 1799, at the end of the French Revolution) and France against other European coalitions. The war resulted in the end of the HRE, planted the idea of nationalism, and led to the creation of the concert of Europe. They were the first wars to be fought by soldiers who had volunteered to serve in an army, rather than being forced to serve, as serfs/people of lower classes had previously done. This caused the soldiers to be more dedicated, and often more brutal, because they were fighting for ideals that they truly believed in. Napoleon's armies spread the spirit of nationalism throughout Europe and even into the Near East, while at the same time, across the Atlantic, it aroused the Latin Americans. But Napoleon's conquest turned the nationalism of the Europeans against France. In Germany the struggle was led by writers and intellectuals, who rejected all the principles upon which the American and the French revolutions had been based as well as the liberal and humanitarian aspects of nationalism. The French dominion collapsed quickly after the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon was defeated in 1814, and then once more in 1815 at Waterloo after a brief return to power. The Allies then reversed all French gains since the Revolutionary Wars at the Congress of Vienna. Significance: Shows how attempts to control all of Europe and turn it into an empire were futile. France is not as large as it could've been.

Westphalia

The Treaty of Westphalia was signed in 1648 and officially *ended the Thirty Years War (HRE) and Eighty Years War*. It was named after a North-West region of Germany. The terms of the Peace of Westphalia included that *a number of countries received territories or were confirmed in their sovereignty over territories*. The peace conference to end the war opened in Münster and Osnabrück in December 1644. The treaties initiated *a new system of political order in Europe based upon the ideas of co-existing sovereign states and a balance of power to hold aggression in check*. The system lasted until the Napoleonic Wars and inspired much of our present-day thinking about sovereign states.

Nikolai Aleksandrovich Romanov II

The final Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, reigned 1896-1917 when he was forced to abdicate following the February Revolution and replaced by Kerensky's Provisional Government. *He oversaw Russia's decline as imperial great power*: it lost the Russo-Japanese War, killed many citizens in the 1905 revolution/Bloody Sunday, declined economically, utterly sucked at allowing the Duma to have power, and *signed the Anglo-Russian Entente that ended the Great Game*. His decision to mobilize troops to support Serbia impacted the world.

League of Nations

The first attempt at an IGO, proposed by Wilson at the 1919 Paris Peace Conferences based on his 14 Points vision. The League lasted from 1920-1946. However, the US never joined because Congress was more isolationist (never agreed to it). If a dispute did occur, the League could do three things: 1. Call on the states in dispute to sit down and discuss the problem in an orderly and peaceful manner. 2. The League could introduce verbal sanctions - warning an aggressor nation that if they continued with their actions, consequences would follow. 3. The League could distribute economic sanctions - the purpose of this sanction was to financially hit the aggressor nation so that they would have to do as the League required.

Berlin Blockade

The first major conflict of the Cold War Era, 1948-49. *The Soviets*, who demanded that the West withdraw the newly instituted Deutschmark from West Berlin, *cut off UK/US access to their merged zone (France merged in 1949) in Berlin*, preventing food and other material supplies from being delivered. *Western countries launched a massive airlift campaign.* In May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The heir to A-H, his assassination by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip on 28 June 1914 triggered Austria to issue a set of demands that would cripple Serbian autonomy. Serbia, backed by its Orthodox cousin Russia, refused. A-H and Germany mobilized against Russia, who called upon France and UK; WWI began.

Manifest Destiny

The idea that the USA has a god-given right to expand westward. *Three basic ideas: virtues of American people and institutions, mission to redeem and remake the West, and destiny to accomplish this task.* Coined 1845 to *justify Mexican-American War under Polk* and splitting Oregon with British, but was soon repudiated because of problems caused by slavery. Manifest destiny, like expansionism itself, was not constant throughout US history. Expansion required the support of Southern slave owners. In the postbellum period, the *South frequently blocked expansion movements because of racism*.

Wilhelm II

The last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia from 1888-1918. *He dismissed Otto von Bismark* (who had a strategy of engagement) in 1890 and started a "New Course" in German foreign affairs that culminated in his *support for Austria-Hungary* in the crisis of July 1914. *Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Wilhelm encouraged the Austrians to adopt an uncompromising line against Serbia*, effectively writing them *a "blank check" for German support in the event of war*. Bombastic and impetuous, he sometimes made tactless pronouncements on sensitive topics. While theoretically the supreme commander, his top generals dictated policy during the First World War but Wilhelm crippled chances of a compromise peace by encouraging the grandiose war aims of his generals. An ineffective war leader, he lost the support of the army, abdicated in 1918 and fled to exile in the Netherlands.

Boer War

The name given to the South African Wars of 1880-81 and 1899-1902. War fought by British Empire wanting to protect trade routes with India by pushing the Dutch out. They also wanted the natural resources in South Africa. The first Boer War began when the Boers of the Transvaal revolted against the British annexation of 1877. The second war broke out after the British rejected the Transvaal ultimatum which demanded that all disputes between with British and Boers be settled by arbitration, and British troops be withdrawn. In the first war, Boers exploited familiarity with landscape etc. (guerilla war) and the British suffered heavy losses, forcing them to accept defeat. The second war showed the true viciousness of the British Empire and the worst excesses of imperialism. They placed women and children in concentration camps, and generally committed mass genocide. Basically Britain's version of the Iraq War (according to Musgrave).

Reasons for Rise of Europe in 16th century

The rise of Western Europe after 1500 is due largely to growth in countries with access to the Atlantic Ocean and with substantial trade with the *New World, Africa, and Asia via the Atlantic*. This trade and the associated colonialism affected Europe not only directly, but also indirectly by inducing institutional change. Where "initial" political institutions (those established before 1500) placed significant checks on the monarchy, the growth of Atlantic trade strengthened merchant groups by constraining the power of the monarchy, and helped merchants obtain changes in institutions to protect property rights. Sig: These changes were central to subsequent economic growth. Eurocentrism and the Rise of the West. Increasing trade and the advent of a system based on money, rather than person-to-person relationships, drives growth and institutional change. Over-extension of rival empires, such as Ottomans, Moguls, or turning inward of East Asian empires; some argue that decentralization spurred competition and hence innovation

Henry Cabot Lodge

US Senator, friend of Teddy Roosevelt and combatant of Wilson's; his demand for *Congressional power over war declarations in the League of Nations prevented Congress from ratifying the treaty*—he supported US interference/imperialism but did not want to be bound by other countries' demands. *He opposed the Treaty of Versailles because it did not call for unconditional surrender*. Under Harding, he also represented the USA at the Washington Naval Conference in 1922, the world's first disarmament conference. *He and Roosevelt were great buddies in establishing the colonial USFP.*

Spanish Civil War

War broke out in 1936 when General Francisco Franco (Nationalist Party) invaded Spain from Spanish North Africa. Britain and France got 27 European states to sign a neutrality pact but Italy and *Germany still sent weapons and "volunteer" troops to Spain.* The Soviet Union also broke treaty and sent help to Spanish communists. Significance: This made the USSR look strong against the authoritarian right. *Showed UK, France, and other liberal democracies grapple between their policies of non-intervention and supporting democratic movements*. *Precursor to WWII because it showed Western unwillingness to challenge the fascists*, terror bombing of civilians, and the strength of new German weaponry via bombing and air force. (fyi Franco was neutral during WWII)

Fourteen Points

Wilson's (28th Pres) Fourteen Points speech to Congress in 1918 intended to assure the USA that the *Great War was fought for a moral cause and for post-war peace in Europe*. It laid out his program for a League of Nations that would promote peace and became the basis for the German surrender terms as negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference. *All nations were to have free trade, stop secret diplomacy, and have national self-determination.* 1. Open Diplomacy; 2. Freedom of the sea; 3. Free trade; 4. Reduction of armaments consistent with domestic safety 5. Adjustment of European colonies; 6. Evacuation of Russian Territory & welcoming Russia into the international system; 7. Restoration of Belgium sovereignty; 8. Restoration of French land integrity; 9. Readjusting Italian boundary; 10. Autonomy of the Austrian-Hungarian empire; 11. Autonomy of the Balkan States; 12. Maintain integrity of Turkish portion of the Ottoman Empire; 13. Polish sovereignty; 14. League of Nations

Congress of Vienna

assembly in 1814-15 that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. Having begun in September 1814, five months after Napoleon's first abdication, it completed its "Final Act" in June 1815, shortly before the Waterloo campaign and the final defeat of Napoleon. The settlement was the most comprehensive treaty that Europe had ever seen. Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, the four powers chiefly instrumental in the overthrow of Napoleon, had concluded a special alliance among themselves with the Treaty of Chaumont, on March 9, 1814, a month before Napoleon's first abdication. The subsequent treaties of peace with France, signed on May 30 not only by the "four" but also by Sweden and Portugal and on July 20 by Spain, stipulated that all former belligerents should send plenipotentiaries to a congress in Vienna. Nevertheless, the "four" still intended to reserve the real making of decisions to themselves. Two months after the sessions began, however, Bourbon France was admitted to the "four." The "four" thus became the "five," and it was the committee of the "five" that was the real Congress of Vienna. Significant in setting a precedent for negotiating at the continental level, rather than bilaterally, with the major powers convening to resolve issues collectively. Set up a model for later collective security arrangements such as League of Nations & UN. Historical significance: The Congress redrew the map of Europe concerning France, Saxony, etc. The attempt to recreate a pre-1789 Europe led to the Concert of Europe system of balance of power. Notably, Napoleonic reforms including private property laws, free peasants, new courts stayed. However, the system did not adequately address the rising tides of nationalism and democracy. The UK remained the dominant power until WWI. Significant in setting a precedent for negotiating at the continental level, rather than bilaterally, with the major powers convening to resolve issues collectively. Set up a model for later collective security arrangements such as League of Nations & UN.