Human Sexuality Exam 1 Study Guide

factors that increase risk of breast cancer

- *Breast cancer = the 2nd most common cancer affecting women* 1. Genetics: having a 1st degree relative with breast cancer 2. Age: being over 50 3. Early menarche, late menopause, having no children, or having a child after age 30. 4. Alcohol: consuming > 5 alcoholic drinks/day 5. Obesity 6. Breast size bigger than a C cup 7. Having dense breasts 8. Radiation 9. Use of oral contraceptives 10. Irregular menstrual cycle 11. Sedentary lifestyle

androgens

- *Name* = DHT - *Site of production* = external genitalia, prostate gland, skin - *Main targets* = external genitalia, prostate gland, skin - *Main hormonal actions* = development and maintenance of male external genitalia and prostate gland; adult male patterns of hair distribution

estrogens

- *Name* = Estradiol - *Site of production* = gonads - *Main targets* = widespread in body and brain - *Main hormonal actions* = feminizes the body at puberty; contributes to the menstrual cycle; increases density of bone; ends growth of limb bones at puberty; feedback inhibition of gonadotropins; maintains sex drive

progestins

- *Name* = progesterone - *Site of production* = ovary, placenta - *Main target* = uterus - *Main hormonal actions* = contributes to menstrual cycle, maintains pregnancy

penis length

- Avg. flaccid length = 4in or less - Avg. erect length = 5.1 in; majority = 5.5 in or less

changes in marriage

- There's been a radical decline in birth rates since the late 18th century. By 2010, the number of children born to the avg. American woman has fallen from 7/8 to 2. - The idea has gained currency that sex has a legitimate emotional or recreational function, quite distinct from the desire for children. - Before the 20th century, marriage was for life and divorce was quite uncommon and only really permitted in cases of proven adultery. By contrast, it's now widely accepted that women are sexually active before marriage and that couples may *cohabit* (live together) before marriage or without marrying at all. - After WWII, attitudes towards interracial went from it being considered sinful --> 1967: the supreme court established it a constitutional right to marry across racial lines; now more than 12% of all American marriages are interracial.

"The Measuring Stick" by David Friedman

- This article explains how throughout history, the black penis has been racialized and psychoanalyzed. - European explorers and anatomists related the size and color of the male black penis to the "uncivilized" black man. They described his penis as being proof that he was more beast than man. Ultimately, these ideas were then used in America to justify slavery and the laws made against interracial marriage. - The size of the male black penis was considered proof that they were dangerous, hypersexual beings and rapists. - The Klu Klux Klan also used these ideas to justify lynching African American men, often castrating them first. They believed that the only way to really kill a black man was to kill his penis first.

the effect of urbanization

- Urbanization (increases in population density and long distance traveled) has increased the spread of harmful bacteria --> increasing STIs. - A more beneficial effect of urbanization has been the strengthening and validation of sexual diversity. - The media and the internet have facilitated a kind of "virtual urbanization," which in some ways is even more influential than simply living together in a city. The concept of "normality" has greatly expanded, such that very few kinks are still stigmatized as shameful or named as mental disorders (pedophillia = the great exception)

sexuality has changed over time

1. *Through evolution:* it's likely that the competition for partners has characterized sexuality throughout human history and prehistory and that this competition has driven the evolution of sex differences in appearance and behavior. - Methods of contraception and abortion have improved over the centuries --> increased people's- especially women's- willingness to engage in sex both within and outside established relations. 2. *Through society:* human sexuality has been greatly influenced by the development of social controls. - *What social class you belonged to greatly influenced your sex life* - Through the transition from hunter-gatherer lifestyle --> one of settled agriculture --> led to the regulation of social behavior (i.e. nudity was restricted, marriage was formalized, and nonmarital sex was discouraged). - Organized religion also played a role: often fostered procreative heterosexual sex within marriage while labeling other forms of sexual expression as sinful. --> Example: For the 2 millennia since the foundation of Christianity, its teachings forbade all nonmarital sex, homosexual sex, masturbation, contraception, abortion, and polygamy. Even marital sex was restricted to coitus in specific positions, and it was forbidden on certain days of the week and during Lent.

factors that decrease risk of breast cancer

1. Genes: having no genetic history 2. Age: being younger than 50 3. Alcohol: consuming < 2 alcoholic drinks/day 4. Smaller breasts 5. Less dense breasts 6. Exercising 7. Not being exposed to radiation 8. Having given birth to twins 9. Menstruation onset after age 12 10. Slenderness 11. Early menopause 12. No cancer elsewhere in the body

uterine phases of the menstrual cycle

1. menstrual phase 2. proliferative phase 3. secretory phase

Victorian era

1837-1901; Sex attitudes became more conservative again. The 1st sexologists lived and wrote in this era. • The belief that preoccupation with sex interfered with higher achievements incurred. • Public propriety and conservative attitudes = the most important aspect of this society, even if these conservative values weren't really practiced. o The idea of male chivalry returned. o Prudery sometimes went to extremes. o Semen = precious and should be conserved.

______ women die from breast cancer every year

40,000

National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior

A national survey of sexual behavior in the United States, based at Indiana University and published in 2010. It had a number of interesting findings... o When asked about recent sexual experiences, men almost always reported that their partners orgasmed, but about 1 in 3 women said they did not. o Far more women than men reported feeling physical pain during coitus. o Adults using condoms for sex were just as likely to rate the event positively in terms of arousal, pleasure, and orgasm as when having sex without one. o The percentage of women and men who said that they have had sex with same sex partners was much higher than the percentage who said they were lesbian, gay, or bisexual.

National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS)

A national survey of sexual behavior, relationships, and attitudes in the United States, conducted in the early 1990s. - Introduced due to the AIDS epidemic. - One of the findings of this survey concerned masturbation: found that people masturbate IN ADDITION to engaging in partnered sex, not as a substitute for it.) This research helped bring masturbation out of the shadows, relieving a lot of anxiety and guilt around the practice.

Margaret Sanger (1879-1966)

American social activist who campaigned for women's rights to learn about and practice contraception. - She founded Planned Parenthood. - Her efforts helped free women from reproductive slavery. - She introduced the diaphragm (contraceptive agent) from Europe and promoted research that eventually led to the pill.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis. This school of thought placed the origin of sexual problems in the operations of the unconscious mind, especially during childhood. - He created a means by which sexologists could earn a living since psychoanalytic treatments required consultations between analyst and patient.

Peter Goodfellow (1951-)

British geneticist. He led a team that has helped decipher the genetic pathways involved in sex determination. In particular, they identified a specific gene, known as *SYR*, as the switch whose presence or absence usually determines whether an embryo will develop as male or female.

Thomas Aquinas

During the middle ages, he was an Italian theologian who established the views of morality and correct sexual behavior that form the basis of the Catholic Church's attitudes toward sexuality even today. He suggested that there are "natural" and "unnatural" sexual acts. o Sex organs were "naturally" intended for procreation; other uses were seen as unnatural and immoral. o He called homosexuality "the worst of all sexual sins."

yin & yang

In Chinese culture, people work to live in harmony with the Tao; made up of these. o *Yin* = negative, passive, weak, yielding, female. o *Yang* = positive, assertive, active, strong, male. • *Sexuality* = a joining of the yin and yang; the masculine + feminine principles.

premenstrual dysphoric disorder

PMS-associated mood changes that are severe enough to interfere with relationships

Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902)

The most influential of early sex researchers. Published his most famous work, "Psychopathia Sexualis," in 1886. It was a collection of case histories of fetishists, sadists, masochists, and homosexuals. He coined the terms "sadomasochism" and "transvestite." Believed that the origins of fetishism and murderous sadism lay in masturbation. - He did a service in bringing sexual variations to public attention, and he helped ensure that medical disorders were taken into account in the judicial treatment of sex offenders.

Havelock Ellis (1859-1939)

a German doctor who established the first institute for sex research. studied transvestism, emphasized the role of biology in sexual orientation, and is recognized as a sexual reformer. - wrote about unusual forms of sexual expression; in his autobiography he wrote that he has a sexual fixation of female urination); plead for tolerance of sexual diversity. - His books consisted of largely personal accounts of unusual forms of sexual expression. - He maintained extensive correspondence with individuals in numerous countries, with the aim of learning about their sexual activities and problems. - In contrast to Krafft-Ebing, his message was really a pleas for tolerance of sexual diversity.

hydrocele

a collection of fluid around a testicle; can be drained or surgically corrected

premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

a collection of physical and/or psychological symptoms that may start a few days before the menstrual period begins and continue into the period. *6 core symptoms:* 1. Anxiety/tension 2. Mood swings 3. Aches 4. Altered appetite or food cravings 5. Cramps 6. Decreased interest in activities

polycystic ovarian syndrome

a common but poorly understood condition in which the ovaries secrete high levels of androgens. The condition may cause irregular menstruation, infertility, and male-like pattern of facial and body hair. - Ovarian cysts are often, but not always, present. - Not curable, but most of the symptoms can be controlled with contraceptive pills or other drugs.

menstrual cups

a cup placed within the vagina that collects the menstrual flow; an alternative to pads and tampons.

patrilineal descent

a kinship system in which only the father's relatives are significant

priapism

a painful erection that lasts 4 hours or more but is not accompanied by sexual excitement. - Persistent penile erection that starves the erectile tissue of oxygen

G spot (Gräfenberg spot)

a possible area of increased erotic sensitivity on or deep within the front wall of the vagina - Controversial feature of the vagina since only a minority of women say they have it. - Deep pressure at this location can first trigger the desire to urinate, but continued stimulation is sexually arousing and said to be different from an orgasm caused by clitoral stimulation - *paraurethral muscles* = anatomical basis of this spot

mammography

a radiographic examination of the breasts to detect the presence of tumors or precancerous cells. - Standard recommendation for woman at avg. risk is for these examinations every 2 years between age 50-74. - Some organizations recommend women start having them at age 40. - *Regular breast examinations by a clinician is probably the most useful strategy to catch breast cancers that might become life threatening.*

menstrual toxic shock syndrome

a rare but life-threatening illness caused by a staphylococcal infection and associated with tampon use. - Caused by a bacterial infection. - Marked by high fever, vomiting, diarrhea, rash, and other symptoms, and it's fatal in close to 10% of affected women.

prostate gland

a single gland located at the base of the bladder that surrounds the urethra; its secretions are a component of semen

epididymis

a structure, attached to each testicle, where sperm mature and are stored before entering the vas deferens

phimosis

a tightness of the prepuce that prevents its retraction over the glans penis; the inability to retract the foreskin far enough to expose the glans. - A normal condition in male babies, and it persists in many boys until the teen years. - No need to treat it unless the flow or urine is affected - It may also develop as a new condition in adults, especially in association with *balanitis*, in which case surgical treatment may be required.

pelvic examination

a visual and digital examination of the vulva and pelvic organs. - Pap tests are part of this. - Recommended as an annual procedure for women 21 and up.

smegma

a whitish, greasy secretion that builds up under the prepuce of the penis or clitoral hood

amenorrhea

absence of menstruation; most common reasons this occurs: woman is pregnant, breast feeding, or has reached menopause. Other factors that can interfere with menstruation: 1. Some hormonal contraceptives 2. Drugs 3. Stress 4. Loss of weight for any reason: a woman is at risk if her body fat drops below 15-17% of total weight. 5. Medical conditions including thyroid dysfunction and pituitary tumors. - *Primary ______* = the failure to begin menstruating at puberty.

endometrial cancer

aka uterine cancer; cancer of the endometrium of the uterus. - 3x more common than cervical cancer but causes only 50% more deaths (i.e. the survival rate is better for this than for cervical cancer).

Peyronie's disease

also known as penile curvature, is a form of sexual dysfunction in which the penis is bent or curved during erection

Margaret Mead (1901-1978)

an American anthropologist who took sex research in a very different direction- specifically, to the south seas. - Her idea was to study sexuality and other aspects of human life in a culture far removed from Western civilization. - Her bestseller hinted at her intent to challenge the restrictive sexual ethics of 1920s America, and it was fiercely critiqued by religious conservatives. - She also described several cultures with diverse ideas about women's and men's roles in society --> there have been allegations that she misrepresented her findings in order to portray sexual behavior and gender roles as more culture dependent than they actually are.

William Masters (1915-2001)

an American gynecologist who with his research assistant + wife, *Virginia Johnson (1925-2013)* studied sex in the lab. - Published a book called "Human Sexual Response" that represented genital responses as a four-stage cycle: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. - He believed that homosexual men and women could be converted to heterosexuality.

pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)

an infection of the female reproductive tract, often caused by sexually transmitted organisms.

onanism

another word for masturbation; stems from "Onan's sin" which refers to a man pulling out when he should be impregnating his dead brother's wife (*the levirate*): this was a euphemism for masturbation, another form of non-procreative sex.

St. Paul

believed that sex within marriage was acceptable, but that celibacy was ideal. He + later followers established the Christian view of sexuality. He suggested that the highest love was love of God and the ideal was to not allow sexual or human love to compete with the love of God. o Celibacy = ideal o Chastity (being sexually pure) became a virtue. o There was a general association of sex with sin. o All non procreative sex was strictly forbidden, as were contraception, masturbation, and sex for pleasure's sake.

vas deferens

bilateral ducts that convey sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

biomedical research & sex

biomedical research = the approach that has the greatest impact on people's sex lives. Achievements in this field include... - Hormone-based contraception and abortion - Drug treatments for reproductive cancers - Drug treatments for erectile disorder, premature ejaculation, and low sex drive in men - Methods to prevent, cure, or effectively treat STIs, including AIDS - Technologies to treat infertility in women and men - Improvements in the safety of pregnancy and childbirth

prostate cancer

cancer of the prostate gland; most common non-skin cancer among American men; about 1/7 men will be diagnosed, but only about 1 in 8 men will die from it. (2016) estimated 180,890 cases with 26,120 deaths PSA blood test and digital exams can find it early 75% of cancers diagnosed in men over age 65 (2013) an estimated 2,850,139 men were living with prostate cancer in the U.S

testicular cancer

cancer of the testicle, usually occurring in men in their 20s or 30s - about 8800 cases annually but less than 400 men die - self-examination can help - penile cancer is even less common; (2013) 1,820 cases of penile and other genital cancer in men were reported as well as 310 deaths

Eunuchs

castrated males, originally in charge of protection of the ruler's concubines. Eventually had major roles in government, especially in China. - *Castration:* removal of a man's testicles: often carried out as a punishment among criminals or prisoners of war. If done before puberty, it was done to produce asexual slaves who could serve certain roles, such as court attendants, harem guards, dancers, or singers. - In India, some men were and still are voluntarily castrated as an initiation into the *transgender* religious case known as *hijras*

androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)

condition during prenatal development in which androgen receptors malfunction in genetic males, impeding the formation of male external genitalia; in these cases, the child may be born with female external genitalia. - The genetic male appears to be a female with the appropriate secondary sex characteristics.

seminiferous tubules

convoluted microscopic tubes within the testicle; the site of sperm production

prolapse

downward sagging of the uterus into the vagina. It's caused by weakening of the ligaments that support the uterus and of the pelvic floor muscles. - Seen most often in elderly women who have had at least one child, because both aging and childbirth weaken the structures that support the uterus. - Obesity and smoking are also risk factors. - May be treated by a variety of surgical techniques or by insertion of a plastic ring that keeps the uterus in place. - *Kegel exercises help to prevent this.*

ejaculatory duct

duct formed by the union of the vas deferens with the duct of the seminal vesicle; its fluid is carried into the urethra

variocele

enlarged veins of the spermatic cord, causing it to feel lumpy. It can be surgically corrected.

paraphimosis

entrapment of the retracted foreskin behind the corona of the glans. It can occur as a result of efforts to retract a phimotic foreskin. - An emergency condition because it can lead to tissue death of the glans.

sex steroids

estrogens, androgens, and progestins.

gonad

female or male reproductive organ that produces sex cells and hormones; ovary or testis. - Female = ovary; it produces ova - Male = testicle; it produces sperm

ovarian cysts

fluid filled sacs within the ovary; can arise from a number of different causes - They can cause pain - Can be discovered during a pelvic exam - In women of a reproductive age, the cysts are usually normal ovarian follicles that have not yet ovulated or that have grown larger than usual; they usually regress without treatment. - Cysts can also be a sign of cancer, especially when found in prepubescent girls or in postmenopausal women.

sex

has two meanings: 1. A person's identity as female or male. 2. Sexual behavior.

polygamy

having more than one spouse at the same time, as a social institution. Most human cultures have permitted men to have more than one wife. - In early Islam, this was permitted for an entirely different purpose- to provide for the many women whose husbands died in warfare. - In general, this has benefited rich and powerful men, because they had sufficient means to engage in this practice. - This has often been connected with the idea that women = men's property - By banning this, the Christian religion attempted to promote a more gender equitable society.

diphallia

having two penises

digital prostate exam

helps determine if the prostate gland is enlarged or lumpy

gonadotropins

hormones that regulate the function of the gonads; FSH and LH

sexuality

includes the two meanings of "sex" but also goes beyond them to encompass the entire realm of human experience that is more or less closely connected with sex. - The feelings, behaviors, and identities associated with sex.

balanitis

inflammation of the glans penis, caused by infection and/or poor hygiene. - Quite uncommon in a circumsized penis - Treatment involves regular cleansing and antibiotics as appropriate

prostatis

inflammation of the prostate gland; can be acute or chronic - Symptoms = pain during ejaculation and urination, ongoing pain in the pelvic and lower back regions, and a fever.

urethritis

inflammation of the urethra; bladder and urethral infections

testicles

male gonad; located in the scrotum; produces sperm and secretes sex hormones

cervical cancer symptoms

may include... - an abnormal, sometimes blood-stained vaginal discharge - pain during intercourse, or bleeding during intercourse.

dysmenorrhea

menstrual pain severe enough to interfere with a woman's activities - Very common. A family history of the disorder greatly increases a woman's chances of suffering from it. - *Primary ________* = painful menstrual pain that's not associated with any diagnosable pelvic condition. It begins at puberty and has no clear cause. It's especially common among young women who haven't had children. - Can be relieved with heat, Ibuprofen, plentiful fluid intake, calcium supplements, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

orchitis

noncancerous condition; an inflammation and swelling of the testes; caused by an infection with a variety of organisms, some of which may be sexually transmitted

epididymitis

noncancerous condition; inflammation of the epididymis, caused by trauma or by infection with E.coli or any number of sexually transmitted organisms.

fibroids

noncancerous tumors of smooth muscle that grow within or outside the uterus. - They're very common: 20-25% of women develop them, usually after age 30 but before menopause. - Often asymptomatic, but they can cause pain and abnormal bleeding.

Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956)

of Indiana; the sex researcher best known to the American public. - He and his colleagues undertook large-scale sex surveys in the U.S. in the middle years of the 20th century: published these results in "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" and "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female" - One of his findings that shocked many of his readers was that 14% of women experienced multiple orgasms.

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

one of the 2 major gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary gland; it promotes maturation of ova in female and sperm in males.

luteinizing hormone (LH)

one of the 2 major gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary gland; it triggers ovulation and promotes the secretion of sex steroids by the ovaries and testicles.

nocturnal orgasm

orgasm or ejaculation during sleep; aka a wet dream

secondary dysmenorrhea

painful menstruation that begins during adult life, usually as a consequence of a pelvic disorder. - Among the possible causes: endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, uterine fibroids, and ovarian cysts.

testosterone

produced in the gonads and adrenal cortex; targets are widespread in the body and brain; masculinizes body and brain during fetal development and at puberty; anabolic effects; maintains sex drive; feedback inhibition of gonadotropins. - The principal androgen; synthesized in the testicles and in lesser amounts, in the ovaries and adrenal glands. - Maintained at a constant level via a *negative feedback loop:* which includes the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and the testes.

spermatogenesis

production of sperm

erogenous zone

refers to a region of the body where touch or other forms of stimulation cause or increase sexual arousal.

pederasty

sexual contact between adult men and (usually) prepubescent boys. • Among the Greeks, men and the male form were idealized; Man's nonsexual love for another man was seen as the ideal love, superior to the sexual love for women. Homoerotic = representative of same-sex love and desire. - Greece = the society of the past that openly acknowledged both heterosexuality and homosexuality.

hysterectomy

surgical removal of the uterus; treats cancers of the uterus

script theory

the analysis of sexual and other behaviors as the enactment of socially instilled roles; helps us understand cause and effect in sexual matters. For example, researchers found that frequent porn use by college students is associated with more frequent engagement in casual sex.

partible paternity

the belief that two or more men may be fathers of the same child

menstruation

the breakdown of the endometrium at approximately monthly intervals, with consequent loss of tissue and blood from the vagina

menstrual phase

the days of the menstrual cycle on which menstrual bleeding occurs - Occupies days 1-5 - The endometrium sloughs off; this process is triggered primarily by a drop in the circulating level of progesterone. - Blood levels of estrogen also drop at this time.

colposcopy

the examination of the cervix with the aid of an operating microscope

kama sutra

the famous ancient Indian sex manual: it categorized men by their penis size and women by their vagina size. A good size match between heterosexual partners was preferred; a tight-fit = better than a loose one. - It recommended that women learn to please their husbands and provided instructions on sex techniques + illustrations of many positions. - It proposes that sex should be passionate and include scratching, biting, blows to the back, and animal noises.

endometriosis

the growth of endometrial tissue at abnormal locations within the pelvic cavity, such as on the oviducts, the ovaries, or the outside of the uterus. - Most common symptom = pelvic pain; this pain may be worse before or during the menstrual period, or at the time of ovulation, or it may be ongoing. - It can cause infertility. - There's no simple cure for it but pain medications are helpful, as are oral contraceptives. Sometimes the patches of endometrial tissue can be removed surgically.

pap test

the microscopic examination of a sample of cells taken from the cervix or (less commonly) the anus

menarche

the onset of menstruation at puberty

postovulatory (luteal) phase

the phase of the menstrual cycle between ovulation and the beginning of menstruation - Occupies days 15-28 - Marked by the presence of a *corpus luteum:* a hormone secreting structure formed from the single follicle that ruptured at ovulation. The predominant hormone secreted by this secretory structure is progesterone (along with some estrogens). Progesterone stimulates the endometrium to thicken further and become richly supplied with blood vessels (in this state, it's capable of supporting an embryo). - Progesterone also causes the cervical mucus to change its properties, such that sperm cannot easily travel through it.

preovulatory (follicular) phase

the phase of the menstrual cycle during which follicles are developing in the ovaries - Occurs between menstruation and ovulation - Occupied days 6-14 - High levels of FSH at the start of this phase promote the development of 15-20 immature follicles in the ovaries. These follicle secrete estrogens and androgens, so the levels of sex steroids in the bloodstream gradually rise during this phase. - The cervix then secretes a type of mucus that permits the passage of sperm, greatly increasing the chances of ovulation. - Toward the end of this phase, estrogen levels rise high enough that their feedback influence on the hypothalamus switches from inhibition to stimulation, triggering a surge in the secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH --> which drives the final development of the 1 remaining follicle.

sexology

the scientific study of sex and sexual disorders. - It demands expertise in a variety of disciplines, including biology, psychology, anthropology, and sociology. - Scientific studies revealed that sex was much more important to people's lives than originally thought. o The work from researchers in this field helped to demystify sex and make it more respectable to publicly discuss the sexual behaviors and problems of real people.

testicular torsion

twisting of a testicle and its spermatic cord, which cuts off its blood supply. - Caused sudden and severe pain; must be treated within a few hours or the affected testicle may die from the lack of blood.

seminal vesicles

two glands situated to either side of the prostate; their secretions are a component of semen

vibrator

was invented by Victorian physicians as a treatment for hysteria

hysteria & masturbation

• Idea that masturbation was a serious threat to health and that vibrators could be used to treat female "hysteria (aka orgasm)" Greek idea that a female's reproductive organs were a reproductive issue --> picked up by the Victorian era who then believes that female orgasm = hysteria. Idea is that ideas have a lot of power in influencing medicine. No medical evidence that masturbation is a threat to health.