Lecture 9/chapter 7-FEELS & MEMORY

Proactive inhibition

(or proactive interference) - when earlier learning gets in the way of new learning - or proactive interference is an aspect of interference in learning and is a concept that describes the increased difficulty of learning or remembering a set of words after that set had been learned in a previous, different context. It applies to free recall and associative or list learning procedures of assessing memory. Both retroactive and proactive inhibitions are more likely to occur when old and new stimuli are similar

Retroactive inhibition

(or retroactive interference) - when learning something new hampers earlier learning -is when a person has difficulty recalling old information because of newly learned information. For example, you may have difficulty skiing because of recently learning how to snowboard.

Relearning

- "savings"; how much more quickly we reacquire something learned before • We learn information more quickly when we study something we've already studied relative to when we studied it the first time • - reacquiring knowledge that we'd previously learned but largely forgotten over time ‾ Hermann Ebbinghaus studied memory and found that most forgetting occurs almost immediately after learning new material, with increasingly less after that ‾ He also found that he learned more quickly the second time around • shows that memory for a skill or knowledge is still in your brain somewhere • is a more sensitive measure of memory than recall or recognition

Memory

- A cognitive system that retains information. Similar to a computer's ability to retain information, your brain remembers bits of information such as your mother's name or first day of college. You would be unable to retrieve this information if you were unable to have it stored in your memory. There many components to memory including senory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, forgetting, and more.

Sensory memory

- Brief storage of somewhat large amounts of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term (working) memory • The part of the memory system which is the initial contact for stimuli. Sensory memory is only capable of retaining information for a very short period of time. This type of memory allows your eye to have a larger field of vision by remembering images that your eye has already focused on. In actuality, your eyes' field of vision is quite small but because of sensory memory you are able to remember stimulus your eye has already viewed.

Mnemonic

- a learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall A ------- device, or memory device, is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval in the human memory. -make use of elaborative encoding, retrieval cues, and imagery as specific tools to encode any given information in a way that allows for efficient storage and retrieval. - aid original information in becoming associated with something more accessible or meaningful—which, in turn, provides better retention of the information. Commonly encountered mnemonics are often used for lists and in auditory form, such as short poems, acronyms, or memorable phrases, but mnemonics can also be used for other types of information and in visual or kinesthetic forms. Their use is based on the observation that the human mind more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising, physical, sexual, humorous, or otherwise "relatable" information, rather than more abstract or impersonal forms of information. • can be applied to just about anything and everything • Most ----- depend on having a store of knowledge to begin with

Source monitoring

- ability to identify the origins of a memory -is an unconscious mental test that humans perform in order to determine if a memory is "real" and accurate as opposed to being from a source like a dream or a movie. People use many sources to determine the source of a memory or idea. People use physical information about people and objects such as determining that the person they see walking towards them is their longtime friend and not a character from a movie. -People use linguistic and categorical information as well. External source monitoring focuses on sources that are in an individual's environment. An example of this would be recalling which one of your professors gave an exam yesterday. Internal source monitoring is focused on internal factors like when an individual is distinguishing between something they said outloud and something they thought to themselves. Source monitoring errors can occur for many reasons such as brain injury, aging, depression, cognitive biases. -They are memory errors in which a specific recalled experience is falsely attributed to be the source of a particular memory. -An example of a source monitoring error would be incorrectly recalling a conversation that occurred in a dream as reality.

Classical conditioning

- associative conditioning between neutral and innately meaningful stimuli First proposed and studied by Ivan Pavlov, ---------is one form of learning in which an organism "learns" through establishing associations between different events and stimuli. - For example, when a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) which produces some involuntary bodily response all on its own (such as salivating), the neutral stimulus begins to trigger a response by the organism similar (some salivation) to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In this way, the organism has "learned" that the neutral stimulus equals something good (just like the unconditioned stimulus)

Misinformation effect

- creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place Human memory is not as good as people like to think. There are times when you are 100% confident in your memory of something and the reality is, your memory is wrong. This is often seen in eye witness testimony situations. How is it that 10 people witness a crime and when asked, there are 10 different versions of the crime? According to the misinformation effect, when we witness an event and then get some incorrect information about that event, we incorporate that incorrect information (misinformation) into our memory of the event. The result in an altered memory of the event. You may not want to believe this one, but it's true and we are all susceptible to it.

Misinformation Effect

- creation of fictitious memories by providing misleading information afterward Human memory is not as good as people like to think. There are times when you are 100% confident in your memory of something and the reality is, your memory is wrong. This is often seen in eye witness testimony situations. How is it that 10 people witness a crime and when asked, there are 10 different versions of the crime? According to the misinformation effect, when we witness an event and then get some incorrect information about that event, we incorporate that incorrect information (misinformation) into our memory of the event. The result in an altered memory of the event. You may not want to believe this one, but it's true and we are all susceptible to it.

Habituation

- decrease in attention to familiar stimuli over time As humans, we get used to things. Something that is new and incredibly exciting can become boring. This tendency to have decreased responsiveness to something is habituation (you might also hear someone say that you get habituated to something). For example, there may be a painting or picture you really like so you put it on the wall in your room. You see this picture every day, 10 times a day. Over time and repeated exposures to this picture you might start feeling like you've "seen it a million times" and it just doesn't have the same effect on you that it used to.

Priming

- facilitated recognition of a stimulus after seeing it, or a similar stimulus, previously -is an acuteness to stimuli because of exposure to a certain event or experience. For example, an individual who has just purchased a new car may now start to notice with more frequency other people driving her same make and model. This person has been primed to recognize more readily a car like hers because of the experience she has driving and owning one.

Retrieval cues

- hints that make it easier for us to recall information - is a prompt that help us remember. When we make a new memory, we include certain information about the situation that act as triggers to access the memory. -For example, when someone is introduced to us at a party, we don't only store the name and appearance of the new acquaintance in our memory. We also include external cues about the situtation like what kind of party it was, who made the introduction, what cocktails were served, or what music was playing. We also include internal cues like what mood you were in at the time, or what you thought of the person being introduced. When we try to recall the person, having one or more of these cues present will help us remember better. So when you meet the person again, it would be easier to remember them if you bumped into them at another party, or you saw them with the same person who introduced you, or you were in the same mood as when you first met them.

Paradox of memory

- our memories are surprisingly good in some situations and surprisingly poor in others -What is paradoxical about memory is that when we attempt to recall something, it is not as if we are rifling through a drawer in or brain. During recollection, we are literally "recreating" the memory, based on the culmination of our life experiences. For example, if I ask you to think of a bike, you use all the past experience you have of bikes in order to summon that image. These experiences range from your first ride, to the guy on youtube who broke his spine. Now for the paradox... -How can you draw upon your total life's past experience in order to recollect a single memory when all your experience in life counts as memory too? This form of argument becomes an infinite regress. Lets take an example. Think of a kiss. In order to imagine one, as we established, you use your relevant memories to think one up. But in order to use previous memories, don't they have to be summoned by even more previous memories, an yet again those previous memories by even more? This is the paradox. The same memory mechanisms that serve us well in most circumstances can sometimes cause us problems in others

Suggestive memory techniques

- procedures that encourage patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place

Retrieval

- reactivation or reconstruction of experiences from our memory stores - is the process in which information in your memory can be recalled. Information concerning events, images and feelings are all stored in our memory. Just because you cannot remember something doesn't mean that it is not in your memory. It maybe a problem with being able to locate it for retrieval To remember something, we need to fetch it from our long-term memory banks. Many types of forgetting result from failures of retrieval

Retrograde amnesia

- refers to the the loss of memory surrounding a physically or emotionally traumatic event and can be global (loss of all memories) or limited to memories specific to events that the victim might psychologically want to avoid remembering. This type of amnesia can be short-term and does not always include physical damage to the brain. This type of memory loss generally includes not only the event itself, but also events shortly before the event and generally includes both Episodic Memory (events) and Declarative Memory (knowledge), including autobiographical information.

Rehearsal

- repeating information in one's head or out loud I love pizza. Unfortunately I can never remember the phone number for pizza delivery and I'm not smart enough to write it down. So I have to call information for the number. To make sure I don't forget the number from the time the operator tells me to the time I dial it, I engage in rehearsal -- consciously repeating the information over and over so that I can keep it in temporary memory. Rehearsal can also be used to encode it for long-term memory storage, but I can't seem to get it in there and so I have to call the operator every time.

Persistence

- some events can linger in our minds for days or weeks and intrude into our thoughts, even disrupting our ability to sleep. -, as used in psychology, refers to a personality trait that causes a person to persevere in a task despite obstacles or frustrations rather than simply giving up. This trait, often associated with stubbornness and perfectionism, is a prime ingredient in success in many pursuits such as athletics, academics, business, etc. One common example of this is seen in sports where a player continues to play the game despite injuries, rather than abandon the game and their teammates.

Phonological loop

- somewhat less shallow - is the part of our working memory system that handles auditory and verbal information, including language and music. It consists of two components: storage, where we briefly hold information in our short-term memory, and rehearsal, a mechanism by which we maintain and strengthen our memory of the information. Research suggests that information held in the loop only lasts for 2 seconds unless it's processed via rehearsal. -You use the phonological loop whenever you try to memorize a telephone number or access code. You repeat the numbers to yourself in order, either saying them out loud or under your breath, to help you remember.

Misattribution

- suggestions are often effective because they lead us to --- memories to incorrect sources, mistaking what's imagined for a real memory. Bias - our schemas can bias our memories First, let's define attribution, which is the process by which people use information to make inferences about the causes of behavior or events. Simply put, this is how we go about inferring behavior (our own and those of others). Thus, ----is attributing an event to something with which it really has no connection or association. It's making an incorrect attribution. There are also more specific misattributions, such as Misattribution of Arousal and Misattribution of Memory.

Eyewitness testimony

- the correlation between witnesses' confidence in their testimony and accuracy of testimony is weak is a situational account of a witness of what is typically a crime or an accident. It is a legal term that essentially describes when a witness or victim is recounting their firsthand experience to another person or to a court. Cognitive and memory research has shown that eyewitness accounts can be influenced and incorrect due to a number of factors such as stress, outside influences such a leading questioning, or misattribution of memory. This possibility of unreliability must be considered as a legal professional or as a juror in order to not punish an innocent person. • Three-quarters or more of prisoners acquitted by DNA testing are mistakenly identified by ------ • sometimes provide invaluable evidence

Semantic memory

- the deepest -is one of the three types of long-term memory (the others are episodic and procedural) in which we store general world knowledge like facts, ideas, words, problem solving, etc.

Visual Encoding

- the most shallow -refers to the process by which we remember visual images. -For example, if you are presented a list of words, each shown for one second, you would be able to remember if there was a word that was written in all capital letters, or if there was a word written in italics. Information that was encoded visually is very fleeting, and tends to be forgotten very easily. We are usually better able to remember information that we hear, or those that are relevant to us.

Encoding

- the process of getting information into memory Any information which we sense and subsequently attempt to process, store, and later retrieve must be brought in through one of the senses and then transformed into some form that our bodies and minds understand. The process of breaking the information down into a form we understand is the process of encoding (and we later "decode" the information to recall it). But the process of getting into the memory system for storage and later retrieval is encoding. Most events we've experienced are never encoded Events we do encode include only some of the details of the experience

920s - Karl Lashley

- unsuccessful search for a single engram (physical trace of memory in the brain) -worked with rats in a maze to understand how memory actually occurred. He would train a rat to run a maze and then he would cut away a piece of the cerebral cortex. Each time he did this, with different subjects, he found that the memory was impaired (the rat could no longer negotiate the maze). After many repetitions he learned that the entire cerebral cortex was involved in memory. This mass action was demonstrated by the rats in that it did not matter what part of the cortex was cut, the rat's memory was affected. However, cutting away parts of rats' brains led Lashley to an even more important discovery • Rats in maze: more brain tissue removed = worse memory • Location of damage didn't seem to matter The Neural Basis of Memory Storage Beginning in the 1920s, psychologist Karl Lashley tried to locate the engram: physical traces of memory in the brain

Reconstructive

- we extract the gist to make things easier to remember (but this may contribute to memory errors)

The Fallibility of Memory

-Increasing evidence indicates that suggestive memory techniques often create recollections that were never present to begin with

Dementia

-is mental condition that is caused by a physical breakdown of brain functioning that leads to confusion and severe decline of intellectual functioning. -Described as a syndrome, rather than specific disease process, it is a collection of symptoms that is most commonly seen in the elderly and shows up as a physical and intellectual decline that is in excess of the normal mental decline that is part of aging.

Engram

-is the hypothesized physical memory trace, either biophysical or biochemical, that that is produced when information is stored in the brain. Although the actual existence of memory "engrams" is still unproven, some theories exist using the engram hypothesis that seem to explain how memories are stored in the brain and persist. The exact means, mechanism and location of this type of memory storage continues to be a subject of study and controversy. ‾ In an effort to discover where in the brain memory was stored, Lashley taught rats how to run various mazes ‾ He then lesioned different parts of their brains to see if the rats forgot how to find their way ‾ While Lashley found no engram, he learned two important things

Blocking

-temporary inability to access information Sorry football fans, but this is something a little different than throwing a block on the field. Rather, this refers to a conditioning principle first addressed by Kamin (1969). Kamin indicated that having a CS (conditioned stimulus) that can predict a UCS (also known as US or unconditioned stimulus) is sufficient. What this means is that, if an animal learns that a CS is a reliable predictor of a UCS (e.g., a pigeon learns that a light reliably predicts the onset of some painful stimulus such as a shock), then the pigeon will not become conditioned to another CS or learn that any other CS predicts that UCS. So, our little pigeon friend will not learn that a bell predicts the onset of the shock the same way the light did. Once the pigeon learns one reliable association with the CS, it essentially "blocks" further associations. ‾ Most of us have had the experience of starting to say something, and then suddenly and inexplicably losing all memory of what we intended to say ‾ Although this experience can be embarrassing, most of us recover quickly from blocking ‾ The TOT phenomenon is another example of -----

(LTP)

Long-term potentiation - gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation over time -is the ability of brain cells to retain how frequently they send signals to other brain cells. Brain cells that are used for mental exercises (such as languages and math problems) have a tendency to last longer than those that aren't used. This can vary both from person to person and within a single person's activities. If you practice your foreign language but don't practice algebra, you are more likely to forget the algebra and remember the language.

STM

Short-term memory -memory store for information that we are currently thinking about, attending to, or processing actively, and is sometimes referred to as working memory -is the part of the memory system where information is stored for roughly 30 seconds. Information can be aintained longer with the use of such techniques as ehearsal. To retain the information for extended periods of time; it must be consolidated into long-term emory where it can then be retrieved. -allows you to retain phone numbers from an operator before and while you are dialing the number of interest. The capacity of short-term memory is also limited. Most people can only store roughly 7 chunks of information plus or minus 2. Is it just a coincidence that phone numbers only have seven digits?

• Loftus car crash study

The participants were 45 students of the University of Washington. They were each shown seven film-clips of traffic accidents. The clips were short excerpts from safety films made for driver education. The clips ranged from 5 to 30 seconds long. Following each clip, the students were asked to write an account of the accident they had just seen. They were also asked to answer some specific questions but the critical question was to do with the speed of the vehicles involved in the collision. Loftus and Palmer give two interpretations/explanations of the findings of their 1st experiment. 1. Firstly, they argue that the results could be due to a distortion in the memory of the participant. The memory of how fast the cars were travelling could have been distorted by the verbal label which had been used to characterize the intensity of the crash. 2. Secondly, they argue that the results could be due to response-bias factors, in which case the participant is not sure of the exact speed and therefore adjusts his or her estimate to fit in with the expectations of the questioner. (This is also an example of a demand characteristic)

The Lost in the Mall study

demonstrated that we can implant elaborate memories of a made-up event that can never happen - is a memory implantation technique used to demonstrate that confabulations about events that never took place - such as having been lost in a shopping mall as a child - can be created through suggestions made to experimental subjects. It was first developed by Jim Coan, an undergraduate student of psychologist Elizabeth Loftus as support for the claim that it is possible to implant entirely false memories in people. The technique was developed in the context of the debate about the existence of repressed memories and false memories

1949 - Donald Hebb

engram is located in assemblies of neurons ‾ Neurons that "fire together, wire together"

Serial-position effect i

s the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst. The term was coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies he performed on himself, and refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list. When asked to recall a list of items in any order, people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best. Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items.

Recognition

selecting previously remembered information from an array of options. is identifying something you learned previously and is therefore stored in some manner in memory. For example, taking a multiple choice test requires you to identify material you learned and not necessarily "recall" information learned previously.

H.M.

suffered from severe epileptic seizures: following the surgery to remove large chunks of his temporal lobe, H.M. developed virtually complete anterograde amnesia, and can't encode new memories

Echoic memory

• (auditory sensory memory) lasts longer than iconic memory • Humans remember sounds and words in slightly different ways. Memory for sound is referred to as echoic memories, which can be defined as very brief sensory memory of some auditory stimuli. Typically, echoic memories are stored for slightly longer periods of time than iconic memories (visual memories). Echoic and iconic memories are sensory memories, not types of long-term memory, and thus are very temporary and fade quickly.

Observer memory

• (what an observer would see, more distant memories, more abstract, more reconstructed)

Field memory

• (what you saw, more recent memories, more specific, more "pure")

Largely unfalsifiable (Baddeley, 1993)

• - The term working memory is used most frequently to refer to a limited capacity system that is capable of briefly storing and manipulating information involved in the performance of complex cognitive tasks such as reasoning, comprehension and certain types of learning. -While accepting that this is now one of range of models, the Baddeley and Hitch multicomponent model provides a convenient structure for summarising research on working memory over the 30 years since it was first proposed. • It's virtually impossible to determine how deeply we've processed a memory in the first place. • Proponents of level-of-processing theory seem to be equating "depth" to how well subjects later remember

Serial position curve

• - a graph with the position of the word in the list plotted against the percentage of subjects who accurately remembered the word, demonstrating primacy and recency effects

Free recall task

• - a psychological task in which an individual is asked to remember a set of words, but is free to recall words in any order • is a basic paradigm used to study human memory. In a -------, a subject is presented a list of to-be-remembered items, one at at time. For example, an experimenter might read a list of 20 words aloud, presenting a new word to the subject every 4 seconds. At the end of the presentation of the list, the subject is asked to recall the items (e.g., by writing down as many items from the list as possible). It is called a free recall task because the subject is free to recall the items in any order that he or she desires.

Schema

• - an organized knowledge structure or mental model stored in memory • is a cognitive system which helps us organize and make sense of information. -For example, you may have a conceptual framework or developed a ----that all homeless people are rude. Because of this schema, you organize your actions around it and more readily look for information that supports this view while discarding information that disagrees with this perspective. - exert a great deal of influence over us and sometimes hinder us from remembering new information because it does not fit into our cognitive framework. • -affect how we store memory information (actually, schemas play a role in all three stages of memory • -equip us with frames of reference for interpreting new situations • can lead us to remember things that never happened ‾ simplify, which is good as they help us make sense of the world. ‾ sometimes oversimplify, which can be bad because they can produce memory illusions • also help to explain how prejudices distort memory

Cryptomnesia

• - failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else • is a phenomenon that occurs in the academic world where an author puts forward thoughts and ideas as being their own but that are actually inadvertent plagiarisms of work that had been read and absorbed in the past. Oftentimes this is the result of a person having read materials that have had such a deep effect on their own outlook and scholarship that they don't actually remember the source of those thoughts and ideas and don't recognize them as being borrowed rather than original. This is an important consideration in academics and other areas of publishing because of the very real problem of plagiarism which is the deliberate "theft" of intellectual property. For this reason journals and intellectual works are subjected to very strict editing and has led to the growth of computer software that can compare newly written materials to past bodies of work. • Some cases of plagiarism may reflect ---

Span

• - how much information each system can hold

Memory illusion activity

• - induce students to misremember hearing (or seeing) the word sleep, when in fact they didn't hear (or see) the term

Method of Loci

• - is a method of memory enhancement which uses visualizations with the use of spatial memory, familiar information about one's environment, to quickly and efficiently recall information. The method of loci is also known as the memory journey, memory palace, or mind palace technique. This method is a mnemonic device adopted in ancient Roman and Greek rhetorical treatises. Many memory contest champions claim to use this technique to recall faces, digits, and lists of words. These champions' successes have little to do with brain structure or intelligence, but more to do with using spatial memory[1] and the use of the method of loci.

Meta-memory

• - knowledge about one's own memory abilities and limitations • is knowledge and awareness of your own memory, including the contents and processes of your memory. What do you remember and how confident are you in the accuracy of your memories? For example, you may realize that you've forgotten the date of a friend's birthday, but you're 90% sure it's in July. -also includes the strategies you use to help you remember something. So if you're reminded that your friend's birthday is on July 8th, you may make a mental note of the date and the fact that 8 follows 7 to help you remember next time.

elaborative rehearsal

• - linking stimuli we need to remember to other information we have in some meaningful way, perhaps by visualizing them or trying to understand their interrelationship • is a memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over. For example, you need to remember the term "neuron." In order to permanently commit the term to your memory, you look up what it means (it is a nerve cell), find out its purpose (transmit information from or to the central nervous system), look at a diagram and study its parts, and think about how it relates to things that you already know (like how different it its from other kinds of cells, assuming you are familiar with other cells). If you do this several times (rehearsal), then you will be more likely to remember the term. ‾ Paired associate task helps to clarify differences between types of rehearsal ‾ Elaborative rehearsal tends to work better than maintenance rehearsal ‾ Demolishes a widely held myth that rote memorization is best means of retaining information

Procedural memory

• - motor skills and habits, "know how" memory • is the most basic and primitive form of memory. As the name implies, this is the type of memory we have for "procedures" or for basic associations between stimuli and responses. For example, the process or procedure for riding a bike. Once you've learned this procedure (ie, made the association between the stimulus and appropriate responses) it is stored as a procedural memory. You've learned to respond with the appropriate set of behaviors and adapted properly to your environment.

Duration

• - over how long a period of time that system can hold information

Maintenance rehearsal

• - repeating stimuli in original form, not attempting to change original stimuli in any way • is the process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information. Your short term memory is able to hold information about about 20 seconds. However, this time can be increased to about 30 seconds by using Maintenance Rehearsal. • For example - late at night, you have been out partying all night, you get back home and you are hungry. you decide that it's time for pizza. So you pick up the phone and call information to get the number of a local pizza delivery place. When the operator gives the number, you say the number over and over so that you don't forget it in the time it takes to hang up and dial the number. This process of repeating the number over and over is maintenance rehearsal. It won't help get the information into long term memory, but it will help keep it in short term memory a little longer.

Distributed versus massed practice

• - studying information in small increments over time (distributed) versus in large increments over a brief amount of time (massed)

State-dependent learning/memories

• - superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding • State-dependent memory or state-dependent learning is the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.[1][2] The term is often used to describe memory retrieval while in states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs - most commonly, alcohol, but has implications for mood or non-substance induced states of consciousness as well. • Unlike context-dependent memory, which involves an individual's external environment and conditions, state-dependent memory applies to the individual's internal conditions. For example, while context-dependent memory might refer to the idea that taking a test in the same room that an individual studied in will make it easier to retrieve those memories, state-dependent learning refers to the idea that if an individual always studied for a test while slightly caffeinated, it will most likely be easiest to recall what they studied during the test if they are at a similar level of caffeination. • State-dependent learning can result in a retrospective bias, creating problems for researchers who want to draw conclusions about people's life histories

Context-dependent learning/memories

• - superior retrieval when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context • refers to the phenomenon of how much easier it is to retrieve certain memories when the "context," or circumstances around the memory are same for both the original encoding and retrieval. Research shows improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same. You have probably experienced this if you have ever returned to the home where you grew up, or a school that you used to attend. When you do this memories of events that happened there came more readily to mind. A practical application of this might be in physically reenacting an event to remember some detail. For example, if you have misplaced your car keys, try going through the sequence of actions for the last time you came into your house and you might find where you left them.

von Restorff effect

• - the tendency to remember stimuli that are distinctive or that stand out from other stimuli • predicts that when multiple homogeneous stimuli are presented, the stimulus that differs from the rest is more likely to be remembered. - Hedwig von Restorff (1906-1962), who, in her 1933 study, found that when participants were presented with a list of categorically similar items with one distinctive, isolated item on the list, memory for the item was improved.[2] • The study utilized the isolation paradigm, which refers to a distinctive feature of an item in a list that differs from the others by way of dimension. Such distinctiveness, leading to the von Restorff effect, can be generated from changing the meaningfulness or physical nature of the stimulus in some way, such as in size, shape, color, spacing and underlining.

Primacy effect

• - the tendency to remember words early in a list • This is the tendency for the first items presented in a series to be remembered better or more easily, or for them to be more influential than those presented later in the series. If you hear a long list of words, it is more likely that you will remember the words you heard first (at the beginning of the list) than words that occurred in the middle. This is the primacy effect. You should also note that you will be likely to remember words at the end of the list more than words in the middle, and this is called the recency effect.

Recency effect

• - the tendency to remember words later in a list • This is the principle that the most recently presented items or experiences will most likely be remembered best. If you hear a long list of words, it is more likely that you will remember the words you heard last (at the end of the list) than words that occurred in the middle. This is the recency effect.

(LTM)

• Long-term memory - our permanent store of information, including facts, experiences, and skills acquired over a lifetime • The term long-term memory refers to the unlimited capacity memory store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time. By saying "lengthy periods of time" we mean that it is possible for memories in LTM to remain there for an entire lifetime. In addition, there are three types of memories that can be stored in LTM: procedural memory, semantic memory, and episodic memory. • differs from STM • Compared to STM, LTM capacity is huge

Pegword Method-

• a mnemonic method utilized to recall lists, wherein each object is correlated in imagination with a number-word pair.

Sperling (1960)

• demonstrated existence of iconic memory (visual sensory memory) using the method of partial report • documented the existence of iconic memory (one of the sensory memory subtypes). Through several experiments, he showed support for his hypothesis that human beings store a perfect image of the visual world for a brief moment, before it is discarded from memory. He was in the forefront in wanting to help the deaf population in terms of speech recognition.[1] He argued that the telephone was created originally for the hearing impaired but it became popularized by the hearing community. He suggested with a sevenfold reduction in the bandwidth for video transmission, it can be useful for the improvement in American Sign Language communication.[1] used a method of partial report to measure the time course of visual persistence (sensory memory)

Peterson & Peterson (1959)

• determined the duration of short-term memory to be quite brief • Some studies suggest that we lose information from STM due to decay - the fading of information due to lack of attention • investigated one of the factors that causes our short-term memory to decay, i.e. why we forget information in our short-term memory. In 1959, they conducted an experiment that revealed how time between remembering something and having to recall it affected the life of a memory. Procedure- In the experiment: 1. Participants were asked to remember a trigram 2. Next, they were given a delay between recall in which they were required to perform an interference task, which would reduce the chances of them using techniques to rehearse the data and remember it better. The delay between being shown the trigram and asked to recall it varied between participants - one of the following intervals: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds. 3. Participants tried to recall the trigram. • Findings ‾ Recall success was around 50% after an interval of 3 seconds and interference task, but this reduced gradually to around 10% over intervals of 6, 9 and 12 seconds, and gradually to around 5% success after 18 seconds. ‾ This suggests that time does indeed result in decay in the short-term memory. ‾ Stronger evidence points to the role of interference in memory loss, meaning that information leaves memory because of competition from additional incoming information

Recall -

• generating previously remembered information • is simply bringing a thought or idea learned previously, and thus stored in memory into conscious awareness. When you remember something you are actually "recalling" the memory. When you have to complete an essay exam, you are recalling information learned previously. This is different than recognition in which you only need to identify material you learned previously (e.g., multiple choice test).

Keyword Method

• is an effective system for remembering definitions, learning foreign language vocabulary, and more. Any two pieces of information can be linked together in your memory using this method. ‾ The way you use the Keyword Method is by combining the creation of substitute words with visualization (a two-step process): ‾ First, convert the sound of the word into one or more concepts that can be visualized. Then, associate those concepts with an image representing the actual meaning of the word. ‾ Quick example: Students learning geometry sometimes confuse the diameter and radius of a circle. The bizarre picture at right of a radish swinging inside a circle is a Keyword Method trick for remembering the difference.

Massed practice

• is comprised of training or learning sessions that are long and intense as opposed to distributed practice which uses shorter and less intense sessions to impart information to a student or trainee. - has been shown through research to be ultimately less successful than the distributed practice model. -As an example, it is ultimately more successful in college classwork to stay on top of a subject by frequent reviews of material rather than relying on all-night "cramming" the night before an exam.

Sequential lineup-

• is the most commonly used procedure in Canada Lindsay and Wells (1985) designed the ---- to reduce the likelihood that a relative judgment is used and to increase the likelihood that an absolute judgment is used; that is, witnesses compare each lineup member to their memory of the culprit rather than to other lineup members. Moreover, lineup members with the sequential procedure do not appear together. -Sequentially presenting each lineup member facilitates this absolute judgment. Eyewitnesses must make a decision as to whether the lineup member is the culprit at the time of presentation, and they are not able to change their decision once presented with the next lineup member.

Iconic memory

• is the visual sensory memory (SM) register pertaining to the visual domain and a fast-decaying store of visual information. It is a component of the visual memorysystem which also includes visual short-term memory (VSTM) and long-term memory (LTM). Iconic memory is described as a very brief (<1000 ms), pre-categorical, high capacity memory store.[1][2] It contributes to VSTM by providing a coherent representation of our entire visual perception for a very brief period of time. Iconic memory assists in accounting for phenomena such as change blindness and continuity of experience during saccades. Iconic memory is no longer thought of as a single entity but instead, is composed of at least two distinctive components.[3] Classic experiments including Sperling's partial report paradigm as well as modern techniques continue to provide insight into the nature of this SM store. ‾ Flashed grid of 12 letters in front of subjects then had them recall as many as they could, but subjects generally recalled only 4-5 letters ‾ Concluded that iconic memories fade so fast that we can't access all the information before it fades

Clive Wearing

• suffered damage to his hippocampi and several other brain structures by virus, leaving him with virtually complete anterograde amnesia

Simultaneous lineup-

• witnesses view all lineup members at the same time. This procedure is the most commonly used lineup procedure in the United States (Police Executive Research Forum, 2013). Critics of this procedure point out that it encourages the use of a relative judgment; that is, the comparison across lineup members resulting in the selection of the person who most closely resembles the culprit (Wells, 1993). When the suspect is guilty, the use of a relative judgment is not usually a problem; the suspect will be most likely to look like the culprit in comparison to other lineup members, since the suspect is the culprit. On the other hand, in a situation where the suspect is innocent, a relative judgment can lead to a false positive identification.

Anterograde amnesia

•refers to an individual's inability to form new memories following a traumatic event. Although this is an uncommon event, it can occur in conjunction with Retrograde Amnesia. Generalized amnesia in which a person loses all previous memories is exceedingly rare

Permastore

‾ - Bahrick's term for this kind of LTM, which remains "frozen" over time ‾ noun. extremely long-term or lasting memory which forms following extensive training, learning, or experience. Details of algebra foreign linguistics acquired years before in school, and even the names of schoolmates are considered to be retained within permastore. ‾ "The concept of ----- was posited by an American cognitive psychologist by the name of Harry P. Bahrick." ‾ Mistakes we commit in long-term memory differ from those we make in STM

Memory illusion

‾ - a false but subjectively compelling memory, which is likely a by-product of our brain's generally adaptive tendency to go beyond the information it has at its disposal ‾ Illustrates representativeness heuristic from Chapter 3—like goes with like—we simplify things to make them easier to remember, which can lead to memory illusions

episodic memory

‾ - recollection of events in our lives; tends to activate the right frontal cortex more than left frontal cortex ‾ is the type of long-term, declarative memory in which we store memories of personal experiences that are tied to particular times and places. For example, if you are having a conversation with a friend and you tell your friend, "last night I went to a 9:00 movie..." you are recalling information stored in episodic memory. This type of memory is often what comprises eye-witness testimony and is especially susceptible to subsequent events like questioning, reading the newspaper, talking to others about the event, etc.

Infantile Amnesia

‾ refers to the difficulty or inability that adults have in remembering detailed or episodic memories (memories were time, place and events can be identified) from early childhood, generally prior to age 3 or 4. If we think back, most of us have a few "snapshot" memories from childhood where we can remember a single scene or event, but can't normally place these single memories into a specific context. ‾ This inability to remember events as a series is a result of the young child's undeveloped Limbic System (amygdala and hippocampus) where memories are chemically stored. Interestingly some children can remember events from earlier in childhood but lose access to those memories as they grow to adulthood.

Depth of processing model

3. - the more deeply we transform information, the better we tend to remember it ‾ identifies three levels of processing of verbal information

Absentmindedness

6. - a failure either to encode memories because we're not paying attention or to retrieve memories we've already stored - is the condition of occasional forgetfulness that we all experience. This can take the form of accidentally putting something away in the wrong place (like putting tape in the refrigerator or putting the milk away in a cabinet) while thinking about something else. -Another example could be not paying attention while putting things away and then having no recollection of where those things were placed. Although general absent-mindedness is an inevitable part of the human experience (we all experience it!) if it becomes a chronic problem or starts increasing in incidence it could be a signifier of a memory problem or condition such as Alzheimer's, dementia, or encoding failure.

Sam Stone study

- included one hundred and seventy-six preschoolers (male and female) including a variety of ethnic groups, with different social backgrounds were split into two groups by age. The younger children (3- and 4-year-olds) and older preschoolers (5- and 6-year-olds) were assigned a classroom consisting of eight children in all, yet they were not randomly chosen from the whole group. The children were not tested individually, and "were assigned to one of four conditions, denoted as follows: • (a) control, (b) stereotype, (c) suggestion, and (d) stereotype plus suggestion (pg. 2)." The main event was the visit of an unfamiliar person named ------ who visited all of the preschoolers in each of their separate conditions. proved that preschoolers could be influenced or persuaded by stereotypes or led on by suggestive probing questions. -In the control group, none of the children made false allegations throughout their free narrative even through the fifth interview, and only ten percent of the youngest preschoolers claimed that they saw ---- do anything with a teddy bear or a book. In the stereotype condition there was an increase in erroneous answers by the children, yet more so within the younger preschoolers. Thirty seven percent of the children influenced by the stereotype said they saw Sam Stone do something with either the teddy bear or the book. But if asked if they actually saw Stone do the misdeed, the percentage of erroneous statements decreased. Within the suggestive condition, the children actually said that they observed Sam Stone damage either item in their narrative. The flawed answers from the children significantly rose when the probing questions were asked. Finally, the stereotype plus suggestion group held more mistaken answers by the children than any other group. The children's answers when subjected to both of the manipulations were definitely impaired by this outside influence.

Storage

- is a memory-related term that refers to the ability to retain information in the brain (in memory). Memory is a process of getting information into the brain (encoding), keeping information in the brain over time (storage), and then being able to get information out of the brain when needed (retreival). In modern theory of memory, we have different types of storage; short-term memory and long-term memory.

Distributed practice

- is a strategy of learning that makes use of smaller increments of study and practice over a longer period of time rather than "massed practice" utilizing longer study and practice periods over a short period of time. In an academic environment this is the difference between using quality study time daily to learn a subject rather than "cramming" right before an exam. - has been shown to be more effective for learning and memory retention than massed practice.

semantic memory

- knowledge of facts about the world; tends to activate the left frontal cortex more than right frontal cortex ‾ is one of the three types of long-term memory (the others are episodic and procedural) in which we store general world knowledge like facts, ideas, words, problem solving, etc.

Transcience

- many of our memories, both short- and long-term, will fade with time Transience is the decreasing ability to retrieve and access memories over time. One of the "7 sins of memory" transience occurs normally with the aging process but can also occur in a very severe way as a result of brain damage. It occurs with both short and long term memories. Memories that are mundane and not detailed are more likely to not be retrieved due to transience as opposed to important or memorable events. A person is more likely to forget the plot of a movie they saw years ago than their wedding day. ‾ As we age, it's increasingly difficult to access memories. ‾ In cases of massive brain injury or dementia, the ability to access memories can be severely impaired.

Flashbulb memories

- memories, often highly emotional, that are extraordinarily vivid and detailed - is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential news was heard. The term "flashbulb memory" suggests the surprise, indiscriminate illumination, detail, and brevity of a photograph; however ------are only somewhat indiscriminate and are far from complete. Evidence has shown that although people are highly confident in their memories, the details of the memories can be forgotten.

Suggestibility

- misleading information following events, leading questions, and explicit information and suggestions can increase the chances of our believing that fictitious events occurred Suggestibility is the quality of being inclined to accept and act on the suggestions of others where false but plausible information is given and one fills in the gaps in certain memories with false information when recalling a scenario or moment. - uses cues to distort recollection: when the subject has been persistently told something about a past event, his or her memory of the event conforms to the repeated message.[1] A person experiencing intense emotions tends to be more receptive to ideas and therefore more suggestible. Generally, suggestibility decreases as age increases. However, psychologists have found that individual levels of self-esteem and assertiveness can make some people more suggestible than others; this finding led to the concept of a spectrum of suggestibility.

Implicit memory

- not deliberately remembered ("automatic"), doesn't require conscious effort, many different forms -involves recollection of skills, things you know how to do, preferences, etc., that you don't need to recall consciously. For example, if you know how to ride a bike and you can do so without having to think about it, you are demonstrating implicit memory.

Chunking

- organizing info into meaningful groupings to extend the span of STM beyond 7 ± 2 A very basic definition is that chunking is a way of organizing information into familiar groupings. This is done with all sorts of information, including numbers, single words, and multiple-word phrases which are collapsed into a single word, to create acronyms. The main advantage of this type of mnemonic device is that it enhances retention and memory. For example, how do you remember the names of the 5 Great Lakes? If you just remember the acronym, HOMES, you may find it easier to remember that the names of the Great Lakes are Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior. XIBMSATMTVPHDX vs. X IBM SAT MTV PHD X