Infant and Child Development Exam 2 (michaelchen5)
Kagan study focus
Focus on approach and withdrawal to discrepant events. Find biological basis of temperament.
Kagan: Evidence for Physiological Explanation: conclusion
We inherit a physiology that biases us towards a specific result
Magical causality
-limitation of substage 3 of sensorimotor period -action can produce effect even in the absence of physical contact between causal action and effect
How do we test Infants' Perceptions of an occluded object?
-looking for when babies' looking times drop, as they have a preference for novelty -when the infants become habituated to the occluded object sliding back and forth, they see if they look at the complete rod or broken rod longer
semantics
-meaning of words -vocabulary-words and word combinations for concepts
Deaf children develop language even with:
-minimal input --->later than hearing children --->home sign language -inconsistent input --->will extract correct grammar rules
Depth perception: pictorial depth cues
-monocular cues (converging lines, texture density, occlusion, overlapping lines) -appear at 4 months and develops over first year
Factors that affect attachment security
-opportunity for attachments -quality of caregiving ---sensitive caregiving ---interactional synchrony ---cultural norms -infant characteristics -family circumstance -parent's internal workings models
Quality of caregiving: disorganized
-parent engages is rough handling. Can frighten baby yet also seemed frightened by baby -Parent might engage in abusive neglectful behavior -parent suffers from unresolved loss -parental adjustment difficulties (clinical depression, bipolar disorder) -infant has no organized strategy to deal with parent's frightening behavior -disorganized behavior in child is driven by parent -Difficult babies at risk to be disorganized, but parent is what makes them disorganized
Quality of caregiving: avoidant
-parent is unresponsive and rejecting, yet can be intrusive and overwhelming -parent is unaffectionate, and fails to comfort infant when distressed; sometimes express negative feelings about infant -infant develops 'strategy' to avoid parent to escape future rejection or overstimulation
Quality of caregiving: resistant
-parent responds inconsistently yet when infant shows independence parent interferes and pulls infant's attention back to themselves -babies clingy, angry -infant is overly dependent yet angry at inconsistency; works hard to evoke consistent response by being clingy, having prolonged bids for attention, exaggerated expressions of own need, and so on. -babies try to get parent to be more consistent through clingyness
Quality of caregiving: secure
-parent responds promptly, appropriately, and consistently; is sensitive, available, and affectionate -special form of communication called interactional synchrony
Piaget: adaptation
"The process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment" -involves two complementary and simultaneous processes: assimilation and accomodation
Piaget's definition of intelligence
"intelligence is a form of equilibrium toward which all cognitive structures tend" -goal if intellectual activity is equilibrium
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 5: limits
-can't engage in insight problem solving -can't invent solutions to problems
Schwartz, Wright, Shin, Kagan, Rauch study procedure
-"Familiarize" subjects with novel faces -Test: alternate images with novel faces and recently familiarized faces
Susman-Stillman, Kalkoske, Egeland, and Waldmen study
-"at risk" sample of 212 -temperament measures ---irritability and sociability ---multiple sources (neonate nurses, mothers, in-home observers during feeding) ---multiple times (birth, 3 months, 6 months)
Behavioral, sensorimotor, or action based schemes
-"how" -organized patterns of motor actions used to represent or respond to an object or experience
Mental or symbolic scheme
-"what" -organized patterns of thought (using symbols or images) used to represent and respond to an object or experience -mental representations of objects, information, or experiences that the mind can manipulate
Piaget's object hiding task: substage 5 limitations
-(12-18mo) -Fail invisible displacement task -believe that objects are where they last saw them because they fail to fully separate objects from their own interaction with them
Piaget's object hiding task: substage 4 limitations
-(8-12mo) -Make a-not-b error -unable to fully separate their own experiences with an object from the object -fail to understand that objects occupy objective locations in space
Piaget's object hiding task: substage 4 advances
-(8-12mo) -can pass basic hiding task -piaget not totally convinced of obj perm because not clear if baby intended to grab toy
Piaget: the sensorimotor stage: substage 1
-0-1month -reflex activity -exercise and accommodation of inborn reflexes
Piaget's object hiding task: substage 1-3
-0-8 months -limitation: fail object hiding task object permanence failure
After-the fact grasp of reality
-limitation of substage 3 of sensorimotor period - discover relationships or connections but cannot determine in advance how to produce interesting effects; can't anticipate consequences or effects
Meltzoff & Borton results and conclusion
-1 month old infants preferred to look at the familiar pacifier (the one they had tactually explored) -neonates can tactually and visually discriminate between shapes, store a representation of a tactual perceived shape and relate it to a visual perceived shape
Piaget: the sensorimotor stage: substage 2
-1-4 months -actions aimed at repeating interesting effects centered on own body -simple motor habits centered around infants own body
Kagan study: 14-21 months findings for infants
-1/3 of high reactive infants were highly fearful (inhibited) toddlers -1/3 of low reactive infants showed minimal fear; (uninhibited)
Insecure attachment: resistant attachment
-10% of North American infants in middle SES families -Will not explore, even when parent present. Seeks closeness. -Very distressed by separation and by stranger -Not calmed by stranger -Seeks contact with parent upon return, but resists angrily when achieved; clingy yet angry, resistant behavior. Not easily comforted. -Most distressed; don't play with toys much, not much exploration of room
Piaget's object hiding task: substage 5 advances
-12-18mo -no longer make the A-not-B error -Pass visible displacement task
Insecure attachment: Disorganized Infants
-15% of North American Families in middle SES families -Child shows conflicted, odd, contradictory, exaggerated behaviors: -frozen postures -repetitive movements -clear apprehension -look away while being held -approach while divert gaze, flat affect -dazed or disoriented facial expression -Greatest insecurity -Conflicted in how they want to interact with mom -strange, contradicting behavior -wants to be picked up, but looks away from parent -Afraid of parent, but want to be picked up at same time
Insecure attachment: avoidant attachment
-15% of North American infants in middle SES families -Will explore but doesn't try to include parent in play -Not distressed by separation -Treats stranger same as parent -Ignores or avoids parent upon return of slow to greet parent, often fails to cling when picked up but not resist contact
Piaget's object hiding task: substage 6 advances
-18-24mo -pass invisible placement task -can INFER an occluded object's objective location -fully separate objects from their own interactions with them -Piaget believe they have object perm
Phases of Normative attachment: formation of a reciprocal relationship
-18/24 mo and beyond -qualitative shift -physical contact not needed -Infants realize that attachment more reciprocal -availability of the attachment figure (not physical prox) becomes the set goal of the attachment system; --->belief that lines of communication with the attachment figure remain open --->belief that attachment figure will respond if called upon for help --->belief that physical accessibility is possible
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 4: advances
-1st evidence of intentionality -anticipate consequences of action BUT only for directly, previously experienced actions -physical causality; begin to understand things have to be connected -first evidence of a belief in the permanence of objects using object search tasks -can put schemes together to solve problems
occluded object task: wide occluder:
-2 month old view as broken rod -4 month olds dishabituate to broken rod
occluded object task: crooked occluder:
-2 month olds are sure the rod is broken, and dishabituate to complete rod -4month olds not sure
Kagan study: 4 months findings for infants
-20% High reactive (high motor activity, distressed, easily upset by novelty) -40% Low reactive (relaxed, no distress, comfortable with novelty)
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 3:
-4-8 months -Secondary circular: repeat a chance event caused by own motor action that is directed toward external objects -actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world -begin to imitate others -understand connection bw body and external, but don't understand physical connection. -no intentions yet
Phases of Normative attachment: clear cut attachment
-6/8 months -Focused attachment -proximity seeking: emotional connection ---safe haven in times of stress (toy robot) ---secure base from which to explore (social referencing) -Stranger fear or anxiety peaks at 15mo -Separation distress or anxiety peaks at 15mo
Secure attachment
-60% of North American infants in middle SES families -Uses parent as secure base (explores when parent present) -May be distressed upon separation -May be soothed by stranger, but clearly prefers parent (treats mom and stranger differently) -Happy to se parent return, actively seeks contact, will allow self to be soothed by parent if upset
Phases of Normative attachment: attachment in the making
-6wks-18/24mths -discriminate social responsiveness
Normative Attachement
-A strong emotional tie that develops between two individuals that is characterized by mutual affection, pleasure, and joy in each other's company, and a desire to bear each other in time of stress
Piaget: the sensorimotor stage: substage 2: adv and lim
-Advancement: moved beyond reflexes -Limitations: focused on own body, limited
What do Baillargeon's results call into question about Piaget's claims on obj perm?
-Age -Behaviors -Processes -A-not-B effect
At 14-21 months of age, why don't all infants who were highly reactive at 4 months stay highly reactive?
-As kids get older, they are better able to cope with new stimuli -Parenting helps children cope -Social referencing
Deferred imitation: 12-18mo: imitate odd behaviors: rational imitation
-Babies only used their head to turn on light if adults hands were tied up -if hands available, then babies think you are supposed to use heads -only imitate odd behaviors when it makes sense
Why do babies imitate novel, 'weird' behaviors?
-Babies trying to figure out why adults do these things -Babies think you are 'supposed' to do things a certain way
Nativist
-Chomsky: language acquisition device (LAD) -biologically prepares infants to learn rules of language -universal grammar
Products of Attachment
-Continuity of caregiving over time is key -internal working model is updated over time -long-term outcomes of early attachment are dependent upon quality of future relationships
Products of Attachment: From attachment relationships, children:
-Develop strategies for emotion regulation -Learn how to behave in relationships -Develop a internal working model of others and themselves as caring or not, as deserving or not, etc.
Perception of object unity: Scott Johnson's model
-Does not believe perception of object unity is innate -Threshold model: Perception of object unity of a partly occluded object depends on the number and types of cues available to the infant and it is not an innate ability -Newborns: even with many cues, perceive occluded object as broken
Kagan study: results: High reactive infants became __________children and adults, meaning they were:
-Excessively cautious -Socially withdrawn and lonely -Anxiety disorders (generalized and social phobia)
Stage approach
-General theory of development: all aspects of cognition change in an integrated, similar, and hierarchical manner -Invariant stages: fixed order, no skipping -Universal Stages
Kagan: Evidence for Physiological Explanation
-Heart rate-more variability in high reactivity -Cortisol (stress hormone) high levels even in non stress situations -Muscle tension: higher in high reactive -Pupil Dilation: greater in high reactive -Blood Pressure: greater in high reactive -Skin temp: high reactive have cooler -'Weird' markers: blue eyes, narrow face, hay fever -Adult MRI data: amygdala activation for adults who had been classified as inhibited vs. uninhibited children when exposed to familiar vs. unfamiliar faces.
Ethological Theory (Bowlby)
-Infants possess innate mechanisms that promote the development of attachment (have preference for people who care for them) --->facilitate, ensure, but don't guarantee attachment --->naturally selected --->survival value ---->we are attracted to babies, and babies are attracted to us
Schwartz, Wright, Shin, Kagan, Rauch study results
-Inhibited: larger response to novel faces than familiar faces; amygdala more active when seeing novel faces -Uninhibited: no difference in amygdala activity between novel and familiar faces
What makes 'strange situation' the gold standard?
-It is predictive -babies have expectations
According to Baillargeon, why do stage 3 infants fail the object hiding task?
-It's a false negative error. The object hiding task lacks construct validity. -She believes they do have obj perm.
why is nativist approach a passive description of children?
-LAD Biologically programmed, innate -passive description of children; children not learning , devise is doing the learning
LAD throughout life
-LAD later in life is turned off after sensitive period, sometime before 7yrs old. -Grammar test scores of immigrants who arrived after 7 drop off significantly
Nativist perspective (Chomsky)
-LAD: innate system that permits children, as soon as they have acquired sufficient vocab, to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances, and to understand the meaning of language -Built-in, universal grammar; knowledge of the rules that are common to all languages -language is special; it is not like other acquired behaviors, it is innate
Kagan study: results: Low reactive infants who became very uninhibited children and adults
-Low levels of anticipatory anxiety, shame, guilt -Less restrained -Conduct disorders and antisocial behaviors
Kagan experimental design
-N=462 -Longitudinal design (4 months to adulthood)
Nature and Nurture in Cognitive Development
-Nature and nurture both important: processes for acquiring knowledge are innate, but knowledge is not innate -Nurture, experience, is how knowledge is acquired -Nature is the innate drive to learn
What was different between object occlusion test and tactual familiarity test?
-Object occlusion test: preference for novel -Tactual familiarity test: preference for familiar
Deferred imitation
-Piaget thought it developed at 18mo -newer research suggests much earlier -6 weeks: delayed facial imitation (side tongue protrusion) -6-9mo: copy actions with objects -12-18mo: imitate skillfully, rationally
What would Piaget say about the Baillargeon study?
-Piaget would argue that looking time itself is not enough to argue object permanence -In order to be convinced of object permanence, babies have to be able to act on their beliefs
Defining features of attachment
-Reciprocal (emotionally tied) -Developmental universal (primary attachments serve as foundation to future relationships) -NOT dependency -NOT general sociability
Four patterns of Attachment
-Secure ("ideal") -Insecure ("not ideal) ----> avoidant ----> resistant ----> disorganized/disoriented
Why can deaf children still develop language with inconsistent input?
-Simon and parents both deaf, use sign. parents are non native signers-Simon outperforms parents because humans are motivated to develop language, communicate
Piaget: Organization
-The process of arranging and rearranging available schemes into a coherent, orderly, integrated, strongly interconnected cognitive system -innate, automatic, does not require environmental input or stimulation
Why do Japan and Israel have more resistant attachment?
-They showed incredible stress in the strange situation -Japanese culture values 'oneness'
A-not-b error
-a toy is continually hidden at site A and the baby grabs it in successive trials -the toy will then be hidden at B, the baby will see it hidden at B, but they will look for it at A. -they're connected to it being hidden at A; hard time disconnecting object from A. -Don't understand that objects are independent of own experiences
Visual acuity
-ability to make out fine details -birth: estimates range from 20/400-20/800; fuzzy images
Piaget's object hiding task
-according to Piaget, only infants who passes this task can be credited with a belief in object permanence -babies see the world radically different than adults do -babies are self-focused and can't take somebody else's point of view -babies believe objects are tied to them; out of sigh, out of existence
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 3: adv. & lim.
-advance: external focus; imitate familiar behaviors -limitations: ---after the fact grasp of reality ---a belief in magical causality
Support for Biological language preparedness
-animal language ---language unique to humans ---Kanzi, chimp has large vocab, grammar of 2-3 yr old -brain structures: regions predisposed to language processing -sensitive period: when brain is becoming specialized, language acquisition is best accomplished -humans are constantly creating novel utterances -humans are driven to learn and understand language as a means of communication
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 4: limitations
-anticipate consequences of action BUT only for directly, previously experienced actions
Visual cliff and crawling test
-at 2 months, heart rate decelerates as lowered over deep side (can detect the depth) -don't avoid the deep side when they first crawl at 6-7 months; need 5-6 weeks of crawling experience
Attachment and future relationships
-attachment to figure sets the stage for future relationships, but doesn't set it in stone -first relationship develop your internal workings model
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 2: primary circular reaction
-babies actions are reactions to the world-babies have no intentionality
Criticisms of Baillargeon study
-based on the notion that babies look longer at novel events -study tests solidity principle -study requires depth perception -perhaps she uncovered implicit understanding of obj perm: babies may understand conceptually, but it may take them longer to act on their beliefs.
Phases of Normative attachment: pre-attachment
-birth to 6 weeks -Indiscriminate social responsiveness -No attachment yet, babies prefer social over non social
What do Baillargeon's results call into question about Piaget's claims obj perm? A-not-B effect
-can't inhibit a previously rewarded motor response or habit-they are conditioned to search at A for a reward -Preservation error-fail to recompute the answer to the problem even though the problem has changed; retrieve a previous solution -Problem solving skills tested: need to notice context change, which not all do
Language: behaviorist perspective (skinner): evidence in support
-children speak same language as parent -children learn names for toys quicker if they are reinforced for doing so by receiving the toys to play with -parents who encourage convos by asking questions and making requests have children with more advanced language
coordination of secondary circular reactions
-combining schemes to solve simple problems -anticipate consequences of action but only for direct, previously experienced actions
Depth perception: binocular depth cues: binocular disparity
-cues based on information from both eyes -appear at 2 to 3 months and develops over first year
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 5: advances
-discover solutions through trial and error but can't invent them -have intentionality -purposeful, varied repetition
testing color perception
-harder to assess than visual acuity -based on preferential looking, and babies may have certain preferences for certain colors -hard to distinguish brightness, hue, and saturation effects
Invisible displacement task
-hide an object in multiple places within a single trial -Object is not visible
Deferred Imitation: 12-18 months
-imitate skillfully -imitate intentions rather than merely copy behavior (chain in a cup example) -imitate odd behaviors (1wk delay): turning light on with head -imitate behaviors rationally
Immediate imitation
-imitation occurs much earlier (2-3wks) than Piaget thought -Babies are trying to figure out what we are trying to do
Role of motor development
-independent movement -visual cliff and crawling test
Piaget: accomodation
-individual adjusts old schemes or creates new schemes to produce a better fit with the environment -individual molds an existing way of responding to the environment to better fit characteristics of a new experience by making small adjustments or by creating a totally new way to respond. -disequilibrium motivates accomodation
Piaget: assimilation
-individual uses current schemes to interpret the external world -individual molds a new experience to fit an existing way of responding to the world
Factors that affect the attachment of children
-initial attachment quality -family circumstances -quality of child care -developmentally appropriate practice -protective influence of child care -extent of child care
interactionist
-inner capacities and environment work together -process for learning language innate, but language itself is not -social context is important -child is learner
role of irritability in attachment
-irritability indirectly affects secure vs. insecure attachment
Susman-Stillman, Kalkoske, Egeland, and Waldmen results
-irritable babies are more difficult to take care of -if mothers can't change their behavior, then baby at risk for insecure attachment -Maternal sensitivity mediates the effects of irritability on secure vs. insecure attachment
Language: behaviorist perspective (skinner)
-language same as other behaviors: operant condition -imitation, reinforcement, and active correction
Newborn vision
-least developed of senses at birth
why do infants have such fuzzy acuity?
-lens are good, but everything else is underdeveloped -eye muscles underdeveloped -cones underdeveloped -color vision weak -underdeveloped retina
Outcomes associated with attachment style: secure infants become
-less dependent on adults -able to respond flexibly to stress -more enthusiastic, compliant, persistent -social competent with both same and opposite sex -lower incidence of behavior problems
Signs of developmentally appropriate child care
-physical setting clean and safe -appropriate toys and equipment -low caregiver-child ratio -flexible daily schedule -adult-child interactions -parents welcome anytime -licensing/accreditation
How come we can test visual acuity with a lined box and a solid box?
-present with two stimuli; one with lines and the other just a solid box, we see at which point the baby shows no preference. -can't use this method bc we can't interpret the cause of baby showing no preference: could be bored, could be equally interested in both but able to tell the difference
Meltzoff and Moore side tongue protrusion
-proves deferred imitation happens early on (6weeks) -imitated after 24 hour delay -70% of infants produced side tongue protrusion when exposed on prior day compared to 20% baseline -must be triggered by that person
Recast
-providing correction of grammatical error in an indirect way -parents who recast tend to have kids who figure out language more quickly
Kagan study: 14-21 months Tasks
-reaction to large mask -interact with stranger -reaction to loud alarm -reaction to robot
Why does Piaget's task lack construct validity?
-relies on memory -may not have ability to strategize -may not be able to coordinate movement of both hands/fine motor movement -really a search task-even if they know it's there, they may not know how to search -They have to coordinate a sequence of actions, but Piaget said they can't coordinate actions in stage 3
Kagan study: procedure at 4 months
-response to three novel tasks ---visual: moving object ---auditory ---olfactory, dab alcohol on nose
Primary circlular reactions
-sensorimotor substage 2 -repeat a chance behavior centered on own body (primary circular reaction)
Language: behaviorist perspective (skinner): evidence against
-skinner's theory cannot explain grammatical development -children do not learn grammar by imitation --->say things they have never heard (Felled) --->active correction seems not to work to correct grammatical mistakes -parental corrections tend to be based on truth value of utterances, not grammatical correctness
Solidity Principle
-solid objects can't move through other solid objects -to see impossible task as impossible, babies need a belief in permanence of the block(which is behind the screen) and solidity principle
phonology
-sound system of langages
grammar
-syntax-rules for sentences -morphology-grammatical markers
Object permanence belief
-the existence of object is independent of our interaction or non-interaction with them. objects continue to exist even if we cannot see them
Strange Situation Episodes Procedures (Mary Ainsworth)
1. Researcher introduces parent and baby to playroom (30s) 2. Parent is seated while baby plays with toys (3min), parent doesn't control child's behavior but is secure base 3. Stranger enters, talks to parent for 3min (stranger anxiety) 4. Parent leaves (separation anxiety). Stranger interacts with baby (3min) Can baby be comforted by stranger? 5. Parent returns, stranger leaves, parent interacts with baby 6. Parent leaves baby alone (3min) separation anxiety 7. Stranger enters and interacts with baby (3min) 8. Parent returns, stranger leaves, parent interacts with baby
occluded object task: narrow occluder:
2 month olds and 4 month olds dishabituate to broken rod
visual acuity at 4 years
20/20
visual acuity at 6 months
20/80
secondary circular reactions
3rd substage of piaget sensorimotor: -repeat a chance event caused by own motor action that is directed toward external objects
What type of attachment is more common in Germany, US?
Avoidant
Results of Baillargeon study
Babies look longer at impossible trail, which means that babies believe in the permanence of the block, and have the solidity principle
Baillargeon study: impossible test trial
Baby believes that block is on the track blocking the path of the car. Baby believes that the car should stop, but it didn't. Baby is surprised to see the car keep rolling. Therefore, looking time increases bc they can't full process event.
What do Baillargeon's results call into question about Piaget's claims obj perm? Behaviors
Behaviors by which it is manifested -physical search tasks: use beliefs to guide behavior -tasks in which infants predict a violation -looking time tasks: only need to recognize a violation of beliefs in the moment -belief of obj perm may exist early on, but physically searching for objects tests problem solving, coordination skills
Baillargeon study: possible test trial
Block is behind the track, logically, car keeps moving.
At 4 months of age, why is Kagan missing 40% of his sample in his categorization?
By looking at the extremes, differences may be more easily observed
Piaget: intelligence: disequilibrium
Cognitive structures appear not to match reality. -prompts people to change their cognitive structures so that they match reality
Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory
Constructivist approach: -Children discover virtually all knowledge about their world through their own activity -Children create their own understanding of the world and are innately driven to discover reality
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 4:
Coordination of secondary reactions -8-12 months -combining schemes to solve simple problems -goal directed behavior --->a sequence of actions in which schemes are deliberately combined to solve a problem
Construct Validity of Strange Situation and the Classification System
Cross-Cultural beliefs -cultural beliefs, values, expectations about infants/children and about parenting -Infants' experiences with strangers & maternal separation Infant care data -infant temperament (measuring) -implies 'secure' as ideal -assumes attachment bw mother and child -assumes abandonment is stressful for baby ---> avoidant babies might not be stressed out --->avoidant babies may be: independent, mature, better self regulation
Hippocampus
Detects discrepant (unfamiliar) events
Amygdala
Emotional response to discrepant events; autonomic changes
Ethological Theory: Experience expectant neurological system
Expect interaction within species
Kagan: Role of biology in temperament
Extent to which the amygdala, other limbic structures, and the right frontal lobe are easily excited by novelty underlie temperamental differences in infants, children, and adults.
Individual Differences Approach
In order to see differences, we must set up mild to moderate stress, which activates primary attachment
Why does Germany have the most avoidant attachment?
Independence is a cultural value, therefore the kids are showing independence rather than 'avoidance'
Does temperament affect attachment?
Indirectly
Meltzoff & Borton prediction
Infants will look longer at the pacifier that matches the tactually presented (familiar pacifier), rather than the pacifier that does not match (novel pacifier)
Kagan hypothesis
Inherited physiological mechanisms underlie individual differences in this dimension of temperament
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 6:
Invention of new means through mental schemes -18-24 months -mental schemes or representations -1st evidence of insight problem solving -make-believe or pretend play: re-enact familiar activities and let one object stand for another -deferred imitation: able to remember and copy the behavior of absent models -language
Meltzoff & Borton dependent variable
Looking time at each pacifier in the visual test period
Piaget's mechanism for change
Organization and adaptation
Meltzoff & Borton study
Participants: 29 day old infants Methodology: -tactual familiarization period: infants briefly tactually explore either a smooth or nubby pacifier -room darkened and pacifier removed -visual test period: visually present 2 pacifiers
What do Baillargeon's results call into question about Piaget's claims on obj perm? Age
Piaget: 8-9mo Baillargeon: 3mo
What do Baillargeon's results call into question about Piaget's claims obj perm? processes
Processes or mechanisms responsible for its emergence -innate -Baillargeon: quickly acquired through visual experience -Piaget: more slowly acquired through self-produced manipulations
Kagan study: re-assessed at 4-5 years, findings
Reaction to an unfamiliar adult ---> preschoolers who had been high-reactive infants showed less extreme fear to an unfamiliar adult, but still less sociable and less spontaneous
Implications of Kagan study
Shows the importance of parenting and other's influence as a buffer or mediating factor
Ethological Theory: Species specific behaviors
Species-specific behaviors that possess a signaling function that serve to activate behavior and bring the adult into proximity with the infant
Piaget: sensorimotor stage: substage 5
Tertiary circular reactions -12-18months -purposeful trial and error variations that allow a child to rapidly discover new cause and effect relationships -explore the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways -find new ways to solve problems or to reproduce interesting outcomes
According to Piaget, why do stage 3 infants fail the object hiding task?
They lack a basic conception of object permanence
How Piaget might have been wrong
Timing of: -object permanence -deferred imitation -categorization -problem solving by analogy all occur sooner than Piaget thought
How was Piaget right?
Timing of: -object search -a not b object search error -make-believe play
Kagan study: re-assessed at 14-17 years
Were asked what things made them worry, anxious, or nervous. ---61% of LOW reactive infants: quality of performance in school/extracurriculars ---61% of HIGH reactive infants: uncertainty of encounters with unfamiliar people, places, situations, or the inability to know the future
pragmatics
appropriate and effective communication
internal workings model
development of expectations, beliefs, about yourself, others, in relationships.
Color perception at 2 weeks
able to see reds and oranges more easily than yellows and greens, but cannot see blues
Color perception at 2 months:
cannot see blues; cones are split into different colors, and there are far fewer blue cones
insight problem solving
child invents solutions to problems using internal symbolic, mental representations rather than discovering solutions through trial and error
Piaget: intelligence: equilibrium
cognitive structures appear to match reality
Scott Johnson threshold model: newborns
even with many cues, perceive occluded object as broken unless stroboscopic motion is used.
Piaget's structure of knowledge: schemes
internal, psychological structures -an organized pattern of thought or action used to interpret some aspect of one's environment. -Internal mental representation of some aspect of the world
Role of maternal sensitivity in attachment
maternal sensitivity directly affects secure vs. insecure attachment (but irritability does not)
Scott Johnson threshold model: 4months:
movement, depth, alignment of edges needed to perceive unity
Scott Johnson threshold model: 2 months
need movement, depth, alignment of edges to perceive unity
Preference: color perception at birth
prefer bold colorful objects to grey ones
Outcomes associated with attachment style: avoidant infants become children who are
prone to anger and aggression, less empathetic, more withdrawn, victims of bullying.
Outcomes associated with attachment style: resistant infants become children who are
prone to fear and anxiety, less confident, more withdrawn, victims of bullying
Outcomes associated with attachment style: disorganized infants become children who are
prone to serious internalizing and externalizing problems
interactional synchrony
secure attachment: sensitively tuned, emotional dance in which parent responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion. Infant and caregiver match emotional states, especially positive ones.
Depth perception: kinetic depth cues
symmetrical optical expansion of a looming object -movement based cues -at one month: defensive blink to a looming object but not to a zooming object nor to a looming aperture
Meltzoff & Borton study independent variable
type of pacifier tactually explored
Baillargeon study: habituation phase
watch car move down track-over and over again until babies' looking time begins to drop off. the goal is for babies to be habituated to this event, so they fully process it
