humane letters final 2022
discovery of the new world
(1492) columbus crossed atlantic and landed in north america; more knowledge and economic drive; positive and negative impacts
john calvin
(1509-1564) french theologian who founded calvinism - inspired political resistance in france; believed in predestination
95 theses
(1517) written by martin luther; nailed to church door - criticized selling of indulgences and urged reformation
diet of worms
(1521) luther met with charles v; luther refused to recant - became an outlaw
act of supremacy
(1534) king henry becomes supreme head of church of england - given sole jurisdiction
peace of augsburg
(1555) declared ruler of land determines state religion - could not destroy protestantism; lutheranism becomes state religion of HRE
rene descartes
(1596-1650) french intellectual; developed analytical geometry; rationalism; cogito ergo sum - discourse on method, meditations
thirty years' war
(1618-1648) most destructive war of religion; four periods; caused by religious division and fragmented germany; becomes global conflict when france joins
blaise pascal
(1623-1662) french mathematician/scientist; pascal's wager - better to believe in god and be wrong then not believe and not go to heaven; published pensees
erasmus
(1466?-1536) dutch northern humanist - known for education/religious reforms; united christian ideals with humanist ideals
machiavelli
(1469-1527) humanist - romanticized ancient rome; wanted italian political unity/independence; wrote "the prince"
henry viii
(1491-1547) king of england who had six wives; "defender of faith" - defended seven sacraments; founded church of england
st. ignatius of loyola
(1491-1556) founded jesuits (society of jesus) ; launched missions throughout world; scriptural exercises; counter-reformation - won back protestants
louis xiv
(1638-1715) sun king of france; absolute monarch - most powerful in france; built palace of versailles; manipulated his nobles
english civil war
(1642-1651) violent conflict between parliament and monarch (charles i)
treaty of westphalia
(1648) ended hostility of HRE/thirty-years war; asserts peace of augsburg; gave calvinists legal recognition; independence of switzerland and netherlands
fronde
(1649) series of french civil wars after death of louis xiv - checked the monarch's power
treaty of chaumont
(march 9, 1814) aka treaty of paris - restored bourbons to french throne; creation of quadruple alliance; congress of vienna
battle of the nations
(october 1813) aka battle of leipzig; napoleon defeated by last coalition; napoleon exiled to elba
congress of vienna
(sept 1814-nov 1815) european leaders established a balance of power among nations; revived HRE; return of french monarchy; austria gains northern italy
great fear
(summer 1789) fear of french troops entering rural districts; destruction of chateaux; peasants regain rights; leads to abolishment of feudalism by national assembly
elizabethan settlement
english parliament laws; required conformity to the church of england and uniformity of church worship
directory
established after the reign of terror; new executive branch; 5 members selected from councils
classical humanism
"birth of modernity"; cultural movement of renaisssance - promotes individualism / dignity of mankind
sans-culottes
"without breeches" - radical group of working class; jacobins; sought relief from food shortages and inflation; hostile to aristocracy; wanted rule of the people / republic
petrarch
(1304-1374) "father of humanism"; poet
avignon papacy
(1309-1377) philip iv pressured cardinals to elect clement v - moved papacy to avignon, catherine of sienna convinces gregory xi to return papacy to rome - causes great schism
hundred years' war
(1337-1453) started because of no male heir to french throne - edward iii claimed thrown; joan of arc lifted siege at orlean - english weakened, french consolidated
great western schism
(1378-1417) caused by empty seat in avignon papacy - three popes elected; councils called to resolve issues
leonardo da vinci
(1452-1519) "universal man" - studied anatomy, painting, engineering; known for facial expressions/conveyed emotions in paintings
fall of constantinople
(1453) overcome by ottoman turks in 1453 after constant attack by barbarians
glorious revolution
(1688) parliament disliked james ii - invited william of orange to invade; james fled to france - william and mary become new monarch
jean-jacque rousseau
(1712-1778) radical enlightenment political philosopher; society corrupts humanity; equal distribution of property
denis diderot
(1713-1784) french enlightenment figure; worked on the first encyclopedia - man is focal point, freedom of expression
jacques necker
(1732-1804) swiss banker and director of finance in france; public report that revealed pensions for aristocrats; removed from office
marie antoinette
(1755-1793) wife of louis xvi and queen of france during the revolution; executed in 1793; reputation of sexual misconduct
marquis de lafayette
(1757-1834), french noble - fought alongside americans in the revolutionary war; led the call for reform and presented the declaration of the rights of man to the national assembly
robespierre
(1758-1794) french political leader; republic of virtue thru terror; dominant member of committee of public safety; supported republican gov
horatio nelson
(1758-1805) british admiral; victory at trafalgar; established british naval supremacy
napoleon bonaparte
(1769-1821) emperor of france; overthrew the directory in 1799; king of italy and master of germany; wrote new constitution to maintain power; tried to stop english economy; invaded italy, belgium, prussia, russia; defeated at waterloo - exiled
louis xvi
(1774-1792) king of france during the french revolution; calls the estates general; fall of bastille; beheaded
assembly of notables
(1787) group of nobles nominated by royal ministry; return to estates general; reappointed necker
marie-louis
(1791-1847) napoleon's second wife; married at 18; austrian duchess
reign of terror
(1793-1794) during french revolution; thousands executed for supporting counterrevolution - protects revolution
thermidorian reaction
(1794) reaction to reign of terror; slowing of revolution; new constitution - established bicameral legislation; reconstruction of committee of public safety; paris commune outlawed and leaders executed
battle of trafalgar
(1805) naval battle - nelson defeated spanish and french fleet; established british naval supremacy
peninsular war
(1808-1813) aka wars of liberation; napoleon invaded spain and deposed spanish bourbons - spanish resistance tried to push france back; spain aided by british and austrians
russian campaign
(1812) napoleon invaded russian with 600,000 men; battle of boropino; napoleon fled to paris - abandoned troops
treaty of paris
(1815) forced napoleon to surrender his army after the battle of waterloo; exiled to st. helena
st bartholomew's day massacre
(aug. 24, 1572) thousands of huguenots killed - protestant massacre; supported by catherine de medici
battle of the nile
(august 1, 1798) horatio nelson destroyed french fleet; cut off french army; part of napoleon's egyptian campaign
levee en masse
(august 23, 1793) issued by lazare carnot; required conscription of males into the military; more military funding
black death
(bubonic plague) arrived in genoa in 1348 via fleas on rats; killed 1/3 of population
battle of austerlitz
(december 2, 1805) napoleon defeated combined russian and austrian forces
henry of navarre
(henry iv of france) led huguenots; succeeded throne after henry iii's death - abandoned protestantism; wanted catholic toleration
civil constitution of clergy
(july 1790) assembly attempted to reconstruct church in france after confiscation of lands; embittered relations between church and state; clergy required to pledge loyalty to gov; dissolved most political orders
battle of waterloo
(june 18, 1815) napoleon's final defeat; british and prussian victory; napoleon exiled to st. helena
tennis court oath
(june 20, 1789) national assembly locked out by louis xvi; pledges to write new french constitution
100 days
(march 20-july 8, 1814) period of napoleon's return before louis xviii to paris
november 9, 1799
18th brumaire - napoleon overthrows the directory
concordat with church
agreement made between napoleon and pope - napoleon acknowledged catholicism as religion of french cities; the church gave up claims to property in france; required clergy who supported the revolution to resign; church swore loyalty to state
linear perspective
appearance of things in relation to each other - adjustment of figure size to maintain feeling of continuity; occurs in renaissance art; parallel lines converging
divine right of monarchy
based on the belief that monarchs receive their power directly from god; only inferior to god
july 14, 1789
bastille day - citizens storm bastille in search of weapons; 98 casualties
print culture
books, journals, poetry and papers achieve their status; influenced intellectual / religious movements in renaissance - increase of literacy in europe
wellesley
british duke of wellington; gains control of british army; wars of liberation; defeated napoleon at waterloo
predestination
calvinist belief that god has already determined who goes to heaven/gets salvation; denies free will
CHAIRS
classical humanism, activism, individualism, realism, secularism
public opinion
collective beliefs / effect of public that influenced politics/social life - aided by print culture; prevents gov from operating in secret - challenged institutions/political authorities
heliocentrism
copernican theory that the sun was the center of the universe
william and mary of orange
crowned after james ii fled; agree to new bill of rights that limited power of monarchy, called parliament regularly, subjects kings to law; opposed louis xiv
absolutism
form of government where the ruler has complete control of the nation; not checked by other powers
national assembly
french congress established by representatives of third estate on June 17, 1789 - enacts laws and reforms; gains members from all estates; forms new constitution
estates general
french political assembly of three estates - represents all the classes; called to settle conflict between monarchy, aristocracy, and church
huguenots
french protestants - influenced by john calvin
republic of letters
increased communication in the form of letters exchanged between the influential philosophers and thinkers during enlightenment
january 21, 1793
king louis xvi beheaded
oliver cromwell
leader of roundheads during english civil war; becomes despot leader after beheading of charles i - england becomes puritan republic; "lord protector"
girondists
moderate groups of jacobins; fought with sans-culottes for control of french national assembly; opposed counterrevolution
jacobins
most famous club from third estate; favors republican gov; hatred of aristocracy; enlightened ideas - merit based, free market, no gov intervention
john locke
most influential political philosopher during enlightenment; puritan who criticized absolutism; blank slate theory
josephine
napoleon's first wife; did not bare children - divorced
continental system
napoleon's policy of preventing trade between britain and europe - intended to destroy british economy; milan and berlin decrees
august 4, 1789
national assembly abolished feudalism; nobles renounce rights and privileges - all citizens subject to same laws; merit based political positions
september 21, 1792
national convention met; declared france a republic - no monarch; create new constitution
natural philosophy
natural science - new view of the universe
consulate
new french government established after the overthrow of the directory in 1799; napoleon as first consul; universal male suffrage; division of power
martin luther
posted 95 theses against indulgences - wanted reformation of church; central figure in german reformation; diet of worms
albrecht wallenstein
protestant mercenary who fought for catholics; assassinated by frederick ii; killed gustavus adolphus; gained territory during conquest of bohemia
enlightened absolutism
ruler governs by enlightenment principles/reason while maintaining their full royal powers
coffee houses
spread throughout europe during enlightenment/print culture; social place for discussions about politics, literature, science - philosophes
june 17, 1789
third estate declares itself the national assembly
cosimo medici
wealthy banker; patron of arts during renaissance; head of the medici family; returned stability to florence - controlled gov as dictator; rise in despotism
sieyes
wrote What Is The Third Estate - argues for assertion of power from lower class; allied with napoleon