HORT FINAL

Rice

Rice is one of the most widely consumed grains in the world

Primary class of wheat grown in the PNW

Soft white winter wheat is the primary class grown in the PNW PNW is the principle soft white wheat producing area in the United States Best for areas with high yield potential SWW requires less N fertilizer rates Used for pastries, pancakes, cakes, cookies, crackers, flat breads and cereals A great number of varieties have been developed suited to specific growing regions 80% of regions wheat is exported

Spring YR1

apply fertilizer to fallow ground, herbicide and if necessary fungicide to the crop control weeds and volunteer wheat on fallow ground (tillage and/or herbicides)

Wheat export

According to the USDA ERS, roughly 50% of USA's wheat crop is exported

US export

The US has been consistent in exporting between 1 and2 million tons of rice. The USA is actually a major exporter of rice, with less than 50% of the total harvest remaining for domestic use (USDA ERS)

Disadvantages of a W-F Rotation

build-up of soil borne diseases of wheat build-up of grassy weeds of wheat build up of nematodes of wheat NEED rotations that include a broadleaf crop to help break the disease cycle and allow the use of grassy weed herbicides or herbicides with a different mode of action to help control pests

One of the greatest benefits from rice farming in the Central Valley is the environmental gains that accrue to wildlife.

Provide valuable open space and habitat for 230 species of wildlife, many of which are species of special concern, threatened or endangered. 95 percent of California's historical wetlands in the Central Valley are now gone.

Dryland Wheat Issues

Economic Vulnerability Wheat prices usually don't cover the cost of production Unpredictable fluctuation in seasonal weather conditions affect yield However, through the implementation of new, efficient technologies, planting superior wheat varieties, and keeping a close eye on markets, dryland wheat farmers are surviving (for the most part) the changing times

Environmental impact

Environmental benefits. Water quality benefits. Air quality benefits. Extensive and diverse wildlife habitat. Potential water storage and supply benefits. Land conservation benefits. 70 percent is in rice/rice or rice/fallow rotation.

Principal Crops of the Oasis Farming System

Examples of typical crops grown under the Oasis system differs for each area and is dependent largely on elevation Elevation plays a role in growing season duration & growing degree day accumulation (thus influencing the types of crops that can be produced in an area) Lower elevations (~500 to ~2000 feet) Potatoes, field corn, and alfalfa hay & wheat (as rotation crops) Other important crops: Onions, Sugar beets, Dry beans, Melons, Sweet corn, Carrots, Asparagus, Peppers, and Vegetable and flower seed Higher elevations (~2100 to ~4000 feet) Alfalfa and grass hay become more important Other important crops: Mint (peppermint and spearmint), Grass seed (especially Kentucky bluegrass), Vegetable and flower seed (carrot, coriander, etc.), and seed potato.

World wheat production

The US is, on average (1994-2014), the world's #3 producer of wheat (just behind China & India However, theAmerican continent'stotal of about17.5% lags behind Asiaat 43.6% ofthe world's total

Recent Changes in Cropping system

No-till production in used in place of conventional mulch tillage Herbicides replace rod-weeders and cultivation This also allows more annual (every year) cropping, in contrast to summer fallow where a crop is grown every other year One advantage is that the soil is covered with living or dead plant residue throughout the year, with great potential to reduce soil erosion, which is one of the main issues with dryland farming systems

Alternative Stubble Management

Non-flooded fall straw incorporation using conventional disk. The winter-flooded system differs in that floodwater is introduced to the field shortly after harvest is completed and maintained until spring. A custom built cage roller is used to press straw to the soil surface to improve contact in a flooded field. High moisture and warm fall temperatures accelerate straw breakdown after harvest.

Dryland areas

Non-irrigated production of wheat (mostly winter wheat) in a semi-arid climate

Dryland wheat practices

Planted in the fall Sit and wait over winter Start growing again in the early spring and maximize the use of available precipitation Plants will mature before temperature gets too high and available soil water gets too low

Geese

are highly localized problems for grass seed producers. Concentrated feeding by geese cause damage to the plant stand. • Some species are federally protected, making control difficult. • Hazing and other forms of disruption are the permitted forms of reducing field damage in all species. In-season hunting is allowed in non-protected species.

Grass seed crop top acreage and value

Annual Ryegrass 120,830 acres

History of rice

"Rice grows on every continent in the world except Antarctica, and has 21 different wild varieties and three distinct cultivated species: Oryza sativa japonica, domesticated in what is today central China by about 7,000 years BC, Oryza sativa indica, domesticated/hybridized in the Indian subcontinent about 2500 BC, and Oryza glabberima, domesticated/hybridized in west Africa between about 1500 and 800 BC" (Archaeology, 2016) It is proposed that Alexander the Great introduced rice production to Greece in ~324 BC With the Age of Exploration, each of the major nations (Portugal, Spain, England) introduced rice production to the New Worlds. "The first record for North America dates from 1685, when the crop was produced on the coastal lowlands and islands of what is now South Carolina. It is thought that slaves from West Africa who were transported to the Carolinas in the mid-18th century introduced the complex agricultural technology needed to grow rice. Their labor then insured a flourishing rice industry. By the 20th century, rice was produced in California's Sacramento Valley. The introduction into California corresponded almost exactly with the timing of the first successful crop in Australia's New South Wales." (Ricepedia)

Sod webworm

(Chrysoteuchia topiaria spp.) damages crown and root systems in Kentucky bluegrass, orchardgrass, fine fescues, and tall fescue. • Insecticides are the primary control measure.

Gray field slug

(Deroceras reticulatum) also known as the gray garden slug is difficult to control, especially in no-till systems. • The best tool for slug control in seedling fields of perennial ryegrass and tall fescue is metaldehyde bait. • Slugs are not as severe in established fields but can cause damage to the stand in older fields. • Slugs can hide in soil cracks, under residue and in the crown area.

Fallow year

(Fall, Spring, Summer) YR2

Conventional seeding.

A fine, firm seedbed is prepared by tillage and sown using a drill or air-seeder.

Weed management strategies:

1. Herbicides 2. Good crop management 3. Crop rotation 4. Field burning 5. Tillage/mechanical

Wheat farming areas in the PNW

1. Palouse region of eastern Washington & western Idaho 2. Columbia plateau areas of eastern Washington and Oregon 3. Uplands of southeastern & southcentral Idaho

Amount of N required depends on:

1. Residual N in the soil and N from mineralization 2. Species - different species have different requirements 3. Age of stand 4. Moisture availability - water is needed to move N into the root zone and for plant uptake 5. Susceptibility to lodging.

Reasons for controlling weeds:

1. Seed quality. Weed-free seed can command a premium price. Seed certification prohibits certain weed seeds whereas limited numbers of other weeds seeds are allowed. 2. Competition. Weed plants compete with the seed crop for water, light, and nutrients and can reduce seed yield. 3. Seed conditioning costs. Weed- contaminated seed costs more to clean. Re-cleaning further increases costs. 4. Marketability. Marketability is reduced by weed seeds.

The decision to grow a particular seed crop is based on the following factors:

1. Site considerations - soil type, drainage, rainfall/irrigation, other factors 2. Market conditions 3. Contract availability 4. Past experience with the crop

Wheat production really developed in

1880's & 90's & "boomed" following the introduction of railroad lines and opening of land in the Homestead Act Also, there was not a lot of existing competition for wheat production in the PNW due to limited transportation system from the established USMidwest wheat acres "Wheat Ranches"

Grain Storage Elevators

A large portion of the wheat produced in the PNW is sent to Pacific Rim countries in Asia. Wheat is transported down the Columbia River by barge

Carbon Seeding (Charcoal Banding)

A seedbed is prepared by tillage. A 1-inch wide band of activated carbon and water slurry is applied over seed during drilling at 25 lbs/acre. • A non-selective herbicide (diuron) is applied over the field but the seed is protected from this chemical by the carbon band. • Replanting to augment a poor stand is difficult due to residual diuron.

Bushel

Bushel is a unit of dry volume Historically, it was the volume of a cylinder 18.5 in diameter and 8 in high, but later this bushel was redefined as 2150.42 cubic inches In England, this was formerly called a Winchester Bushel Equivalent to 8 gallons by volume, not weight of a liquid

Soil

CA rice is produced mostly on former wetlands Fine-textured, poorly drained soils with impervious hardpans or claypans Because of the soil characteristics, the rice acreage is typically unsuitable for other crops but is ideal of rice (flooding / standing water is necessary for aquatic plants)

The California Rice Commission (headquartered in Sacramento, CA) was established by the California state legislature

CRC operates "under the overview of the California Secretary of Agriculture" (CRC). The CRC reports that CA supplies most of America's sushi rice 97% of CA rice is produced within the Sacramento Valley Rice fields provide a wildlife habitat for ~230 bird species along the Pacific Flyway

California

California mainly produces medium & short-grained rice

Production areas in the PNW:

Columbia Basin: Moses Lake area Hermiston and Tri-Cities area Snake River Plain: Southeastern and Southcentral Idaho Treasure Valley (Ontario, Oregon to Nampa, Idaho) Islands: Culver (near Madras) Christmas Valley Klamath Basin

California Rice production

Commercial rice production began in Butte County, California in 1912. The highest yielding rice area in the world. Average yield 8,500 lbs/acre. Due to technological advancements, historical water availability, and climate (temperature) Rice acreage fluctuates annually according to changes in price, government programs and policies, and water availability. Over the past 25 years fluctuates between 300,000 - 600,000 acres. About 60% consumed domestically as table rice

Dryland Farming Systems #1 Issue

Conserving the soil resources Soil erosion Minimal vegetation cover during winter Silt loam soils are subject to water erosion Much of the land being farmed is on hillsides Loss of soil organic matter Frequent tillage Relatively low amounts of biomass added to soil especially in dry zones

Rice Water management

Continuously flooded, flow-through system. Maintain a consistent water depth of 4-5 inches to provide stand establishment and weed suppression. Applied water has decreased significantly over last 40 years. 7.1 ac-ft to 4.3 ac-ft. Crop water require is 3.0 to 3.5 acre-feet.

Primary Tillage options

Conventional tillage (moldboard plow) Minimum tillage (chisel, sweep) Direct-seed (no-till)

Direct seeding (no-till planting).

Crop is sown without preparation of a seedbed. Direct seeding of perennial grass seed crops is a relatively new practice. Mixed results in stand establishment have been noted. Slugs, wet soil conditions, and other problems have contributed to poor stands with this method.

Other class of wheat grown in the PNW

Durum wheat is also grown in the PNW; however, we are not a major producer of this wheat class Used for pasta noodles High protein content wheat Most of the US production of durum wheat occurs in North Dakota, NE Montana, southern California, and Arizona Some production in Washington

India

Largest rice exporting country since 2012

Second major class of wheat grown in the PNW

Hard red wheat is the second major class grown in PNW. Best for areas with lower yield potential Requires higher N fertilizer rate Hard red wheats are used for yeast breads, hard rolls, pizza crust, bagels, tortillas, some Asian noodles, and general purpose flour Winter and Spring Varieties. Hard red winter wheat is produced on the southern great plains (Kansas). Hard red spring wheat is produced on northern plains (North Dakota).

Rice Planting

In March, fields are prepared for planting. Nitrogen is generally incorporated or injected pre-plant at rates of 100-160 lbs/ac. Ammonium-based forms of N incorporated to prevent losses through denitrification and volatilization. Shallow furrows are rolled into the field to promote seed settling on the soil surface During April, water is run to a depth of 4-5 in. (enough water is necessary to keep the soil surface well covered) Rice seed for planting is first soaked for 24 hours and drained before it can be planted using airplanes (crop dusters)

Rice harvest

In September, the grain heads are mature and ready to be harvested. Typically, it takes about three months from planting for rice seed to begin the maturation process Water flow is reduced or eliminated about five weeks before harvest to promote field drainage. The timing of drainage is critical. Not too soon...Residual moisture needs for grain filling. Soil must be dry at harvest (reduce erosion risks & they need the surface to be dry to support equipment weight)

How has wheat production changed?

In the past 125 years [1878-2008], average farm size has grown from 160 to 3,500 acres and wheat grain yield increased from less than 15 bu/ac to 50 bu/ac." The 160 acre historical figure was due to the Homestead Act maximum claim As time progressed, dryland wheat farmers needed to acquire more acreage in order to support commercial farm needs How does the climate of eastern OR and WA influence crop production potential? Rainfall? Winter temperatures? Can you grow a banana tree in Lind, WA?

Challenge of direct seeding

Increased plant residue on the soil surface also is a source for wheat pathogens in the subsequent wheat crop This is one of the original reasons for tillage!

Wheat Harvest time

Late July or early August Grain moisture at 12% or less Stored on farm or moved to elevators to await shipping to local consumers

Types of rice

Long Grain: long, slender kernel that is 4-5X longer than it is wide Medium Grain: shorter, wider kernels that is 2-3X longer than wide Short Grain: short, plump kernel that is almost round in shape Sweet or Sticky: short, plump white kernel (loses its shape when cooked) Aromatic: kernels contain increased flavor and fragrance compared to other types

Willamette Valley

Mediterranean climate receive rain primarily during winter season with extreme summer aridity existing for up to 5 months

Agronomic

Natural environment of these PNW regions was large perennial bunch grasses Palouse is the French word for grassland Typical elevation ranges from 1,000 to 4,500 feet Annual precipitation is between 10-20 inches Frost-free period about 100 to 160 days Soils range from silt loam to fine sandy loam Store about 1.6 to 2 inches of water per foot of depth Shallow (<40 inches) and deep soils

Precipitation is the main determinant of yield

Quantity of annual precipitation Winter wheat yields can be predicted by using a formula including available water Winter wheat yield (bushels per acre) = (inches of available moisture - 4) X 6.5 bushels per inch For example: A deep (>60in) Walla Walla silt loam soil can hold about 13 inches of available water. Yield = (13in-4in) x 6.5 bu/in = 58.5 bushels Spring wheat yield averages ~5.5 bushels per inch Timing of available water Precipitation during May and June (flowering and kernel fill, respectively) are particularly beneficial for wheat yields under dryland cultivation system

Forms of rice

Rough Rice ("paddy or cargo rice"): rice kernel still is covered by the hull, which must be removed prior to packaging and/or cooking Brown Rice: rice with ONLY the hulls removed (high in mineral & vitamin content ~B complex vitamins) White Rice: rice that has been milled to remove the husk AND the bran layers (brown coloring & associated nutrients) Parboiled Rice: rice that was steamed before milling to maintain shape and fluffy texture after cooking Precooking Rice (Minute Rice): white or brown rice that had been completely cooked & dehydrated after milling

Row Spraying.

Rows are created by herbicide application in volunteer annual ryegrass stand. • Sprayed rows produce better seed yield than the solid stand volunteer establishment system.

Wheat nutrition

Soil pH usually managed to maintain a range between 5.3 and 5.7 Nitrogen is the primary limiting nutrient Comprehensive amount of information regarding N rates and timing for Eastern and Western Oregon grown wheat are readily available Soil testing, fertilization rates, and yield data developed for several areas and wheat varieties Timing of N fertilizer application Conventional fallow apply with spring tillage No-till wheat or chemical fallow apply at the time of planting in the fall.

CA Maintains High Rice Yields

Sophisticated cultural practices. Laser leveling of fields.....now GPS leveling Precise water level management. Aerial sowing of pre-germinated seed into flooded fields. Beginning in1970s, semi-dwarf, lodging resistant cultivars were introduced. High yielding cultivars that shortened the growing season from 160-170 days to 135-145 days. Development of more stable water resources.

Nitrogen and lodging

Spring N contributes to lodging in grass seed production. Effect of spring N rate on lodging in perennial ryegrass seed production

Spring wheat

Spring wheat is concentrated in the northern regions of the great plains Planted in the spring and harvested in mid summer

goal of fallow year

Store water in the soil for the subsequent wheat crop. To maximize water storage the amount of soil disturbance in the spring and summer needs to be kept at a minimum! No-till production with stubble on surface works best. Chemical-fallow: an herbicide such as Round-up is used to control the weeds instead of tillage. Mulch tillage system: chisel plow plus rod-weeder.

Harvest Practices

TE and PC PGRs increased seed yield: • Creeping red fescue - up to 38% (Zapiola et al., 2006; Zapiola et al. 2014). • Perennial ryegrass - up to 45% (Chastain et al., 2014a). • Tall fescue - up to 40% (Chastain et al., 2014b; Chastain et al., 2015). • PGRs reduce stem length and lodging, and increases number of florets, seeds/spike, seed set, and increase partitioning of carbon to seed vs. vegetative parts of the plant.

PGRs and Seed Production

TE and PC PGRs increased seed yield: • Creeping red fescue - up to 38% (Zapiola et al., 2006; Zapiola et al. 2014). • Perennial ryegrass - up to 45% (Chastain et al., 2014a). • Tall fescue - up to 40% (Chastain et al., 2014b; Chastain et al., 2015). • PGRs reduce stem length and lodging, and increases number of florets, seeds/spike, seed set, and increase partitioning of carbon to seed vs. vegetative parts of the plant.

What about residue management?

The Rice Straw Burning Reduction Act (AB 1378) The number of acres eligible for burning declines annually until the prohibited amount reaches 100%. However, a "safe harbor" clause in the law allows for up to 25% burning annually for severe pest and disease control, after the year 2000.

Southern States

The Southern states primarily produce long-grained rice

Climate

The clear, warm summer days, dry conditions and long growing season are favorable to high photosynthetic rates. Compared to tropical and subtropical rice-growing areas, the CA climate is cool, but warm summer nights during panicle development when pollen formation takes place helps to avoid cold-induced floret sterility. Low relative humidity throughout the growing season reduces the development, severity, and importance of rice diseases. However, cool weather and strong winds during stand establishment may cause partial stand loss and seedling drift.

Mechanization Oasis Farming

The production of most of the crops on these farms is highly mechanized Exception is fresh market vegetables (melons, peppers) and asparagus which require hand harvest

Different crops have different size bushels due to variations in crop moisture content

The standard Wheat bushel is 60 pounds  (at 13.5% moisture) Millet is 50 pounds Apple is 40 pounds Oat is 32 pounds

What is Oasis Agriculture?

The term "Oasis Agriculture" is not limited to applications here in the United States. Instead, most of the irrigation projects in the Middle East and South America are also referred to as "Oasis" projects. Oasis agriculture can be found in many locations in the arid & semi-arid western US Here in the PNW, we define "Oasis Agriculture" by location & climate Climate arid to semi-arid climate Location Only distributed east of the Cascade Mountains Eastern Oregon Eastern Washington Idaho Other characteristics: Value agriculture depends on irrigation availability Without irrigation water, potential cropping system options become very limited Often the centerpiece crop will differ with climate/region

Oregon rice

There are a handful of Oregon farms that are producing wild rice.

Wheat classification

There are several different types of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) , but we can categorize these into "classes The wheat class is determined by: -The hardness (i.e. Hard vs. Soft) -The kernel color (i.e. Red vs. White) -The planting date (i.e. Winter vs. Spring)

Short and medium grain rough rice prices

USA medium & short-grain rice are predicted to experience a drop in the projected rice prices

Decline of the livestock industry

Unfortunately, much of Eastern OR and WA became overgrazed by ~1875 Experienced degradations of local fish habitats With the increase of agricultural innovations, more and more horses were dedicated to teams for "tillage power" These teams often were comprised of horses from many different farmers that cooperated to work large tracts of land as a group At the same time, the demand for wheat dropped "Slowdown of mining in the mid-1870s, new opportunities for the expansion of the wheat industry were sought and began to emerge in the form of an unlimited down-river (Columbia River) export market" Then, one of the "last straws" of the livestock industry was the severe winter of 1880/81, which killed tons of livestock The Long Winter by Laura Ingalls Wilder records this event as experienced on the plains of South Dakota This winter storm was experienced across the USA

Rod Weeder Theory

Uproots weeds without burying residue or bringing moist soil up to surface Square rod rotating against the soil creates a wedge of least resistance Sometimes referred to as a "Dust mulch" Purpose is to reduce herbicide use & conserve water Breaks capillary action and prevents moisture from moving up towards the soil surface (and subsequent loss of moisture)

Minimum tillage

Use chisel plow (or disk) instead of a moldboard plow for primary tillage. Rodweeder used for weed control during fallow year. Uproots weeds without burying residue or bringing moist soil up to surface. Chisel leaves about 90% of residue on surface, moldboard plow would bury most of it.

Irrigated wheat

Wheat is irrigated in some areas both east and west of the Cascades Irrigation water applied with center pivot, wheel line, or furrow Higher yields...approaching 160 bushels per acre Higher yields require higher fertilization. Production costs are about twice as much compared to dryland farming. Low rainfall areas grown as a rotation or break crop in areas where irrigation is available and geography allows it (no steep hills) Irrigation of Willamette Valley not common; however, some farms irrigate in late spring to attempt to boost yields

No-till planting of wheat

When using no-till production in place of conventional mulch tillage, it often requires increased herbicide usage Chemicals are used for fallow rather than rodweeder No-till needs different equipment to plant the wheat because soil bed is harder.

History

Widespread livestock production from 1860's to 1880 Successful presence of rangeland forages Bunchgrass (bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata)) Good market and prices due to population growth, especially in mining districts Large herds of cattle, sheep & horses Early wheat crops producedin this area were oftenmarketed to military postsand mining districts, withsome shipments to CA

Wild rice

Wild rice is native to Minnesota & other Great Lakes states, where early Native Americans (Souix, Ojibwe, etc.) harvested and stored the grains for winter food supply. Some places require that wild rice grown on state-owned waterways still be harvested in the traditional way (knives and canoes) Wild rice is a summer annual produced in paddies (exactly the same as other rice) Main difference being that Oregon paddies tend to be deeper due to other native aquatic weed pressures (12-18") The first commercial harvest of wild rice in Oregon took place in 1991 (OSU Extension Report) Historical wild rice yields ranged from 1,000 - 1,700 lbs/acre using varieties such as "Voyager" and "Meter" (early maturing, shorter height varieties bred at University of Minnesota).

All Winter wheat

Winter wheat is grown where winter temperatures to do not kill the crop. It is planted in fall and harvested in mid summer. Winter wheat potentially produces a bigger crop than spring wheat.

Summer YR1

harvest wheat cultivate fallow ground

Ergot

is a fungal disease of the seed - caused by Claviceps purpurea. Ergotreplacestheseed, and reduces yield by reducing seed number. Ergot increases seed cleaning costs and causes lost international marketing opportunities. • Control measures for ergot include planting sclerotia-free seed, and propiconazole fungicide. Ergot is a problem in all grass seed crops except orchardgrass and is most severe in Kentucky bluegrass.

Stem rust

is caused by Puccinia graminis subsp. graminicola and is found in perennial ryegrass, tall fescue, Chewings fescue, orchardgrass, and Kentucky bluegrass. Stem rust was not observed on tall fescue in the Willamette Valley until 1989, but is now widespread. • Pustules are dark red or brown and are irregularly distributed, but late in the season appear in groups on leaves and leaf sheaths, and on the inflorescence. • Fungicides are the best tool for controllingrusts. Multipleapplications may be required.

Fall YR1

plant wheat cultivate fallow ground (unless no-till)

Sulfar Management

• At planting sulfur should be applied at 15-25 lbs S/acre for tall fescue and 10-15 lbs S/acre for perennial ryegrass. • Uptake of S by the plant coincides with biomass accumulation in the spring. • To support this uptake, 15-25 lbs S/acre should be applied for tall fescue and 10-15 lbs S/acre for perennial ryegrass.

Burning alternatives

• Clean non-thermal Straw removal by baling. Stubble management with a flail mower may or may not be employed. • Full straw load No straw removal, straw decomposes in field. Straw length may be reduced by flail mower and/or by combine straw chopper.

Reasons for a Pacific Northwest Seed Industry

• Climate - Dry summers and mild and wet winters • Great variety of soils over short distances • High seed quality • High dependable yields

Why Burn Grass Seed Fields?

• Controls diseases--diseases of the seed including ergot and blind seed. • Controls weeds--destroys volunteer crop seed, weed seed and weed plants. • Stimulates seed yield in creeping red fescue and Kentucky bluegrass. Burning removes stubble affecting the type of tillers produced - fewer rhizomes and more fertile tillers, and in turn, increases seed yield. • Recycles several important nutrients to the soil including potassium and phosphorus, reducing fertilizer applications.

Grass seed crop yields have increased greatly over time. • Reasons for increased seed yield include:

• Development and adoption of superior agronomic practices • Introduction of new pesticides and implementation of timely pest control strategies • Use of powerful and efficient equipment for harvest and other management operations

Perennial ryegrass seed price trends

• Grass seed crop prices are sensitive to the state of the economy. • Cycles in the construction industry affect the price of lawn seed. • Economic recessions and significant events such as the bankruptcy of ABT and the formation of the PRBA have influenced the price of perennial ryegrass seed.

Lodging and PGRs

• Lodging occurs when elongating stems cannot support the weight of flowers. Stemelongationis promoted by the hormone GA1. • Lodging restricts pollination and reduces fertilization, and in turn reduces seed yield. • Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are organic compounds, other than nutrients, that when applied affect plant growth and development. • Trinexapac-ethyl (TE - Palisade) and prohexadione-calcium (PC - Apogee) PGRs inhibit the production of GA1 and control lodging.

Nitrogen Management

• Nitrogen is the only fertilizer element that gives consistent, economic increases in grass seed yield. • N is applied in grass seed crops at two distinct times - fall and spring. • Fall N supports formation of tillers that contribute to seed yield in the following spring. Perennial ryegrass does not need fall N. • Spring N supports the development of a canopy of tillers and leaves needed to capture solar energy and CO2 and to convert these into harvested seed.

Nitrogen Management continued

• Nitrogen use differs for tall fescue and perennial ryegrass seed crops - N use peaks earlier in tall fescue than in perennial ryegrass. • Daily N use peaks for both crops during early stem elongation (BBCH 30), so for best N use efficiency, N application should precede stem elongation. • Spring N uptake in tall fescue is complete prior to inflorescence emergence (BBCH 50) while perennial ryegrass N use continues later in the season.

Nitrogen Management continued...

• Optimum spring N application for perennial ryegrass ranged from 120-160 lbs N/acre. • Stimulation of fertile tiller production accounted for most of the variation in seed yield due to spring N application. • Seed weight is increased by spring N. • Lime is applied to the seedbed when pH is low (below pH 5.5). • As stands age, soil pH declines in response to successive N fertilizer applications. • Top-dress application of lime on established fields when pH in surface 2 inches of soil is below 5.5.

Windrow-Combine Harvest

• Step 1. The standing crop is cut with a swather at high seed moisture content (24 to 48% depending on species) and dried in windrows until ready for combining (several days to 2 weeks depending on weather). • Step 2. The swathed crop is threshed at 12% seed moisture content by using combines with pickup attachments.

Irrigation in Grass Seed Crops

• The critical water use period occurs between stem elongation and harvest - spring crop water use in April, May and June approximates this value. • Our work shows that spring crop water use in perennial ryegrass and tall fescue seed crops is 10 to 11 inches on a medium textured soil (silt loam) with a 1 foot root depth. • Perennial ryegrass and tall fescue seed fields need a combination of stored water in soil (max storage = 2 inches/foot soil), rainfall, and irrigation to meet the demand of spring crop water use.

Post Harvest Residue Management

• The stubble and straw remaining in grass seed fields after harvest seed is known as residue. • Field burning has been an effective, economical and controversial method of residue removal and pest control in grass seed crops but public concern for air quality and the resulting legislation has reduced the practice. • Burning in Willamette Valley grass seed crops has been greatly reduced at the same time that the acreage of grass seed crops has reached high levels of production.

Weeds of grass seed crops:

• Volunteer crop and off-types • Other grass seed crops • Annual bluegrass (Poa annua) • Downy brome (Bromus tectorum) • Roughstalk bluegrass (Poa trivialis) • Rattail fescue (Vulpia myuros) • California brome (Bromus carinatus) • Wild oats (Avena fatua) • Wild carrot (Daucus carota)