Humanities Unit 4

jihad

"striving in the way of the Lord" -In Islam, the attempt to achieve personal betterment, although it can also mean fair, defensive fighting to preserve one's life and one's faith. -Muhammad and the early caliphs who succeeded him took up the Arab tribal custom of the razzia or raid in the struggle against their enemies. Some called this activity this word. -Arab conquests were not carried out to convert others. since conversion to Islam was purely voluntary. Those who did not convert were required only to submit to Muslim rule and pay taxes.

100 Years War

-A series of conflicts, rather than a single continuous war, between England and France. -In 1259, the English king, Henry III, had relinquished his claims to all the French territories previously held by the English monarchy except for one relatively small possession known as the duchy of Gascony. -As duke of Gascony, the English king pledged loyalty as a vassal to the French king. But this territory gave rise to numerous disputes between the kings of England and France. By the 13th century, the Capetian monarch had greatly increased their power over their more important vassals, the great lords of France. Royal officials interfered regularly in the affairs of the vassals' fiefs, especially in matters of justice. Although this policy irritated all the vassals, it especially annoyed the king of England, who considered himself the peer of the French king. - A dispute over the right of succession to the French throne also complicated relations between the French and the English. In the 14th century, e Capetian dynasty failed to produce a male heir for the first time in almost 400 years. In 1328, the last son of King Philip died without a male heir. The closest male relative in line to the throne was King Edward III of England, whose mother was Isabella, the daughter of Philip IV. Isabella with the assistance of her lover, led a revolt against her husband, King Edward II, overthrew him, and ruled England until her teenage son, Edward III, took sole control of the throne in 1330. As the son of the daughter of King Philip IV, King Edward III of England had a claim to the French throne, but the nobles argued that the inheritance of the monarchy could not pass through the female line and chose a cousin of the Capetians, Philip, duke of Valois. -The war first began in a burst of knightly enthusiasm. Trained to be warriors, knights viewed the clash of battle as the ultimate opportunity to demonstrate their fighting abilities. -Joan of Arc, a young French peasant girl, saved the day when the English began to push into the heart of France. -The war dragged on for another 2 decades. There were defeats of the English armies in Normandy and Aquitaine that ultimately led to a French victory. -The defeats of England's best commanders and the instability of the English government under King Henry VI also contributed to England's defeat.

Byzantine Empire

-After Justinian died, the Eastern Roman Empire was left with serious problems: there was too much distant territory to protect, an empty treasury, a smaller population after the plague, and renewed threats to the frontiers. -The most serious challenge to the Eastern Roman Empire came from the rise of Islam, which unified the Arab tribes and created a powerful new force that swept through the east. -The empire lost the provinces of Syria and Palestine after the Arabs defeated an eastern Roman army at Yarmuk in 636. -The Arabs also moved into an old Persian Empire and conquered it. An Arab attempt to besiege Constantinople failed, in large part due to the use of Greek fires against the Arab fleets. -Problems also arose along the northern frontier, especially in the Balkans, where an Asiatic people known as the Bulgars arrived earlier in the 6th century. -In 679, the Bulgars defeated the Eastern Roman forces and took possession of the lower Danube valley, setting up a strong Bulgarian kingdom. -By the beginning of the 8th century, the Eastern Roman Empire was greatly diminished in size, consisting only of the eastern Balkans and Asia Minor. -By the 8th century, the Eastern Roman Empire had been transformed into what historians called the Byzantine Empire. -It was both a Greek and Christian state. -Greek became the common and official language of the Empire. -Was built on a faith in Jesus that was shared in a profound way by almost all its citizens. -An enormous amount of artistic talent was poured into the construction of churches, church ceremonies, and church decoration. -Beginning in 730 BC, the Byzantine emperor Leo III, outlawed the use of icons. Strong resistance ensued, especially from monks. Late in the 8th century, the Byzantine rulers reversed their stand on the use of images, but not before considerable damage had been done to the unity of the Christian church. Although the final separation between Roman Catholicism and Greek Orthodoxy did not occur until 1054, the iconoclastic controversy was important in moving both sides in that direction. -The emperor occupied a crucial position in the Byzantine state. Portrayed as chosen by God, the Byzantine emperor was crowned in sacred ceremonies, and his subjects were expected to prostrate themselves in his presence. -His power was considered absolute and was limited in practice only by deposition or assassination. -Because the emperor appointed the patriarch, he also exercised control over both church and state. -Had many foreign enemies, and emperors spent considerable energy on war and preparations for war. -The Byzantine Empire served as a buffer state, protecting the west for a long time from incursions from the east. -The Macedonian dynasty of the 10th and 11th centuries had restored much of the power of the Byzantine Empire; its incompetent successors, however, reverse most of the gains. -After the Macedonian dynasty was extinguished in 1056, the empire was beset by internal struggles for power between ambitious military leaders and aristocratic families who attempted to buy the support of the landowners of Anatolia by allowing them greater control over the peasants. -This policy was self-destructive, hower because the peasant-warrior was the traditional backbone of the Byzantine state. -The Seljuk Turks defeated the Asia Minor-which was the heartland of the empire and its main source of food and manpower- defeated Byzantine forces at Manzikert n 1071, and advanced into Anatolia, and peasants accepted Turkish control. -Started the Crusades, when Alexius 1, asked Pope Urban II for help against the Seljuk Turks -Demised in 1453.

Allah

-Although these early Arabs (Muslims) were polytheistic, there was a supreme God named Allah who ruled over the other gods. -There was no priesthood; all members of the tribe were involved in the practice of the faith. -Was symbolized by a sacred stone, and each tribe had its own stone. -Muhammad in his middle years began to experience visions that he believed were inspired by Allah. He believed that although Allah had already revealed himself in part through Moses and Jesus the final revelations were now being given to him. Out of these revelations, which were eventually written down, came the Qu'ran, which contained the guidelines by which followers of Allah were to live. -Muhammad's teachings formed the basis for the religion known as Islam, which means "submission to the will of Allah" -Was the all-powerful being who had created the universe and everything in it. Humans must subject themselves to Allah if they wished to achieve everlasting life. His followers were called Muslims, meaning "practitioners of Islam".

Muhammad

-Born in Mecca to a merchant family, he was orphaned at the age of five. He grew up to become a caravan manager and eventually married a rich widow who was also his employer. -In his middle years, he began to experience visions that he believed were inspired by Allah. -He believed that although Allah had already revealed himself in part through Moses and Jesus- and thus through the Hebrew and Christian traditions- the final revelations were now being given to him. -Out of these revelations, which were eventually written down, came the Qur'an, which contained the guidelines by which followers of Allah were to live. -His teachings formed the basis for the religion known as Islam, which means "submission to the will of Allah." -Allah was the all-powerful being who had created the universe and everything in it. Humans must subject themselves to Allah if they wished to achieve everlasting life. -His followers were called Muslims, meaning "practitioners of Islam." -After receiving the revelations, Muhammad set out to convince the people of Mecca that the revelations were true. -At first, many thought he was insane, and others feared that his attacks on the corrupt society around him would upset the established social and political order. -Discouraged by the failure of the Meccans to accept his message, in 622 Muhammad and some of his closest supporters left the city and moved north to the rival city of Yathrib, later renamed Medina. -He had been invited to the town by a number of prominent residents, and he soon began to win support from people in Medina as well as from members of Bedouin tribes in the surrounding countryside. From these groups, he formed the first Muslim community. Muslims saw no separation between political and religious authority; submission to the will of Allah meant submission to Muhammad, his Prophet. -He soon became a religious and political leader. His political and military skills enabled him to put together a reliable military force, with which he returned to Mecca in 630, conquering the city and converting the townspeople to the new faith. -From Mecca, his ideas spread quickly across the Arabian peninsula and within a relatively short time had resulted in both the religious and political unification of Arab society. -Started the Five Pillars of Islam, "Belief in Allah and Muhammad as his Prophet." -His death presented his followers with a dilemma. Although he had not claimed to be divine, Muslims saw no separation between religious and political authority. Submission to the will of Allah was the same thing as submission to his Prophet, Muhammad. He had never named a successor, and although he had several daughters, he left no sons. -Shortly after his death, a number of his closest followers selected Abu Bakr, a wealthy merchant who was Muhammad's father-in-law as caliph. -He took up the tribal custom of razzia or raid in the struggle against their enemies.

Carolingian Empire

-By the 8th century, the Merovingian dynasty was losing control of the Frankish lands. -Charles Martel became the virtual ruler of these territories. -His son Pepin assumed the kingship of the Frankish state for himself, and a new form of Frankish kingship. -Pepin's death in 768 brought to the throne his son Charles the Great or Charlemagne. -During Charlemagne's rule, he took on 54 military campaigns and expanded the empire into Italy, Spain, and Germany. -There was no system of public taxation, so Charlemagne depended upon the royal estates for the resources he needed to govern his empire. -Foods and goods derived from these lands provided support for the king, his household staff, and officials. -Created a system of government that limited the power of the counts. They were required to serve outside their own family lands and were moved periodically rather than being permitted to remain in a country for life. -This system of government was inefficient. Great distances had to be covered by horseback. -The Catholic church had significant impact. Fathers or uncles arranged marriages in Frankish society to meet the needs of the extended family. -Began to disintegrate after Charlemagne's death. He was succeeded by his son Louis the Pious. Although he was a decent man, he was not a strong ruler and was unable to control either the Frankish aristocracy or his own 4 sons who fought continually. -Was divided after Louis's death, Charles the Bald: obtained the western Frankish lands; Louis the German: took the Eastern Lands; and Lothar got the middle kingdom.

Carolingian Intellectual Renewal

-Charlemagne had a strong desire to revive learning in his kingdom, an attitude that stemmed from his own intellectual curiosity as well as the need to provide educated clergy for the church and literate officials for the government. -His efforts led to a revival of learning and culture that some historians have labeled the "rebirth" pf learning. -For the most part, the revival of classical studies and the efforts to preserve Latin culture took place in the monasteries, many of which had been established by the Irish and English missionaries of the 7th and 8th centuries. -By the 9th century, the work required of Benedictine monks was the copying of manuscripts. -Monasteries established scriptoria, or writing rooms, where monks copied not only the works of early Christianity, such as the Bible and the treatises of the church fathers, but also the works of classical Latin authors. -Following the example of the Irish and English monks, their Carolingian counterparts developed new ways of producing books. Texts were written on pages made of parchment or sheepskin rather than papyrus, and then bound in covers decorated with jewels and precious metals. -Carolingian monastic scribes also developed a new writing style called the Carolingian miniscule. -The manuscripts some of them illustrated, that were produced in Carolingian monastic scriptoria were crucial in preserving the ancient legacy. -Charlemagne personally promoted learning by establishing a palace school and encouraging scholars from all over Europe to come to the Carolingian court. -Charlemagne encouraged his own artists and architects to look to the arts of ancient Rome and the Byzantine Empire. -Played an important role in keeping the classical heritage alive.

Chaucer

-Geoffrey Chaucer brought a new level of sophistication to the English vernacular language in his famous Canterbury Tales. His beauty of expression and clear, forceful language were important in transforming his East Midland dialect into the chief ancestor of the modern English language. -The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories told by a group of 29 pilgrims journeying from the London suburb of Southwark to the tomb of Saint Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. -The book gave him the chance to portray an entire range of English society, both high and low-born. -presented the Knight, the Yeoman, the Prioress, the Monk, the Merchant, the Student, the Lawyer, the Carpenter, the Cook, the Doctor, the Plowman, and "A Good wife" -Used some of his characters to criticize the corruption of the church in the late medieval period. -He was still a pious Christian, never doubting basic Christian doctrines and remaining optimistic that the church could be reformed.

Theodora

-Her husband is Justinian. -Her father was the "Keeper of the Bears" for the games at Constantinople, who died when she was a child. -Followed her mother's footsteps by becoming an actress, which at the time was considered a lowborn activity. -Worked as a prostitute. -At the age of 25 she met Justinian, who was 40. His uncle Justin, had to change the law to allow an aristocratic senator to marry a woman who had become an actress. -She became empress after Justinian's uncle died. -She was close and loving to Justinian. -She influenced her husband in both church and state affairs. -Was a strong-willed and intelligent woman, and she proved herself valuable in 532, when the two factions of charioteer supporters in Constantinople joined forces and rioted against the emperor. The riots soon became a revolt as the rioters burned and looted the center of the city, shouting "Nika!" (win!), a word normally used to cheer on their favorite chariot teams. Justinian seemed ready to flee, but she changed his mind, and Justinian resolved to stay and fight. -Died from the plague.

Codification of Roman Law

-Justinian was responsible for this. -The Eastern Empire was heir to a vast quantity of materials connected to the development of Roman law. -These included laws passed by the senate and assemblies, legal commentaries of jurists, decisions of praetors, and the edicts of emperors. -Justinian had been well trained in imperial government and was thoroughly acquainted with Roman law. He wished to codify and simplify the mass of materials. -To accomplish his goal, Justinian authorized the jurist Trebonian to make a systematic compilation of imperial edicts. -The result was the Code of Law, the first part of the Corpus Iuris Civilis (Body of Civil Law), completed in 529. -Four years later, two other parts of the Corpus appeared: the Digest, a compendium of writings of Roman jurists, and the Institutes, a brief summary of the chief principles of Roman law that could be used as a textbook in Roman law. -The fourth part of the Corpus was the Novels, a compilation of the most important new edicts issued during Justinian's reign. -Justinian's codification of Roman law became the basis of imperial law in the Byzantine Empire until its end in 1453. More important, however, since it was written in Latin, it was also eventually used in the west and became the basis of the legal system of all of continental Europe.

Magna Carta

-Many English nobles came to resent the ongoing growth of royal power and rose in rebellion during the reign of Henry's son, King John. -Following in his father's footsteps, John continued the effort to strengthen royal power and proved particularly ingenious at finding novel ways to levy taxes. -The barons of England came to resent him deeply. -By 1205, John had the duchy of Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine to the French king, Philip Augustus; when John's attempt to reconquer the duchy ended in a devastating defeat, many of the English barons rose in rebellion. -At Runnymede in 1215, John was forced to assent to this, which is the "great charter" of feudal liberties. -Much of it was aimed at limiting government practices that affected the relations between the king and his vassals on the one hand and between the king and the church on the other. -Is a feudal document. Feudal custom had always recognized that the relationship between king and vassals was based on mutual rights and obligations. -Gave written recognition to that fact and was used in subsequent years to underscore he concept that the monarch should be limited rather than absolute.

Islam

-Means "submission to the will of Allah" -Even though the early Arabs were polytheistic, there was a supreme God named Allah who rued over the other Gods. -Muhammad was born to a merchant family and was orphaned at age 5. -In his middle years, he began to experience visions that he believed were inspired by Allah. He believed that although Allah had already revealed himself in part through Moses and Jesus the final revelations were now being given to him. -Out of these revelations came the Koran, which contained the guidelines by which followers of Allah were to live. -His teachings formed the basis of this religion. -Alllah was the all-powerful being who had created the universe and everything in it. -His followers were called Muslims, meaning "practitioners of Islam." -The sacred book is the Koran, and has a basic message that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet.m -Is a direct and simple faith, emphasizing the need to obey the will of Allah. ----Meant following a basic ethical code consisting of the Five Pillars of Islam. --Is not just a set of religious beliefs but a way of life as well. -After Muhammad died, Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law, became caliph, or temporal leader. -This problem with the caliphate created a split in Islam between the Shi'ites and the Sunnis. -This religion expanded through North Africa and moved into Spain around 710. By 725, most of Spain had become a Muslim state with its center at Cordoba. -In 717, a Muslim force launched a naval attack on Constantinople with the hope of destroying the Byzantine Empire. In the spring of 718, the Byzantines destroyed the Muslim fleet and saved the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire and Islam now lived uneasily together. -Although the Qur'an instructed men to treat women with respect, the male was dominant in Muslim society. Women were to be good mothers and wives by raising their children and caring for their husbands. Customs required that women be secluded in their homes and kept from social contracts with males outside their own families.

Sunnis

-Members of the largest tradition in Islam, from which the Shi'ites split in the 7th century as a result of a dispute over the succession. -Claim that the descendants of the Umayyads were the true caliphs. -There was a serious of crusades against the Muslims in the High Middle Ages. -Had a caliphate in Baghdad. -The Seljuk Turks were a nomadic people from Central Asia who had been converted to Islam and flourished as military mercenaries for the Abbasid caliphate. Moving gradually into Persia and Armenia, their numbers grew until by the 11th century they were able to take over the eastern provinces of the Abbasid empire. In 1055, a Turkish leader captured Baghdad and assumed command of the Abbasid empire with the title of sultan. while the Abbasid caliph remained the chief representative of Sunni religious authority, the real military and political power of the state was in the hands of the Seljuk Turks. -In many respects, Turkish rule in the Middle East brought an end to the squabbles between Sunni and Shi'ite Muslims while supporting the Sunnis.

Shi'ites

-Members of the second largest tradition of Islam, which split from the majority Sunni tradition in the seventh century as a result of a disagreement over the succession; especially significant in Iran and Iraq. -Accepted only the descendants of Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law; as the true rulers. -By the mid 10th century, the Islamic empire led by the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad was disintegrating. An attempt was made in the 10th century to unify the Islamic world under the direction of a Shi'ite dynasty known as the Fatimids. -Their origins lay in North Africa, but they managed to conquer Egypt and establish the new city of Cairo as their capital. In establishing a Shi'ite caliphate, they became rivals to the Sunni caliphate of Baghdad and divided the Islamic world.

Qu'ran

-Muhammad believed that although Allah had already revealed himself in part through Moses and Jesus, the final revelations were now being given to him. -Out of these revelations came the Koran, which contained the guidelines by which followers of Allah were to live. -This is at the heart of Islam. -Has a basic message that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet. --Contains Muhammad's revelations of a heavenly book written down by secretaries. -Consists of 114 chapters, recorded the beliefs of the Muslims and served as their code of ethics and law.

Mecca

-Muhammad was born here. -This was where Muhammad set out to convince the people of Mecca that the revelations were true. -He returned here in 630, conquering the city and converting the townspeople to the new faith. -From here, Muhammad's ideas spread quickly across the Arabian peninsula and within a relatively short time had resulted in both the religious and the political unification of Arab society. -Is part of the Five Pillars of Islam: - Making a pilgrimage known as Hajj to Mecca in one's lifetime. - Allah was symbolized by a sacred stone, and each tribe has its own stone. All tribes, however, worshipped a massive black meteorite, the Black Stone, which has been placed in a central shrine called the Ka'aba in this city.

Charlemagne

-Pepin's death in 768 brought to the throne of the Frankish kingdom his son, a dynamic and powerful ruler known to history as Charles the Great or Charlemagne. -Was a determined and decisive man, intelligent and inquisitive. -Was a fierce warrior, he was also a wise patron of learning and a resolute statesmen. -Greatly expanded the territory of the Carolingian Empire during his rule. -Was a determined warrior who undertook 54 military campaigns. -His campaigns took him to many areas of Europe. In 773, he led his army into Italy, crushed the Lombards, and took control of the Lombard state. -Although his son was crowned king of Italy, he was the real ruler. -4 years after Italy, he and his forces advanced into Northern Spain. -Went into campaigns into Eastern Europe, went into Germany. But Saxony was finally put into an 804. -Invaded the lands of the Bavarians in south-eastern Germany in 787 and put them under his rule in 787. -His empire covered much of western and central Europe. -He continued the efforts of his father in organizing the Carolingian kingdom. -Because there was no system of public taxation, he depended upon the royal estates for the resources he needed to govern his empire. -Food and goods derived from these lands provided support for the king, his household staff, and officials. -To keep the nobles in his service, he granted part of the royal lands as lifetime holdings to nobles who assisted him. -he acquired a new title "Emperor of the Romans" in 800. -Already during the reign of Pepin, a growing alliance had emerged between the kingdom of the Franks and papacy. The popes welcomed the support, and in the course of the 2nd half of the 8th century, they severe more and more of their ties with the Byzantine Empire and drew closer to the Frankish kingdom. He encouraged this development. -In 799, after a rebellion against his authority, Pope Leo III, managed to escape from Rome and flee to safety at his court. He offered assistance, and when he went to Rome in November 800 to settle affairs, he was received by the pope like an Emperor. On Christmas day in 800 after Mass, Pope Leo placed a crown on his head and proclaimed him emperor of the Romans.

Five Pillars of Islam

-The major tenets of the Muslim faith: -Islam was a direct and simple faith, emphasizing the need to obey the will of Allah. This meant following a basic ethical code: 1. Belief in Allah and Muhammad as his Prophet 2. Standard prayer five times a day and public prayer on Friday 3. Observance of the holy month of Ramadan by fasting from dawn to sunset 4. Making a pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca in one's lifetime if possible 5. Giving alms to the poor. -The faithful who observed the law were guaranteed a place in eternal paradise.

Joan of Arc

-Was born in 1412 to well-to-do peasant from the village of Domremy in Champagne. -She was deeply religious, and she experienced visions and came to believe that her favorite saints had commanded her to free France and have the dauphin crowned as king. -In February 1429, she made her way to the dauphin's court, where her sincerity and simplicity persuaded Charles to allow her to accompany a French army to Orleans. Apparently inspired by the faith of the peasant girl, the French armies found new confidence in themselves and liberated Orleans, changing the course of the war. -Within a few weels, the entire Loire valley had been freed by the English. -In July 1429, fulfilling her other tasks, the dauphin was crowned king of France and became Charles VII. -She was captured by the Burgundian allies of the English in 1430. Wishing to eliminate the Maid of Orleans, for obvious political reasons, the English turned her over to the Inquisition on charges of witchcraft. In the 15th century, spiritual visions were thought to be inspired by either God or the devil. Because she dressed in men's clothing, it was easy for her enemies to believe that she was in league with the "prince of darkness". -She was condemned to death as a heretic and burned at the stake in 1431, at the age of 19. 25 years later, a church court exonerated her of these charges. In 1920, she was made a saint of the Roman Catholic Church. vf

Justinian

-Was possibly the best educated emperor of all of the Byzantine Empire. -Had been well-trained in imperial administration. -He was determined to reestablish the Roman Empire in the entire Mediterranean world and began his attempt to reconquer the west in 533. -His wife is Theodora -His most significant contribution was the codification of Roman Law. -His army under Belisarius presented a formidable force. Belisarius sailed to North Africa and quickly destroyed the Vandals in two major battles. From North Africa, he led his forces onto the Italian Peninsula after occupying Sicily in 535. The struggle devastated Italy, which suffered more from Justinian's reconquest than from all of the previous barbarian invasions. -After that, he had been criticized for overextending his resources and bankrupting the empire,. -Before he died, his empire included Italy, parts of Spain, North Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Syria. -He codified Roman Law. The Eastern Empire was heir to a vast quantity of materials connected to the development of Roman law. These included laws passed by the senate and assemblies, legal commentaries of jurists, decisions of praetors, and the edicts of emperors. -He had been well trained in imperial government and was thoroughly acquainted with Roman law.- Wished to codify and simplify the mass of materials. -He authorized the jurist Trebonian to make a systematic compilation of imperial edicts. The result was the Code of Law. -His codification of Roman law became the basis of imperial law in the Byzantine Empire until its end in 1453. -On his court, he had Procopius, which was the historian. -After the Nika Revolt, where the two factions of charioteer supporters in Constantinople joined forces and rioted against the emperor. The riots soon became a revolt as the rioters burned and looted the center of the city. After the revolts, he rebuilt the city and gave it the appearance, and added many new buildings, like roads, bridges, walls, public baths, law courts, and colossal underground reservoirs to hold the water supply. Also built hospitals, schools, monasteries, and churches. Built more than 34 churches. -Was married to Theodora. After he died, there was too much distant territory to protect, an empty treasury, and a smaller population after the plague and renewed threats to the frontiers.

Vikings

-Were Northmen or Norsemen of Scandinavia. -Were a Germanic people based in Scandinavia. -Began to migrate. -They were warriors, and also superb shipbuilders and sailors. Their ships were the best of the period. -They were long and narrow with beautifully cared arched prows, and could carry about 50 men. -Although raids in the 8th century were small-scale and sporadic, they became more regular and devastating in the 9th. -they sacked villages and towns, destroyed churches, and easily defeated small local armies. -these attacks frightened people. -Because they were different groups of Scandinavians, expansion varied a great deal. Norwegian Vikings moved into Ireland and western England; Danes attacked eastern England, Frisia, and the Rhineland and navigated rivers to enter western Frankish lands. -Swedish Vikings dominated the Baltic Sea and progressed into the Slavic areas to the east. -Early raids had been carried out largely in the summer; by the 9th century the Norsemen had begun to establish winter settlements in Europe from which they could make expeditions to conquer and settle new lands -After 860, they sailed westward in ships across the North Atlantic Ocean reaching Iceland in 874. -By the 10th century, Viking expansion was drawing to a close.

Excommunication

In the Catholic Church, a censure depriving a person of the right to receive sacraments of the church.

Sacraments

Rites considered imperative for a Christian's salvation. By the 13th century, these consisted of the Eucharist or Lord's Supper, baptism, marriage, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and confirmation of children. Protestant reformers of the 16th century generally recognized only two-baptism and communion (the Lord's Supper).

Relics

The bones of Christian saints or objects intimately associated with saints that were considered worthy of veneration by the faithful. -Had an emphasis on the role of saints. -Increased noticeably in the High Middle Ages.

Great Schism

The crisis in the late medieval church when there were first two and then three popes, ended by the Council of Constance (1414-1418)

Scutage

in the 14th century, a money payment for military service that replaced the obligation of military service in the lord-vassal relationship.

Pogroms

organized massacres of Jews. -The worst of these were carried out in Germany. -More than 60 major Jewish communities in Germany had been exterminated by 1351.

Black Death

the outbreak of plague (mostly bubonic) in the mid 14th century that killed from 25 to 50% of Europe's population. -Caused economic, social, political, and cultural upheaval -There were two basic types: ---bubonic: caused by a bacterium transmitted by the bite of fleas infected from humans or rats. ----was spread by black rats infested with fleas who were host to the deadly bacterium Yersinia pestis. -------Symptoms included high fever, aching joints, swelling of the lymph nodes, and dark blotches caused by bleeding beneath the skin. ---virulent pneumonic: most lethal, spread by airborne bacteria that attacked the lungs. -------The bacterial infection spread to the lungs, resulting in severe coughing, bloody sputum, and the relatively easy spread of the bacillus from human to human by coughing. -Originated in Asia. --In the early 1300s, rats accompanying Mongol troops spread the plague into central China and by 1331 to northeastern China. -It reached Europe in October 1347 when Genoese merchants brought it from Caffa to the island of Sicily off the coast of Italy. The plague spread quickly, reaching southern Italy and southern France and Spain by the end of 1347. In 1348, the plague spread through France and the low countries into Germany. By the end of the year, it spread into England. -Italy was hit the hardest, because it was the commercial center of the Mediterranean, and it possessed multiple ports where the plague could be introduced. -There were multiple major outbreaks of the plague, with them being from 1361-1362, and 1369, with recurrences every 5 or 6 or 10 or 12 years depending on climatic and ecological conditions. -An outbreak of virulent anti-Semitism accompanied the Black Death. Jews were accused of causing the plague by poisoning the town wells. More than 60 major Jewish communities were exterminated by 1351. --Art began to concentrate on pain and death. and a fairly large number of artistic works came to be based on the ars moriendi, the art of dying.

Caliph

the secular leader of the Islamic community. -Shortly after Muhammad's death, the first one was Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's father in law. -Muhammad and the earlier caliphs who succeeded him took up the Arab tribal custom of the razzia or raid in the struggle against their enemies. Some have called this activity jihad. -Earlier caliphs, ruling from Medina, organized their conquered territories into taxpaying provinces. By the mid 7th century, problems arose again over the succession to the Prophet until Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law, was assassinated and the general Muawiya, the governor of Syria and one of Ali's chief rivals, became caliph in 661. He moved quickly to make the caliphate hereditary in his own family, thus establishing the Umayyad dynasty. -This action of the caliphate created a split in Islam between the Shi'ites (which accepted only the descendants of Ali, Muhammad's son in law, as the true rulers), and Sunni (who claimed that the descendants of the Umayyads were the true caliphs.