LA History Exam Two

Alejandro O'Reilly

O'Reilly was an Irishman who swore allegiance to the Spanish king and became one of his favorite generals. On August 17, 1769, a Spanish fleet of 24 ships carrying about 2,000 soldiers arrived at New Orleans to retake Louisiana. General Alejandro O'Reilly, an Irishman who served the Spanish King Charles III, commanded the armada. When O'Reilly unloaded his men and marched into New Orleans the next day, Aubry quickly surrendered the city. In a great show of force—and this time with the proper ceremony—O'Reilly raised the Spanish flag over the Place d'Armes, and Louisiana was once againunder Spanish control.O'Reilly immediately sought out those who were responsible for the Creole Revolution, and Aubry identified the leaders of the revolt. The Creoles branded him a traitor for it,but Aubry was a military officer, and he had been ordered by his French superiors to cooperate with the Spanish. When O'Reilly regained control of the colony, the Spanish gave Aubry a large reward of money for his help. Unable to stay in Louisiana, Aubry left the colony, but he drowned when his ship sank in a storm as it approached France. Few in Louisiana mourned his death. Very quickly, O'Reilly arrested thirteen people. Acting as judge and jury, he found twelve of them guilty of treason. Five were executed by a Spanish firing squad, six were put in prison, and one man died in prison before the trials (O'Reilly went ahead and tried and convicted him posthumously). All of the men's property also was confiscated, whichmeant their families were punished, as well. This latter punishment made a strong impression upon the Creoles. It sent a clear message that if anyone in the future challenged Spanish rule again, not only would they be punished but their families as well. As a result, no one ever seriously challenged the Spanish again.O'Reilly's actions shocked the people because the men who were punished were some of the wealthiest and most influential men in the colony. Because of the executions, O'Reilly became known as "Bloody O'Reilly," and he became one of the most hated figures in Louisiana History. O'Reilly also accomplished a great deal, particularly in establishing a Spanish government in Louisiana. He abolished the Superior Council and replaced it with the Cabildo, which served as the governing body for New Orleans. The governor presided over the Cabildo, and it included some members who were appointed and some who bought their position. O'Reilly even allowed some Creoles to purchase positions on the Cabildo.The French Customs of Paris were replaced with the "O'Reilly Code," or Spanish law,and O'Reilly created the parish system that Louisiana came to use for local government. Twelve parishes were created, each with a Catholic church and a priest to serve it. O'Reilly also gave out many land grants, fixed prices to stop inflation (no one complained this time), helped the merchants develop trade ties with Spanish ports (instead of just ordering it done as had Ulloa), and he took a census. He found there were 13,500 people in the colony, with 3,200 residing in New Orleans (about half the population was slaves). What O'Reilly did not do is just as important as the changes he made. Although he did establish language schools and promoted the Spanish language, O'Reilly did not force the Louisianians to adopt the Spanish language or Spanish customs. He, and the Spanish governors who followed him, adopted a policy of allowing the Creoles to keep their French customs and traditions as long as they did not conflict with Spanish law. After their initial resistance, the Creoles came to tolerate and sometimes appreciate Spanish rule, and they even worked for their rulers—but they always retained their French 8identify and culture. The tolerance begun by O'Reilly allowed French culture to survive in Louisiana throughout the Spanish period.By the time O'Reilly departed Louisiana in March 1770, he had the Spanish firmly in control. During its thirty-seven-year rule, Spain was much more successful in Louisiana than the French had been, and O'Reilly was largely responsible for it.

Code Noir

By 1724, African slaves accounted for about half of Louisiane's population, and the Superior Council decided there needed to be a code of law to regulate slavery in the colony. It adopted the slave code being used in St. Domingue ("saint duh-MING"), a French colony that was also known as Santo Domingo and today is the Caribbean nation of Haiti. The code was named the Code Noir ("code NWAH"), meaning the Black Code. In addition to regulating slaves' activities, it also addressed freed slaves and religion, but it was not always followed. The Code Noir strictly forbade marriages between the slaves and the French. It also said blacks and whites could not live together as man and wife, but this part of the Code Noir was ignored because Frenchmen often did have slave mistresses. Sometimes it was mutual love, sometimes it was rape. This happened partly because there were so few French women in Louisiane. If children were born to the couple, they automatically were slaves.Sometimes, slave owners wanted to free their slaves out of love or to reward a slave for long faithful service or performing some heroic deed. However, the Superior Council did not want a large number of freed slaves in the colony because it feared slaves who were not freed might resent it and cause unrest. Therefore, the Code Noir required slave owners to get the Superior Council's permission to free a slave. Because this took time and money to go to New Orleans, a slave owner had to have a compelling reason to free a slave. As a result, most slaves who received their freedom were slaves who had some French blood, a French relative who was willing to incur the expense and trouble to free them. These freed slaves were called "free people of color," but there were not very many during the French period.The Code Noir took several measures to ensure slaves did not become restless, violent, or rise up in rebellion. Slaves could not be educated, they could not congregate in public in large numbers, and they could not carry weapons without permission. Slaves were kept illiterate so they would not learn about such dangerous ideas as equality and freedom. Punishment for slaves was cruel and savage. If a slave struck his owner, he was to be turned over to the authorities for execution. The Code Noir reserved particularly harsh punishments for runaway slaves. If the slave was captured, authorities would "lop" (cut off) his ears and brand him on the shoulder. A second offense called for a knife to be inserted into the nostrils and the nose slit, both hands be branded, and the slave flogged, or whipped. These mutilations were partly designed for the physical torture and partly to identify a slave forever as a runaway. A third offense carried the death penalty. However, these punishments were rarely carried out. Slaves sometimes did strike their owners, but the violence was usually a one-time offense done in the heat of anger. Since slaves cost a great deal of money, most owners did not want a slave executed for this. Instead, they decided for themselves an appropriate punishment. The slave might be whipped, or chained up, or have his food rations cut. Even if a second violent incident took place, the owners still were reluctant to have the slave executed. It was better just to sell them to someone else. Runaways occurred frequently, but it was often a spur-of-the-moment decision, as well. In French Louisiane, there was no place for slaves to escape to, so most either were recaptured or came back voluntarily because it was difficult to survive in the wilderness alone. The Code Noir also said slaves could not bring a law suit or even testify in court. This placed slaves almost entirely at the mercy of the owners. A brutal owner could torture or even murder a slave in front of other slaves and never have to fear punishment because the other slaves could never testify against him.These types of restrictive measures were typical of all slave codes. What made the Code Noir notable was that it also provided slaves some protection and rights.It was against the law to make slaves work on Sunday or religious holidays. The French wanted to Christianize the slaves, and this law was necessary for their religious training because it would be hypocritical to try to convert slaves to Christianity and then make them violate the Sabbath by working. Thus, contrary to popular belief, slaves did not work every day. Most plantations quit work about noon on Saturday so slaves usually had a short weekend. However, there was no such thing as an idle slave. Slave owners were required to provide slaves adequate food, clothing, shelter, medical attention, and old age care. Even if a slave became too old, sick, or injured to work, the owner was to care for him. The problem with this was the Code Noir did not define what "adequate" was. The French tried to keep slave families together while the children were young, and achild under fourteen years old could not be separated from his mother. This protected young children, but slave families always knew the protection was short-lived. The separation of families was one of the worst abuses of slavery.The Code Noir also said that a slave owner could not torture a slave or put them in chains (the torture and mutilation of runaway slaves mentioned above was carried out by the government). Yet, this law had little meaning because slaves could not testify in court and owners were pretty much free to do anything they wanted. Obviously, some owners did torture their slaves but there is no record of any French slave owner in Louisiane ever being convicted of violating this law.One of the greatest rights provided by the Code Noir concerned freed slaves. It stated that freed slaves were completely equal to whites. A person might be a slave for fifty years but the moment he gained his freedom, he had all of the rights as the French. Freed slaves could own property, buy slaves themselves, and serve in the government and military. This illustrates how the French were not as concerned with racism as the English and Americans. Because of this right, some free people of color accumulated wealth and influence. Finally, the Code Noir addressed religion in Louisiane. It proclaimed that the Catholic Church was the only church allowed in the colony. There was no religious freedom, and all slaves had to be baptized into the Catholic Church and attend church regularly. When the French began enforcing this law, some slaves tried to hide their native religions. As seen earlier, this religious conflict led to the creation of Louisiana's unique version of voodoo.Much of Europe was anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish) at this time. The Code Noir reflected this attitude by declaring that Jews were not allowed in Louisiane.

The Grand Marquis

Pierre Francois Rigaud Cavagnal, Marquis de Vaudreuil (vau-DROOL) replaced Bienville and served as governor from 1743-1753. The son of a Canadian governor, Vaudreuil was easy going, fun loving, and popular with the upper class people. Because he loved to throw parties and dress in fancy clothing, he was called the "Grand Marquis." Vaudreuil defeated the Chickasaw Indians in a second war, improved the levee system, and brought Mardi Gras to New Orleans. Although Louisiane's economic conditions worsened under him, later generations looked back on 23the days of Vaudreuil with nostalgia. As a result, Vaudreuil's governship became known as the "Era of Good Feelings."

Etienne de Perier

Replaced Bienville and served as governor from 1727-1732. Unfortunately, as will be seen, Perier's ineptness in dealing with Indians led to the bloody Natchez Indian War that ruined Louisiane and bankrupted the Company of the Indies. In 1731, King Louis XV had no choice but to take Louisiane back and make it a royal colony once again.

Spanish Louisiana

Spanish Louisiana

Government and Law

The government Spain created for Louisiana was more efficient than the French, and this was largely because Spanish officials were well trained. While the French usually used navy officers as government officials, the Spanish had people who were specifically trained for the various jobs. Also, the Spanish were not as corrupt as the French, and there were more checks and balances in place. This meant a superior watched over each Spanish official very closely and made sure they did their job. It also made it more difficult for officials to engage in corrupt activity.Like the French before them, the Spanish used a king-appointed governor to run Louisiana from the capital in New Orleans. He answered to the viceroy, the top Spanish official in North America who lived in Mexico City. Two lieutenant governors, posted in Natchitoches and St. Louis, helped the governor run the colony. For local government, Louisiana was divided into twelve parishes. Each parish had a commandant who commanded the district, enforced the law, provided local defense, and judged minor cases in court.The Spanish also had an official called the intendant who was in charge of the colony's economic affairs just like the French did. And, just like the French commissary, the Spanish intendant and governor often clashed. The Cabildo operated like a city commission, with each member being responsible for a particular duty, such as police, prisons, public works, or tax collecting. The Cabildo also passed laws for the city and advised the governor. The Spanish legal system also was better than the French. While serving as governor, O'Reilly replaced the French Customs of Paris with the "O'Reilly Code," or Spanish law. Under the French, the Superior Council or the fort commandants tried and executed people, and their decisions were final. The Spanish, however, had different courts that specialized in such things as marriage, property disputes, criminal charges, or trade. The judges also were better trained in their particular field, torture was used less to extract a confession, and anyone convicted of a crime had the right to appeal the conviction to the Cabildo.The rights of slaves also increased when the Spanish adopted a new Code Noir in 1769. For the most part, the Spanish code was similar to the French. Punishment for violent or runaway slaves was still brutal, and freed slaves continued to have the same rights as whites. But there were some important changes. Under the Spanish, slaves could testify in court, and they were guaranteed a thirty minute lunch break and a two hour dinner break. In addition, slave owners no longer had to get the government's permission to free a slave and could free their slaves at will. Slaves were even given the right to buy their own freedom. Skilled slaves, like blacksmiths and carpenters, often were allowed to work on their own and make money if they shared their earnings with their owners. Some of these slaves saved enough money to buy their freedom. If the owner and slave could not agree upon a price, the government appointed an arbitrator to decide on a fair price.As a result of these changes in the Code Noir, the number of freed slaves increased dramatically under the Spanish. One area in which the Spanish were not successful was in fighting crime. Louisiana remained a violent, crime ridden colony, and Mardi Gras was a particularly dangerous time. Criminals were able to hide behind masks and costumes and rob their victims without fear of being identified. This became such a problem that the Spanish finally outlawed wearing masks during the Mardi Gras season.

Casket Girls

41Ursuline Convent in New Orleans The following year, 1728, a ship arrived in New Orleans carrying 88 young women who came to Louisiane to marry. When they came off the ship, each girl carried a small chest holding their belongings. These chests resembled small caskets so the girls became known as les filles a la cassette ("luh FEEL ah la cuh-SET"), which means "the casket girls." The Ursuline nuns cared for and watched over the Casket Girls until they were married. Records indicate all were married, even one who "looked more like a soldier on guard duty than like a young lady."

Henri de Tonti

Tonti was the son of a prominent Italian banker who grew up in France and served in both the French army and navy. In one battle, he lit the fuse of a hand grenade, but it blew off his hand before he could throw it. Tonti fitted himself with an iron hook, which he usually covered with a glove, and became known as the "Bras-de-fer" or "Iron Hand." After moving to Canada in 1678, he began working with La Salle and accompanied La Salle on his 1682 expedition. Afterward, the thirty-three-year-old Tonti established the Arkansas Post, a famous trading post located near the mouth of the Arkansas River. Tonti was one of the greatest explorers and fur traders in Louisiana history, and Indians both admired and feared him (they had never seen an iron hand).

Voodoo

Voodoo also originated with Louisiane's African slaves. Although the French allowed the Africans to keep some aspects of their culture, they did not tolerate African religions. The French were devout Catholics, and all slaves had to become Christians. Therefore, the French tried to destroy African religious beliefs, but many slaves struggled to keep their religions. When they held services, they often put out crucifixes, rosary beads, statues of Mary, and other Catholic objects to trick the French into thinking they were following Catholicism. Over time, the slaves began to incorporate some of the Catholic beliefs into their native voodoo.Voodoo is based on animism, similar to the Louisiana Indian religions. In voodoo there are hundreds of spirits that have to be dealt with, and magic, potions, chants, spells, and charms are used to gain these spirits' blessings or ward off evil. But most voodooists also believe in God, Christ, and the saints, and they use Catholic symbols in their services. Therefore, Louisiana voodoo is a blending of animism and Catholicism.

Louis Juchereau de St. Denis

Was one of Louisiane's most colorful characters. A French Canadian, he was an in-law of Iberville and Bienville and was one of the colony's earliest inhabitants. St. Denis was a nobleman who was just as comfortable in the deep woods with Indians as he was in a New Orleans ballroom. A large, muscular man, he explored much of Louisiane and spoke several Indian languages. St. Denis treated the Indians fairly and they greatly respected him. Several Indian tribes even honored him by tattooing his body. Because St. Denis' legs were large and muscular, the Indians always wanted to tattoo them, and his legs became covered in colorful tattoos of coiled snakes. It was said the tattoos could even be seen through his leggings. The Caddo particularly admired St. Denis and called him "Big Leg." St. Denis also got along well with the Spanish. After establishing 27Natchitoches, he went on a trade mission to Mexico, but the Spanish accused him of spying and held him under arrest for several years. Despite that, St. Denis fell in love with and married the granddaughter of a Spanish commandant. The Spanish eventually released him, and he remained in contact with his influential Spanish in-laws. Natchitoches became the most important settlement in modern-day North Louisiana, and from it St. Denis ruled over a large region. The soil was rich, the area was filled with wildlife, and the settlers at Natchitoches generally prospered. St. Denis also made sure that the Caddo Indians were treated well because the fur trade depended on them. Once, when a Frenchman murdered a Caddo, St. Denis publicly executed him in a particularly gruesome manner. The man was tied to a post and garroted. The garrote ("gah-ROT") was a metal collar, much like a dog collar, that hinged in the back with a large, pointed screw. It was placed around the victim's neck and then the screw was slowly tightened. The victim either strangled or the screw pierced his spinal column. The man's head was then chopped off and placed on a pike at the fort's front entrance. St. Denis' message was clear—treat the Indians with respect.

African Slaves

African slaves had a huge impact on Louisiana because the African culture survived here longer than it did in other colonies. Being a Mediterranean country, France had traded with Africans for centuries and was not as racist as the English. The French did not see Africans so much as an inferior race as they saw them as a source of labor. As a result, they did not try to destroy the native culture of their slaves like the English did. This meant that African names, customs, food, language, and clothing survived longer in Louisiane than in most American colonies.Another reason Africans had such an impact on the colony was because all slaves sent to Louisiane came straight from Africa, and they brought their culture here intact. The English, on the other hand, frequently sent slaves to the Caribbean Islands first and generations later they were sent to the Thirteen Colonies. By that time, the Africans had lost much of their culture. African words, like "gumbo" (meaning "okra"), was used as a name for a popular food dish and Africans gave Louisiane rice, perhaps its most important food. They had grown rice in Africa for generations, and the French were desperate for a dependable food item. They decided to try rice in Louisiane, and it was the African slaves who taught them how to grow it.

New Orleans

After John Law became Louisiane's proprietor, thousands of new settlers and slaves poured into the colony and settled along the Mississippi River. It became obvious the capital at Mobile was too far removed from the growing population center, and Governor Bienville was directed to choose a suitable site on the river for a new settlement. His engineers and the Company of the West wanted the town built on Bayou Manchac, but Bienville ignored them and built it farther downstream. In 1718, convicts were used to clear off the cane brakes along the river bank near Lake Pontchartrain, and a village was established and named in honor of the Duke of Orleans.This first site cleared for New Orleans became the city square, called the Place d'Armes ("PLAHS-deh-ARMS"). Today it is Jackson Square. A few palmetto huts were erected, but over the next few years they were battered down by hurricanes. In 1721, an engineer laid out a grid of city blocks to bring regularity to the settlement, with eleven blocks running along the riverfront and seven blocks extendinginland. This original area later became known as the Vieux Carré ("VOO care-AY"), meaning "Old Square," but today it is more commonly called the French Quarter. New Orleans was made the colony's capital in 1721, but only 370 people lived there.

French Government -Governors

After establishing their colony, it took the French several years to formalize a way to govern it. The highest official was called the governor, and Iberville was the first. At first, the governor was in complete control of the colony and made all of the major governing decisions. He answered only to the governor of New France (what France called its American empire), who answered to the Minister of Marine in France.

Fort Louis de la Mobile

After living two years at Fort Maurepas, Iberville realized it was an unhealthy place and in 1701 built Fort Louis de la Mobile at the northern end of Mobile Bay, Alabama. Fort Louis was made the first capital of Louisiane and served in that capacity until the capital was moved to New Orleans in 1721.

Some of the earliest explorers were the Spanish explorers:

Alonso Alvarez de Pineda and Pánfilo de Narváez, who skirted along the state's Gulf Coast in 1519 and 1528, respectively.

Antonio de Ulloa

Antonio de Ulloa ("OOL-yo") was the first Spanish governor of Louisiana but he was not a good choice for the position. Ulloa was a prominent scientist and engineer who was a co-discoverer of platinum. He also was an introvert who did not like to be around people or attend ceremonies or social events. In short, Ulloa simply did not fit well in a colony that enjoyed a vibrant social life.The Spanish knew the Creoles were unhappy about the takeover and did not want to provoke them. Therefore, Ulloa's superiors ordered him to move slowly and to not make any drastic changes in the government or customs. Because of this order and his natural dislike of fanfare, Ulloa slipped into Louisiana quietly in March 176 and immediately began making mistakes. One of Ulloa's greatest errors was not holding a public ceremony to mark formally the transfer of Louisiana from French to Spanish ownership. Ulloa also decided simply to rule from behind the scenes by allowing Aubry and the Superior Council to remain in their positions and issuinghis orders through Aubry. By allowing Aubry and the Superior Council to stay in place, however, Ulloa appeared to be weak to the Creoles. Because Ulloa never held a flag raising ceremony and he allowed the Superior Council to continue to govern the colony, the members of the Superior Council concluded that the transfer of Louisiana to Spain was not finalized. The lack of a ceremony particularly affected the councilmen because they believed it was necessary for the transfer of ownership to be legal. Since no ceremony was ever held, the Superior Council was convinced Spain did not really own Louisiana.Ulloa made other mistakes. He only brought about 75 Spanish soldiers with him to Louisiana. Their presence angered the Creoles, and the small number of men clearly was not enough to control a population of 7,500. Ulloa also angered the Creoles by marrying a mestizo woman from Peru while he was at Balize. A mestizo ("mes-TEEZ-oh") is someone who is part Spanish and part Indian. The young woman became very unpopular with the Creoles because she treated them rudely, and, even worse, the Creoles believed she had African blood because of her dark skin. Because the Code Noir forbade the marriage of blacks and whites, the people mistakenly believed the governor had broken the law. Ulloa further insulted the Creoles by holding a private wedding ceremony and not inviting them to the event.Governor Ulloa's final blunder occurred when he began to meddle in the economy. Inflation was out of control, so the governor tried to curb the rising prices by setting the prices merchants could charge for certain goods. This action may have actually been necessary, but it greatly angered the merchants to have the hated governor tell them what they could charge for goods. Ulloa also tried to force Louisiana into the Spanish mercantile system by ordering the merchants to stop trading with ports that were outside the Spanish empire and to only use Spanish ships when trading. This meant cutting trade ties that had existed for decades. By 1768, the Superior Council hated Ulloa and routinely opposed everything he did. The members still considered Louisiana to be French territory, and some councilmen and other prominent citizens began plotting a rebellion.

Governing of the French Territory

At first, the French simply used its navy law to govern Louisiane because there were no civil courts or code of law written specifically for the colony. Navy law was followedbecause the Marine (or Navy) Department was in charge of the colonies. French marines provided soldiers to protect Louisiane, and most of the governors were navy officers who were simply appointed to the position. The governors had great authority and generally acted as judge, jury, and executioner. In 1712, a major change occurred in the governing of Louisiane. King Louis XIV was spending considerable amounts of money to keep the colony going, but no gold or other riches were being found to compensate him. In 1712, Antoine Crozat (CROW-zaht) signed a contract with Louis XIV to become Louisiane's first proprietor. Crozat, a famous mathematician and one of Europe's richest men, was given a fifteen-year monopoly (or charter) on the colony, with renewal rights. This meant Crozat basically owned Louisiane for fifteen years. He would receive all ofthe untitled land, or land that was not yet owned by others; keep any profits he made; appoint the officials; and be exempt from trade tariffs. In return, Crozat promised to give the king one-fifth of any gold that was found (called the Royal Fifth), send a few settlers to Louisiane each year, buy a certain amount of goods from France, and govern by French law.

Women and Children

Records also show that Louisiane's colonists did not wear the dull, drab clothing most movies portray for settlers. They wore bright colors, with polka dots and stripes, and contrary to popular belief they did not wear buckskin clothing. Even the courerurs de bois and Indians wore cloth shirts because the animal hides were too valuable to turn into common clothing. For women, social rules at the time allowed them to have dresses that were very low cut. Interestingly, women were allowed to show cleavage and thighs, but it was considered impolite to reveal one's elbows or uncover the head. Today, we think of all colonial settlers as being adult men and women, but a large part of Louisiane's population was very young people. Many were boys from 12 to14 years old. Some of these were cabin boys who served as servants to the ship captain, and often they were left alone at Indian villages to learn the language and serve as interpreters. Other boys were marine cadets, or low ranking officers. It was common for sons of nobles to join the marines as a cadet, where they were taught military ways and slowly were promoted in rank. At the forts, marines in their twenties and thirties had to obey orders from boys as young as 12. Young people, boys and girls, were treated as adults in Louisiane. French law recognized a girl to be of legal age when she reached 13, a boy at 14. Marriage records show that in the 1730s half of the women in the Natchitoches district were married by age 14. By comparing marriage licenses with birth certificates, it is surprising to find that many girls were pregnant when they got married.

Creole Revolution

A lack of money and involvement in European affairs prevented the Spanish from actually taking control of Louisiana for several years after the Treaty of Paris of 1763 was signed. Charles Philippe Aubry, the commander of the colony's French soldiers, was Louisiana's acting governor at the time. The Louisiana Creoles (the French-speaking population) were not even told about the transfer of ownership to Spain until 1764. They were outraged because they were loyal Frenchmen who loved the king.

The End of Bienville

Bienville's third term as governor came to an end in 1725 after he mademany enemies by flaunting his wealth and bickering with the commissary. There also was a power struggle within the Catholic Church between the Jesuits and the Capuchins. Bienville favored the Jesuits and thus angered many influential Capuchins. As a result, his enemies were able to launch an investigation into alleged corruption, and Bienville was removed as governor and ordered back to France in 1725 (he had been recalled once before in 1708). The following year he was found guilty of corruption and was forbidden to ever return to Louisiane. Although Bienville undoubtedly was guilty of corruption, he was no more corrupt than any other French governor, and his removal was probably more political than anything else. This is evident in the fact that after the conviction, Bienville was thanked for his long, faithful service, and was given a pensionto live on.

Political Corruption

Corruption was common among the French officials in Louisiane. Iberville, Bienville, and other governors often pocketed money by reducing supplies to the sailors and marines and selling the excess for personal profit, overcharging settlers for supplies, discharging workers without paying them, and using navy vessels as their own without compensating the government. Count Pontchartrain once became so angry over stories of Iberville's corruption that he was preparing to press charges. Fortunately for Iberville, Pontchartrain died before he could do so. Apparently, the lack of pay was one reason why Louisiane's officials were so corrupt. French colonies were administered by the Ministry of Marine (Navy) and it was common practice to appoint navy officers such as Iberville and Bienville as governor. But France did not increase the salary of such officers when they served as governor—they continued to draw just their military pay, and frequently they did not receive all of it. Bienville once went seven years with little pay when he was serving as governor.On the other hand, governors were expected to entertain important visitors and officials and maintain an elaborate household. The expense of such a lifestyle was too great for their military pay and they were forced to find others ways to supplement their income.

Mercantilism

During the colonial times, the European economies were based on Mercantilism, or a belief that each nation should be self sufficient. Each nation should have access to, and control of, the raw materials it needed for a healthy economy, such as gold, silver, timber, coal, iron, furs, and agricultural land. Explorers searched the world for areas that contained these important things, and when they were discovered, they claimed that area for their nation and set up a colony to exploit the riches. Mercantilism was a closed system where everything was supposed to stay in the empire. In other words, no nation should have to trade with any other nation. For many years, it actually was against the law for people in Louisiane to trade with any other country but France. In reality, however, mercantilism never worked this perfectly. In Louisiane, no gold or silver was ever found so there was a chronic shortage of money in the colony. People were forced to use the barter system, and even soldiers were often paid in goods, not money.

French Marines

French marines were an important component of Louisiane's early population. Since the French navy was in charge of the colonies, the marines (not the army) provided protection for settlers. The marines wore white uniforms (when they had one), carried large .69 caliber muskets, and flew a white flag. Most came from the lower classes and many were forced into service against their will. As a result, desertion was a constant problem. Also, many marines were not French because the navy allowed men from all nations to enlist. In Louisiane, the marine garrisons included Swiss, German, and other nationalities. Marines were grouped in companies of fifty men each, with one company usually being assigned to each fort, but death and desertion took its toll and often no more than a handful of marines were on duty. When their term of service was over, most marines stayed in Louisiane as settlers. The marine officers were usually educated nobles who were clean-shaven and wore beautiful blue uniforms, with gold trimmings and brass buttons. The officers had complete authority over their men and were allowed to maintain discipline through sometimes brutal methods.

Conculsion

French weakened the government, and corruption siphoned off much needed money and supplies. Too few people were sent to develop Louisiane properly, and many of those who were sent were the wrong type of people. The use of convicts, prostitutes, and other undesirables only made things worse. Instead, more hardworking farmers like the Germans should have been used. If the French failed so badly, it is reasonable to ask why, then, are they so important to Louisiana history. The answer is culture. The French culture that was established here survived, and it is what makes Louisiana unique among the states.The French language is still spoken by many people in South Louisiana; the Catholic Church remains the dominate church; many of our parishes, towns, rivers, and lakes carry French names; we continue to own the narrow "long lots" of land that were first established by the French; Mardi Gras is Louisiana's most popular festival; and such foods as rice and gumbo continue to be favorites. One could also argue that the political corruption that is so often associated with Louisiana took root under the French. For good and bad, the French largely made Louisiana what it is today. what made Louisiana what it is today.

End of French Louisiane

From 1756 to 1763, the French and Spanish fought the English in the Seven Years War(also known as the French and Indian War), and this bloody conflict finally brought to an end French ownership of Louisiane. France had long been tired of spending money on Louisiane and not getting much out of it. If it had not been for the military significance of Louisiane controlling the Mississippi River and protecting Canada from invasion, France would have abandoned the colony long before. When France realized it was going to lose the Seven Years War, it finally decided to pull out of the struggling colony and give Louisiane to its Spanish allies. This was done partly to keep it from falling into English hands and partly to pay back the Spanish for helping out in the losing war effort. In 1762, France and Spain signed the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau ("FOUN-tan-blue"), in which France agreed to transfer Louisiane to Spain.The following year, the Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended the Seven Years War. This treaty changed world history because it transformed England into a world power. In the treaty, France was forced to give to England its Canadian colony and all of Louisiane that lay east of the Mississippi River (except the Isle of Orleans). Spain was forced to give its Florida colony to England. However, Spain was allowed to keep the Isle of Orleans and Louisiane west of the Mississippi River. Spain insisted on this and England agreed because England was exhausted and bankrupt and did not want to continue the war just to get the rest of Louisiane.The French empire in North America was largely destroyed. After the Seven Years War, St. Domingue was the only significant colony France still owned in America. Now North America was controlled by the English and the Spanish, and the Mississippi River became the border. Except for the Isle of Orleans, the English owned everything east of the river, and the Spanish owned the Isle of Orleans and everything west of the Mississippi.

Second Natchez War (1729-1731)

Governor Perier ("PEH-ree-AY) replaced Bienville when Bienville was removed as governor in 1726. Unlike Bienville, Perier believed all Indians were treacherous and treated them badly. Once when the Chickasaws, who were friends of the English, sent three men to meet with Perier to discuss peace, Perier burned them alive.During Perier's governership, the bloodiest and most destructive Indian war in Louisiana history occurred. The Natchez had come to hate the French, especially after Fort Rosalie was built next to their White Apple Village. In 1729, the fort's commandant, Captain Chepart ("shay-PART"), tried to seize the Indians' land for himself and the Natchez decided it was time to strike back. To disarm the French, the Natchez borrowed many of their guns, claiming they were going hunting and promising to share the meat with the settlers.With promises of freedom, the Natchez persuaded many African slaves to support them. The Natchez chief "Great Sun" also met with other chiefs to plan the attack. To make sure all the Indians attacked on the same day, the Great Sun is said to have given each chief a bundle of sticks to take with him to his own village. They were to break a stick each day, and when the last stick was broken, the Indians would attack. According to one legend, a Natchez woman who had become a Christian found out about the attack and tried to warn Chepart. When he refused to believe her, she crept into the Great Sun's house and secretly broke one of his sticks. This act of bravery saved many French because it led the Great Sun to attack before the other villages did.On the morning of November 28, 1729, small groups of Natchez warriors wandered into the fort with their weapons hidden beneath coats and robes. The Indians' presence did not alarm the French since Natchez frequently came into the fort to trade. Some warriors took chickens to Chepart's house and said they wanted to trade. Suspicious, Chepart's officers tried to get him to make the Indians leave but Chepart refused. When the French bent down to pick up the chickens, the Indians drew out their guns and fired.This signaled the beginning of the Fort Rosalie Massacre. Each warrior had specific French to kill and it was a bloodbath. Within a short time, 145 men, 56 children, and 35 women were dead. Chepart was found hiding in a garden and was clubbed to death. Then, the heads were chopped off the bodies. 59Mississippi Visitor Center's Mural of the Fort Rosalie MassacreSoon the entire colony was engulfed in war. For Louisiane's Indians, it turned into a civil war with Indians fighting Indians. Many tribes, such as the Chickasaw, and slaves supported the Natchez in a desperate attempt to kick the French out of the Mississippi Valley. Other Indians, like the Caddo, fought with the French because of trade and family relations. Several hundred Choctaw and Tunica also joined the French and rescued a large number of the French women and children being held by the Natchez. The slaves also split in their support. While some slaves joined the Natchez, many others fought for the French and later were awarded their freedom as a reward. This began a tradition in Louisiana of black militiamen performing excellent military service. In January 1731, Perier again attacked Natchez, and this time he drove the Indians out of their forts and across the Mississippi River. However, as many as 300 Natchez went north and joined the Chickasaw in modern-day northeast Mississippi. When the main body of Natchez entered modern-day Louisiana, the Tunica Indians invited them to their village to negotiate peace. But instead of talking, the Natchez attacked and wiped out the village. Perier followed the Natchez across the Mississippi River and chased them to modern-day Sicily Island. The Great Sun built a fort there but he became trapped by the French. Perier told the Great Sun if he would surrender his people, the French would not kill them. But, Perier warned, if the Great Sun did not surrender, the French would attack and kill every Natchez man, woman, and child. Unsure whether to trust Perier or not, the Natchez could not agree on what to do. Finally, the Great Sun and some of the people surrendered, but about 200 others broke out of the fort and headed for the Red River. Perier kept his word and did not kill his captives. Instead, he immediately placed the Great Sun and his people in chains and shipped them to St. Domingue as slaves. Most of them died there shortly after arriving. The surviving Natchez headed up the Red River to attack Natchitoches, but friendly Indians warned St. Denis and he was able to get about 200 people safely inside Fort St. Jean Baptiste. St. Denis asked the Caddo Indians for help and several hundred Caddo warriors came to assist "Big Leg." The Spanish governor at Los Adaes even sent sixteen soldiers to help, but he made St. Denis provide them with weapons. Finally, when he thought the time was right, St. Denis attacked with his French and Spanish soldiers and Caddo warriors and defeated the Natchez outside the fort and chased them down the Red River. The Natchez stopped on the bank of an ox-bow lake and built a fort for defense but St. Denis and a band of Caddo arrived and attacked. The Natchez were defeated and several of their chiefs were killed. St. Denis wrote afterward that many of the wounded Natchez drowned themselves in the lake rather than being captured and that the lake's water turned red with blood. It is said that St. Denis then took a Natchez woman and burned her alive to revenge the French woman. The lake became known as Sang Pour Sang, meaning "blood for blood." The Second Natchez Warrior almost destroyed Louisiane. Hundreds of French and Indians were killed, homes were burned, and villages destroyed. Except for the few who escaped to the Chickasaw, the Natchez were destroyed, and some smaller tribes were entirely killed out. It is estimated that 10 percent of the French population was killed in the short two years war. Many craftsmen and other important people were lost, and a large number of French left the colony in fear. Louisiane was in danger of being depopulated.The war also bankrupted the Company of the Indies. Unable to run the colony any longer, the Company gave up its charter in 1731, and Louisiane returned to the king as a royal colony.

Rene-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle

He believed the French should establish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. Marquette and Joliet had reported the Mississippi Valley was teeming with wildlife, and La Salle believed the French could get rich trading with the Indians for furs. La Salle also realized such a colony would fulfill an important military need. If the French controlled the mouth of the Mississippi River, no one could enter it without their permission. This would give the French control over much of the North American interior and prevent an enemy from going up the Mississippi to attack Canada. La Salle also knew the Gulf Coast would be a good place for a French navy base, and in times of war French ships could attack the gold-laden Spanish treasure ships that regularly sailed the Gulf of Mexico. Before a colony could be established, however, the lower Mississippi River had to be explored, and La Salle received permission from King Louis XIV to lead an exploration party down the river. Setting out in February 1682 with about fifty people, mostly Indians, La Salle followed Marquette and Joliet's route. Acting as his second-in-command was Henri de Tonti. On April 6, 1682, La Salle reached the Gulf of Mexico, and three days later he erected a large Christian cross on the river bank (probably near modern-day Fort Jackson in Plaquemines Parish) to hold a ceremony. The men sang Catholic hymns, fired their guns in salutes, and La Salle proclaimed French ownership of "Louisiane," or "Louis's land." He then returned to Canada

Pierre le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville

In 1698, a spy informed the French that the English were going to establish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. Although La Salle had already claimed Louisiane for France it really did not matter because France had not yet taken possession of the colony. Thus, it became a race to see who could get to the Mississippi River first. Minister of Marine Louis de Pontchartrain was in charge of France's American colonies, and he chose thirty-seven-year-old Pierre le Moyne, Sieur d'Iberville (IB-er-veel) to lead the expedition. Iberville was one of eleven sons born to a minor nobleman in Canada, and as a navy officer he had defeated the English in several battles. On October 24, 1698, Iberville left France bound for Louisiane. Accompanying him were several brothers, including eighteen-year-old Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur d'Bienville, also was a navy officer. No one realized at the time that he would become the most important person in French Louisiana history. Iberville first anchored at Ship Island off the Mississippi coast. Fearing his large ocean-going ships would not be able to cross the bar at the mouth of the Mississippi River, he took two smaller boats and about fifty men and set out on February 27, 1699, to reach the river's mouth. After discovering and naming the Chandeleur Islands, Iberville entered the Mississippi River on March 2. Appropriately, it was Mardi Gras day. At the Bayougoula Indian village in modern-day Iberville Parish, Iberville smoked the calumet and secured guides to take him upriver. Upstream from the village, the guides pointed to a red pole they called "Istrouma" sticking out of the ground on the east bank and explained that it was a boundary marker dividing Indian hunting grounds. Because it was red, Iberville called it "baton rouge," which translates to mean"red stick." That name was used later when the French built a settlement there. After his initial exploration of the river, Iberville built Fort Maurepas on Biloxi Bay to serve as the colony's headquarters. This small log fort was the first French settlement in Louisiane.

Iberville's death

In 1702 he left Louisiane to return to the navy to fight the English in a new war. While on his ship, the Pelican, he contracted yellow fever at Havana, Cuba and died in July 1706 at 45y/o.

Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac

In 1713, Crozat appointed Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac (KAD-uh-lack) as governor.Cadillac was a Canadian who falsified his marriage license to portray himself as a nobleman when he really was just a commoner. By passing himself off as a nobleman, Cadillac was able to become an official in Canada and founded modern-day Detroit, Michigan. Cadillac arrived in Louisiane with his wife and two daughters and quickly became unpopular with the people. The commissary and Bienville hated him, partly because Cadillac replaced Bienville as governor and partly because Cadillac unsuccessfully pressured Bienville to marry one of his daughters to form a political bond between the LeMoyne and Cadillac families. Settlers disliked him because of his haughty nature, and Indians became angry after he refused to smoke the calumet with them. Although Cadillac was an unpopular governor, he achieved a great deal during his short stay in office. He established new settlements, increased the population, and tried to strengthen the economy. Cadillac also improved the colony's governing system by adopting the "Customs of Paris," or laws that governed Paris, as the official code of law for Louisiane. Perhaps Cadillac's greatest achievement was his creating the Superior Council in 1714. This council originally had five to seven members and included such officials as the governor, commissary, and commander of the military. At first, the Superior Council simply advised the governor and had no real power, but it later evolved into a type of court system that tried certain cases and a governing body that passed laws, took censuses, and ran the colony. Its decisions were final; they could not be appealed.Despite his achievements, Cadillac's unpopularity led to his being removed as governor in 1716 and replaced by Bienville, but Bienville served only a short time until a replacement governor arrived.By 1717, Crozat realized, as the king did before him, that Louisiane was unprofitable, and he successfully begged to be let out of his contract. A search was made for a new proprietor, and the government offered the colony to John Law, a rich businessman from Scotland.

Natchitoches

In 1714, one of Louisiane's most important settlements was established after Governor Cadillac decided to build an outpost in the western part of the colony. It would protect the border from the Spanish in Texas, provide a trading post for the Indian fur trade, and allow the French to engage in illegal smuggling with the Spanish.

Pelican Girls

In July 1704, the ship Pelican arrived at Fort St. Louis with twenty-three young, wholesome, Christian women from Paris. Named after their ship, they became famous as the Pelican Girls. All had come voluntarily, but they were badly misled by being toldthat Louisiane was a Garden of Eden filled with eligible young bachelors. What a shock it must have been to arrive and see the coureurs de bois and the dirt floor houses with deer skin windows! It was reported by this time that even the French marines were wearing animal skins instead of uniforms. Still, nearly all of the Pelican Girls found husbands very quickly, and the population rose to 195.Bienville's experiment failed, however. The Pelican Girls quickly became disillusioned because their new husbands continued to spend much of their time in the woods (often with their Indian wives) and refused to plant gardens. Food was so short some girls had to eat acorns. To force their husbands to build better homes, the Pelican Girls launched the "Petticoat Rebellion" and denied their husbands "bed and board" until better homes were built. It worked, but Bienville was angry. He blamed the girls for the problems, claiming they were pampered city girls who did not want to work. He asked his superiors to only send hard working country girls in the future.

Population

Just as the French failed to develop Louisiane's economy, they also failed to build up the population. Periodically, the French took a census count of Louisiane's population (not including the native Indian people). The figures reveal how slowly the colony grew. In 1699, the population was all male and totaled just 82 men and boys. Among the occupations listed were 13 pirates. In 1701, the population had grown to 150, but then it dropped to 120 the following year, probably the result of deadly diseases. By 1708, there were 278 people. This broke down to 80 Indian slaves, 60 coureurs de bois, 28 women, 28 men, and 25 children. There were 400 people in the colony in 1711, including about 100 French marines who protected the land, and 20 African slaves. Disease againapparently took a heavy toll because four years later the population had dropped to 215 and more than half of them were Marines. Despite his faults, John Law dramatically increased Louisiane's population through his various schemes. In 1746, there were 4,000 white settlers; 2,000 African slaves; and 800 French Marines. New Orleans counted 1,100 people, of whom more than 300 were African slaves.

John Law and the Mississippi Bubble

Law came from a wealthy family, but his love of gambling caused him to lose much of his fortune. After killing a man in England over a gambling debt, he fled to France to escape murder charges.There Law became friends with Philippe, Duke of Orleans. Philippe was the regent of France. When the French economy began to weaken, Law started working for the government and established a more efficient taxation system and a national bank that helped curb inflation. Law had powerful friends in France and a reputation as a financial genius, so Louisiane was offered to him and he accepted. In 1718, Law created the Company of the West, and the company was given a twenty-five year monopoly over both Louisiane and Canada. The charter was similar to the one given Crozat, in that Law could keep all the profits he made and was given all the untitled land. One difference, however, was that Law had to send at least 6,000 white settlers and 3,000 slaves to Louisiane. If he did not, he would lose the charter. Law later gained control of the East Indies Company, which had a monopoly on France's Far East trade. In 1719, the Company of the West and the East Indies Company merged into the Company of the Indies, and France then gave the new company a monopoly over the French African slave trade. Incredibly, in a little over a year, John Law gained control of Canada, Louisiane, the Far East trade, and the African slave trade. In short, he controlled much of the French empire. Because of Law's reputation as a successful businessman, thousands of people wanted to buy stock in his companies, and for several years the money rolled in. Not content with that, Law even printed counterfeit stocks to make more money illegally. The price of his companies' stock rose higher and higher as the demand grew, and the term "Mississippi Bubble" was coined in reference to Law's Louisiane venture. The colony was on the Mississippi River and, like a balloon, Law's business interests and stock prices kept getting larger and larger. Everyone in Europe wanted to be a part of the Mississippi Bubble. Unfortunately, the bubble burst in 1720-1721 when inflation and corruption caused the French economy to collapse. Panic set in and investors rushed to sell their company stock, which drove down stock prices even more. As a result, thousands of people lost all of their money and blamed Law for the disaster. Mobs chased him on the streets and stoned him, and guards had to be placed around Law's house for protection. Law also lost all of his money in the economic collapse and finally fled to Italy.

Creole Revolution

On the night of October 27, 1768, the Creole Revolution began when a mob disabled the cannons protecting New Orleans. The next day, about 400 Creoles and residents of the German Coast stormed the city, and two days later the Superior Council ordered Ulloa and his Spanish comrades to leave the colony. Aubry was the only person with enough authority and military power to save the Spanish. Because he was under orders to cooperate with the Spanish, he asked the rioters to disband but then decided not to use force when they refused to obey. Unwilling to shoot his own people, Aubry finally advised Ulloa to take shelter on the Spanish ships in the river. On November 1, Ulloa left Louisiana. Without spilling any blood, the Creoles had forced the Spanish out of the colony, and the French flag was raised over New Orleans once again. After the Spanish left the colony, the indecisive Aubry wrote two letters, one to the French king in which he blamed Ulloa for what had happened and one to the Spanish king in which he blamed the Creoles. The Superior Council was proud of its actions and also sent a letter to the French king asking him to retake possession of Louisiana, but the king ignored the plea. Meanwhile, Ulloa sailed to Cuba and sent a report to Spain. Retribution was swift.

Early Settlements

Once Iberville established the Louisiane colony, the French slowly began building forts along the Gulf Coast to protect it. Fort Maurepas, located on Biloxi Bay, Mississippi, was the first in 1699. After the English Turn incident, Iberville worried the English might attack the Mississippi River, so in February 1700 he established Fort de la Boulaye ("boo-LAY") near the river's mouth. The soldiers who built it reported the mosquitoes (or maringouins, in French) were so thick that they could not see each other standing ten feet apart. The fort was a small log enclosure and was later abandoned after New Orleans was established. Still, Fort Boulaye was the first temporary French settlement in modern-day Louisiana.Iberville quickly realized Fort Maurepas was an unhealthy location. It frequently flooded, the water and soil was poor, and there was much disease. Furthermore, a new war with England convinced him Louisiane had to be protected better. As a result, in 1701 he built Fort St. Louis de la Mobile just north of Mobile Bay, Alabama, on the Mobile River. Most of the settlers at Fort Maurepas moved there, but a few stayed behind. Unfortunately, Fort Louis also flooded, and in 1711 it was abandoned and a new Fort Louis was built at modern-day Mobile. It served as the colony's capital until it was moved to New Orleans in 1721.

Hernando de Soto

Spaniard Hernando de Soto was the first European to explore the Gulf Coast's interior. In 1539, he landed in Florida with about 600 men armed with swords, guns, and armor to search for gold. De Soto also brought with him horses and pigs and introduced them to the modern-day southeastern United States. Over the next few years, the intrepid Spaniards wandered through Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, frequently fighting Indians because De Soto often treated them cruelly. One of De Soto's most effective weapons was a pack of ferocious dogs known as wolf hounds that he used to attack and kill Indians. In 1541, De Soto's men became the first Europeans to see the Mississippi River when they came upon it near modern-day Memphis, Tennessee. Crossing into Arkansas, the expedition discovered Hot Springs and then came down the Ouachita River. Then, on May 21, 1542, De Soto suddenly died from a fever, perhaps malaria. Luis de Moscoso assumed command of the men and tried to escape the wilderness and hostile Indians by walking to Mexico where other Spaniards were living, but Indians stopped him in Texas and forced him to turn back. Walking back to the Mississippi River, the desperate Spaniards finally constructed boats and floated to the Gulf of Mexico, fighting Indians much of the way. When the expedition reached safety in Mexico in 1543, only about half of the original 600 men were still alive.

Governing of LA post John Law

The Company of the Indies continued to run Louisiane without Law, but money was limited and the colony suffered as a result. As people began spreading out across Louisiane, officials realized that a more efficient governing system was needed. The Company of the Indies moved the capital from Fort Louis de la Mobile to New Orleans in 1721 so it would be closer to the population center, and it continued to serve as the capital for more than one hundred years. In 1723, the Company of the Indies also divided Louisiane into nine districts to make it easier to govern. Each district had a military fort and a civilian settlement that grew up around it, a commandant (or commander), and a garrison of marines for protection. The original districts were New Orleans, Natchitoches, Natchez, Biloxi, Mobile, Alabamons, Arkansas, Yazoo, and Illinois. The district commandants governed and protected their district, enforced the law, kept the peace, and served as judge and jury for most trials. 22From the capital in New Orleans, the Superior Council supervised the activities of all the commandants.

Slave Rebellion

The French realized two of the greatest threats to the colony were the Indians and the slaves because if the two ever united they could possibly drive the French out of the region. Therefore, the French tried to pit the slaves against the Indians to keep them angry at each other. For example, slaves often were used as soldiers to attack hostile Indians, and Indians were used to hunt down maroons.The plan failed, however, because runaway slaves frequently joined the Indians and lived with them. They enjoyed the Indians' free lifestyle, and if the runaways were recaptured and returned to slavery, they caused trouble on the plantation because they had tasted freedom and told others of it. During Indian troubles, such as the Second Natchez War, some slaves aided the Indians in their fight against the French. n 1730-1731, a slave named Samba began plotting a rebellion.Samba, a member of the African Bambara nation, was a prominent figure who worked as a foreman and interpreter for the Company of the Indies. In June 1731, he had as many as 400 slaves prepared to rise up to kill all of the whites from Pointe Coupée to the mouth of the Mississippi River. The slave leaders then were to assume the positions and the names of the French they killed and keep in bondage all slaves who were not Bambara. Before they could act, however, a slave informed authorities. The failed Samba Rebellion increased French fears about slave rebellions, and they took strong measures to keep them under control.

French Government -Commissary

The French, however, quickly realized governing the colony was too much work for one person. So in 1704, they added a position called the commissaire ordonnateur, who was usually referred to as the commissary. The commissary was in charge of the warehouses, trade, and supplies, and acted like a business agent. It was thought the colony could be run more efficiently by splitting authority between the governor and the commissary, but it actually only confused things. Immediately, the governor and commissary began feuding over authority. Jealousy and bickering between the governor and commissary also hurt the colony because they spent considerable time fighting each other and frequently accused each other of corruption. Once in 1708, when Bienville was serving as governor, the commissary succeeded in getting him recalled to France, but the replacement governor died before reaching Louisiane and Bienville kept his job.

Fort Rosalie

The Spanish were not the only threat to Louisiane. In 1716, the Natchez murdered four French traders in what became known as the First Natchez War, and Governor Cadillac sent Bienville and some marines to punish the Natchez. After forcing the Natchez to execute the guilty warriors, Bienville constructed Fort Rosalie near the White Apple Village. The fort was to protect the Mississippi River and to keep an eye on the Natchez. Fort Rosalie was an insult to the Natchez, particularly because Bienville forced the Indians to cut the necessary 2,500 logs. Bad blood was developing between the French and the Natchez that soon would explode into warfare.

Los Adeas

The establishment of Natchitoches worried the Spanish in Texas. The boundary between French Louisiane and Spanish Texas was not clearly defined and if left unchecked the French might try to move into Texas. The Spanish had a church mission fifteen miles west of Natchitoches, near modern-day Robeline, and in 1719 Spain built a fort to protect it. This fort was called the Presidio Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Los Adaes, but was generally was referred to as Los Adaes ("LOS uh-DICE"). It was named for the Adais Indians who lived there. Los Adaes had a great affect on western Louisiana. People know of the French culture that is found in Louisiana, but many are not aware that there are also areas of Spanish influence. One such region is found around the Sabine Parish town of Zwolle ("ZWAH-lee") where the Tamale Festival is a popular event. Many descendants of the Los Adaes settlers continue to live in the area and a few still speak a unique Spanish dialect that is not found anywhere else in the world. Los Adaes was completely isolated from other Spanish settlements and, as a result, the language never evolved as it did elsewhere. The Spanish spoken around Zwolle is the language that was spoken in Mexico in the early 1700s. Today, the language is being studied and recorded so it will not be lost. Another legacy of Los Adaes is the Choctaw-Apache Indian Tribe of Ebarb. The Spanish traded Apache Indian slaves to the French in Natchitoches, and these slaves were allowed to marry other Indians and also African slaves. Many Apache and Choctaw married and the two tribes became closely linked. Today, many of the elderly members of the Choctaw-Apache Tribe can speak English, Spanish, and various Indian languages. The Choctaw-Apache is the second largest Indian tribe in Louisiana. 29Los Adaes State Historic Site near Many, LouisianaLos Adaes had a great affect on western Louisiana. People know of the French culture that is found in Louisiana, but many are not aware that there are also areas of Spanish influence. One such region is found around the Sabine Parish town of Zwolle ("ZWAH-lee") where the Tamale Festival is a popular event. Many descendants of the Los Adaes settlers continue to live in the area and a few still speak a unique Spanish dialect that is not found anywhere else in the world. Los Adaes was completely isolated from other Spanish settlements and, as a result, the language never evolved as it did elsewhere. The Spanish spoken around Zwolle is the language that was spoken in Mexico in the early 1700s. Today, the language is being studied and recorded so it will not be lost. Another legacy of Los Adaes is the Choctaw-Apache Indian Tribe of Ebarb. The Spanish traded Apache Indian slaves to the French in Natchitoches, and these slaves were allowed to marry other Indians and also African slaves. Many Apache and Choctaw married and the two tribes became closely linked. Today, many of the elderly members of the Choctaw-Apache Tribe can speak English, Spanish, and various Indian languages. The Choctaw-Apache is the second largest Indian tribe in Louisiana.Los Adaes became a settlement of several hundred people, and from 1729-1773 it served as the capital of Texas and was the home of the Texas governor. At times, there was tension and threats of war between French Natchitoches and Spanish Los Adaes. During a time of war with Spain, St. Denis raided Los Adaes but confined his actions to stealing some chickens when he found only three Spaniards there. The raid became known as the "Chicken War." On another occasion, a Frenchman fell in love with the Spanish commandant's granddaughter and ran off with her to get married. The Spanish thought she was kidnapped and threatened to attack Natchitoches, but St. Denis proved the girl had eloped and was not kidnapped. Except for these few incidents, the two communities got along well, trading with one another and even intermarrying.

Bienville's Final Return

The first thing the king did was bring Bienville out of exile and send him back to Louisiane for his fourth and last term as governor (1733-1743). Almost immediately, a second Indian war erupted with the Chickasaws, and Bienville led the troops in the field much of the time and suffered many hardships. Peace was finally restored but Bienville's mental and physical health was ruined, and he asked to be replaced as governor. His wish was granted in 1743, and Bienville departed for France and never returned. Bienville was a controversial figure in Louisiana History. He was accused, and probably was guilty, of nepotism, misappropriating funds, and other corrupt acts and became the first Louisiana governor to be removed from office for corruption. Yet, Bienville also explored much of the colony, saved Louisiane at English Turn, brought over the Pelican Girls, defended the colony against Indian attacks, built Fort Rosalie, founded New Orleans, and served as governor four times. Bienville, in fact, served as Louisiana's governor longer than anyone else in history. By far, he accomplished more for Louisiane than any other Frenchman.

Louis Billouart, Chevalier de Kerlerec

The last important French governor was Louis Billouart, Chevalier de Kerlerec (KUR-luh-rek), who served from 1753-1763. Kerlerec's ten-year term was difficult because the Seven Years War erupted between France and England in 1756. Also known as the French and Indian War, this conflict was the first true world war. England and France had fought several wars for control of North America, but the Seven Years War proved to be the decisive one. Although there was no fighting in Louisiane, the war greatly affected the colony. The English blockaded New Orleans, and it was almost impossible for ships to enter or leave the Mississippi River. Supplies were cut off, and the people suffered great hardships. Governor Kerlerec once went two years without receiving even a message from France and four years without getting any supplies. In 1759, however, a trading vessel named the Texel miraculously arrived in New Orleans with badly needed food. Kerlerec's joy was cut short when it was discovered that the ship's captain, David Dias Arias, was a Jewish merchant. Kerlerec was faced with a dilemma because Louisiane's law forbade Jews from entering the colony. Should he obey the law and send the Texel on its way, or should he allow it to stay and provide food for the people? Kerlerec decided to let Captain Arias stay, and Arias sold his goods to New Orleans at a reasonable price. Then, sadly, Arias died of fever.Although Kerlerec acted in the colony's best interest, his enemies used the incident against him. The governorhad been feuding with his commissary and eventually got him removed, but this action angered some powerful people. In 1763, the governor's enemies were able to get him recalled to France, where he was charged with corruption and violating the law concerning Jews. Kerlerec was convicted, removed from office, and imprisoned in Bastille prison for a time.

John Law and Population methods

The most successful method of getting settlers was using redemptioners. There were thousands of poor Europeans who wanted to start a new life in Louisiane but they could not afford to make the move. A system was worked out whereby Law's company, a merchant, or planter agreed to pay their passage to the colony. In return, the person, called a redemptioner, had to work for their employer for three years without pay. During that time, the employer had to provide the redemptioner with free room and boardbut no salary. At the end of the three years, the redemptioner was released from his or her obligation, and the employer had to provide them with land, tools, and supplies to start their own farm.The redemption system was good for everyone. The company and established settlers received laborers with little monetary investment, and Europe's poor received an opportunity to make a new life.But there was a darker side to Law's methods. France did not want its best people to move to Louisiane because they were needed in France. As a result, French officials helped Law collect the unwanted. Thousands of prisoners were deported between 1717-1720, and parents were even allowed to send their incorrigible children to LA. ohn Law still needed settlers, so he eventually began kidnapping people. Gangs of thugs called the "Mississippi bandits" roamed the streets and slums of Paris and other major cities seizing the homeless, drunks, and the mentally ill and forcing them onto ships bound for Louisiane. Despite the hardships, the population did grow. By 1721, Louisiane had about 8,000 people, with about half of them being African slaves. Over the next 144 years, slaves always accounted for about one-half of Louisiana's population.

A struggling economy

The problem for Louisiane was that there was little here that proved profitable. A great deal of time and money was spent searching for gold and silver, but none was found. Some pearls were discovered at the mouth of the Pearl River, but they were of poor quality. In desperation, the settlers turned to unusual economic activities. Silk worms were imported in an unsuccessful attempt to start a silk industry, and at Fort St. Louis some settlers even captured buffalo calves to tame. It was believed that buffalo could be domesticated like cows and be sheared for wool. They were wrong.Fur trading was the main economic activity. In 1700, the beginning of European trade on the mighty Mississippi began whenTonti the "Iron Hand" brought ten canoes loaded with furs down the river to Fort de la Boulaye. The fur trade was conducted by the coureurs de bois ("COOR-yuh deh BWAH"), or "runners of the woods." These men loaded down canoes or pirogues with such trade goods as beads; iron hatchets, pots, and knives; guns; cloth; and blankets and visited the Indian villages. The Indians trapped and skinned the animals and then traded the furs to the French. Because the coureurs de bois depended on the Indians for their livelihood, they adopted Indian ways, learned their languages and customs, and frequently married into the tribes. Except for their beards, it often was difficult to tell a coureurs de boisfrom an Indian.Deer and bear skins were the most common furs collected. Records show that the coureurs de bois brought in to Natchitoches up to 20,000 deer hides every few months. Salt and bear oil also were desired items, and for many years bear oil was the most valuable commodity exported from Louisiane. When bear meat was boiled in water, the fat and grease rose to the top like cream. It then was scooped off and placed in jars or barrels. Bear oil was used as a lubricant, cooking oil, lamp fuel, and even moustache wax. Despite all the activity, even the fur trade was not very profitable. Because of the hot, humid climate, the animals did not produce the thick, rich fur that was most valuable. Also, the furs frequently rotted in the hot sun before they could be shipped back to France.Hunting was another popular occupation. Professional hunters signed contracts with merchants whereby the merchant would supply the hunter with all the goods he needed for a hunt that sometimes lasted an entire year. The hunter then went out and collected hides, buffalo tongues, bear oil, and meat and split the profit with the merchant. Farming was another major economic activity. The east bank of the Mississippi River, between Baton Rouge and New Orleans, was the main breadbasket for Louisiane. Industrious Germans settled there, and it became known as the German Coast. Rice, corn, and potatoes were common crops for consumption, and sugar cane was grown to make rum and molasses. Tobacco was an important crop around Natchitoches and Natchez, and indigo was grown around New Orleans. Despite the farming, there never was enough food in the colony. In fact, the period from 1699-1712 became known as the "Starvation Times." Little food arrived from France, and the settlers often could not grow enough to feed themselves. When goods arrived from France, the settlers often had to trade them to the Indians for food. The lack of food was the result of flooding, poor soil, lack of knowledge, and few seeds. If it were not for friendly Indians, the colony would not have survived. Oftentimes, men had to be sent to live with the Indians because the authorities could not feed them. Indians also contributed to the colony's survival by teaching the French how to grow corn, squash, and tobacco, and how to hunt and fish. Although conditions improved somewhat over the years, Louisiane never prospered under the French. It was a vicious cycle. The kings and proprietors wanted quick riches, like gold and silver, but they were not interested in investing a lot of money to build up the economy over time. As a result, the economy remained weak, and the kings and proprietors made little or no profit. That, in turn, made them even more reluctant to invest in Louisiane. The colony never reached its potential, and Louisianians struggled throughout the entire French period.

Smuggling

The settlers also realized that it was easier, and usually cheaper, to trade with the Spanish in Florida or Mexico because they were closer to Louisiane than France. Soon, smuggling was rampant in the colony, and even the governors participated in it. Profit was the main goal. If Louisiane could trade with the Spanish or English to get needed goods and make a profit, the governors willingly broke the law. Evidence of smuggling can be seen in the artifacts found at both Fort St. Louis de la Mobile and Los Adaes. At Fort St. Louis, more Spanish pottery is found than French pottery, whichclearly indicates the French were trading illegally with the Spanish at Pensacola, Florida. At Los Adaes, numerous French artifacts have been found in the Spanish settlement.

Everyday Life

The small settlements scattered across the colony were fairly primitive. The French often used a style of house construction called poteau-en-terre ( "POE-toe en TEHR"), which means "post in the ground." A frame was first built by sticking posts, or poles, in the ground. Then horizontal sticks were placed between the upright posts. Finally, bousillage ("BOO-see-ahj"), a mixture of mud, deer hair, and moss, was plastered over this wooden frame. When the bousillage dried, it hardened like adobe. The walls were then painted in whitewash inside and out to help brighten the house's interior and keep bumblebees from drilling holes into the walls. A roof of palmetto, cypress bark,or shingles finished the house. Even after settlements were established, there continued to be threats from wild animals. In 1729, the inhabitants of New Orleans were still trying to clear the town of alligators and snakes. While some wealthy settlers were given concessions, or large land grants, most people had small farms called habitations. Habitations were placed on rivers and bayous because they served as the colony's highways. Because it was necessary for every settler to have access to a waterway for transportation, habitations were long and narrow and became known as "long lots." A habitation might run a few hundred feet along a bayou and then extend up to a mile away from the water. This system allowed people to build their houses near the bayou for transportation but have plenty of land for farming behind the house. Hundreds of habitations could run side by side along a bayou. Governor Vaudreuil (1743-1753) took advantage of this when he ordered a levee system built to protect against floods. Each settler was responsible for building and maintaining a levee across their narrow habitation. The levee had to be wide enough for a road on top, but since habitations were so narrow this did not place too great a burden on each settler. This narrow land system is still used today in much of Louisiana. It is a good example of how people's lifestyles adapt to geographic factors (in this case, the many bayous).

Creole

The word "creole" is largely associated with Louisiana, but its meaning has changed over the years. Originally, a creole was an African slave who was born in Louisiane rather than in Africa. Later, however, the meaning changed. When capitalized, "Creole" came to refer to Louisiana people who were descended from the French and Spanish and who were not of English, or American, origin. Finally, it came to mean someone who was mixed blooded, but just what mixed blood depends on where you are. Around Natchitoches, a Creole is someone who is descended from the African slave Marie Theresa Coin Coin and the Frenchman Claude Thomas Pierre Metoyer. In other places, a Creole may be a mixture of French, Indian, Spanish, and African blood. Today, there are Creole communities in Pointe Coupée, Mallet, Grand Marais, Slidell, and St. Martinville. Creole also is the name of a language made up of French, Indian, and African words that is spoken in some parts of South Louisiana. When not capitalized, "creole" generally means something that is native to the region, such as food or architecture that developed in Louisiana.

Calumet

To become friends with an Indian tribe it was necessary to smoke the calumet (kal-you-MET), or peace pipe. One Frenchman described the calumet: "The calumet is a stick, or hollow cane, about one ell long [about a forearm's length], decorated all over with feathers of parrots, birds of prey, and eagles. All these feathers tied together around the stick look just about like several lady's fans from France joined together. At the end of this stick is a pipe. . . ." Smoking the calumet was a long ceremony, sometimes lasting three days, and it included singing, dancing, feasting, recounting heroic deeds, and exchanging gifts.

Women

There were very few women in Louisiane at first and many of the men, especially the coureurs de bois, married Indians. While acting as governor in 1704, Bienville became concerned over the situation. The coureurs de bois were spending nearly all of their time with the Indians. They dressed liked Indians, followed Indian customs, and often had Indian families. One of the main goals of the French was to Christianize the native people, but it seemed the Indians were actually converting the French. Bienville worried the coureurs de boiswere losing their souls, and he was unsure of the men's loyalty. If an Indian war erupted, on whose side would the coureurs de bois fight?To bring the coureurs de bois back into the fold, Bienville decided there needed to be good Christian, French women in Louisiane for them to marry. Having a French family would help ensure their loyalty and bring them back to the Catholic Church. Also, it might make the coureurs de bois settle down as farmers and help end the chronic food shortage. More women came to Louisiana later during its proprietorship period. Two famous groups came when the Company of the Indies owned Louisiane. In 1727, six Ursuline nuns arrived in New Orleans. The Ursulines were dedicated to education and opened the colony's first school for girls and later operated the first charity hospital in Louisiana history. The nuns also took in orphans and helped care for unmarried women. Today, the Ursulines are still active in New Orleans, and several schools can trace their origins to the nuns.

While searching for the Northwest Passage in 1673, Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet paddled canoes from the Great Lakes into the Mississippi River, hoping it might lead them to the Pacific Ocean....

They followed the river down to modern-day Arkansas but returned to Canada when they realized it was flowing toward the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific

Chickasaw Wars

When the King took back Louisiane, he needed an experienced leader and decided to restore Bienville as governor. When Bienville arrived in Louisiane in 1733, he found the colony in chaos. Discipline among the soldiers was nonexistent, food was short, the population had declined, and officials were bickering. Bienville only had 800 soldiers to protect Louisiane and he begged for reinforcements. To make matters worse, a second Indian war was erupting. The Chickasaw were a powerful tribe with a large village in northeast Mississippi near modern-day Tupelo. They were friends of the English, and the English encouraged them to attack the French and their Indian allies. In February 1732, the Chickasaw and the Natchez who had come to live with them raided the Pointe Coupée area. In June, more war parties attacked the German Coast and the Ouachita Valley, but French and Tunica Indian troops chased them away. When Bienville learned that some of the Natchez who had participated in the Fort Rosalie Massacre were living with the Chickasaw, he demanded their heads. When the Chickasaw refused, Bienville went to war in 1736. The war raged on and Bienville turned to the colony's slaves for help. He promised freedom to slaves who would help fight the Chickasaw and Natchez, but this was a controversial move. Many slave owners argued that slaves were too valuable to risk being killed and became angry when more and more slaves died in battle. Bienville, however, believed the slaves made better soldiers than the French. Several hundred slaves served in the French army during the war, some even becoming officers of militia units.After three years of war, neither side was winning, but the Chickasaw finally decided protecting the Natchez was not worth the blood it was costing. In 1739, peace was made when the Chickasaw turned over to the French the surviving Natchez, and Bienville sent them to St. Domingue as slaves. Although many individual Natchez escaped, as an organized tribe, the powerful Natchez ceased to exist. The war also ruined Bienville. He was broken both physically and emotionally after spending much of three years in the woods fighting and seeing his friends die. Exhausted, Bienville asked to be replaced as governor and in 1743 he turned the colony over to Governor Vaudreuil.Vaudreuil also had to fight the Chickasaws when their war parties again raided Pointe Coupée and the New Orleans area in 1747. Vaudreuil angered settlers by sending the army behind the Chickasaw to cut off their retreat rather than getting in front of the war parties and protecting the plantations. The Chickasaw escaped and in 1752 again raided Louisiane. This time, Vaudreuil attacked and defeated them and the Chickasaw signed a peace treaty. Afterward, they never again troubled the French.