LSU MADM701 Module 7

Substitutes for Leadership

"substitutes" for leadership that make leader behavior unnecessary and redundant and "neutralizers" that prevent the leader from behaving in a certain way or that counteract the behavior These are found in - subordinate - task - organization characteristics

Managerial Activities and Behavioral Descriptors Derived From Free Observation of Luthans's Real Managers Study

1) Planning Coordinating 2) Staffing 3) Training / Developing 4) Decision Making / Problem Solving 5) Paperwork 6) Exchanging Routine Info 7) Monitoring / Controlling Performance 8) Motivating / Reinforcing 9) Discipline / Punishing 10) Interacting with Outsiders 11) Managing Conflict 12) Socializing / Politicking

Mintzberg Manager Roles - Informational Roles

Informal Roles spend a great deal of time giving and receiving information, again greatly expanded by the e-environment. Monitor continually scanning the environment and probing subordinates, bosses, and outside contacts and the Internet for information; Disseminator Distributes information to key internal people Spokesperson Provides information to outsiders.

Mintzberg Manager Roles - Interpersonal

interpersonal roles arise directly from formal authority and refer to the relationship between the manager and others. Figurehead role as a symbol of the organization. - ceremonial duties Leader role - Uses influence to motivate and encourage subordinates to accomplish organizational objectives. Liaison role managers often spend more time interacting with others outside their unit (with peers in other units or those completely outside the organization) than they do working with their own leaders and subordinates. - The e-world, electronic transmissions and interaction with others, has greatly accelerated this role.

States and Skills Development

newly emerging states and more-established skills for leadership development Still in the tradition of concentrating on the great person approach, but moving away from a strict traits approach positive organizational behavior (POB) constructs have potential for understanding and developing leadership. research evidence indicate that optimism, hope, resiliency, emotional intelligence, and especially self-efficacy are related to effective leaders. skill development Yukl includes leadership skills such as creativity, organization, persuasiveness, diplomacy and tactfulness, knowledge of the task, and the ability to speak well. Closely related to the skills approach is the study of leader "competencies." Drive Leadership motivation, which is the use of socialized power to influence others to succeed Integrity Self-confidence that leads others to feel confidence Intelligence Knowledge of the business Emotional intelligence

The Real Managers Study - What Do Effective Managers Do?

used criteria : (1) getting the job done through high quantity and quality standards of performance (2) getting the job done through people, requiring their satisfaction and commitment. communication and human resource management activities made by far the largest relative contribution to the managers' effectiveness traditional management activities, and especially the networking activities, made by far the least relative contribution. the successful managers in this study did not perform the same activities as the effective managers in fact, they did almost the opposite).

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model (traditional)

vertical dyad linkage (VDL) now commonly called leader-member exchange (LMX). LMX theory says that leaders treat individual followers differently. In particular, leaders and their associates develop dyadic (two-person) relationships that affect the behavior of both. For example, associates who are committed and who expend a lot of effort for the unit are rewarded with more of the leader's positional resources (for example, information, confidence, and concern) than those who do not display these behaviors. Over time, the leader will develop an "in-group" of associates and an "out-group" of associates and treat them accordingly. members of the in-group (those who report a high-quality relationship with their leader) assume greater job responsibility, contribute more to their units, and are rated as higher performers than those reporting a low-quality relationship. LMX seems to be more descriptive of the typical process of role making by leaders, rather than prescribing the pattern of downward exchange relations optimal for leadership effectiveness Graen and Uhl-Bien have emphasized that LMX has evolved through various stages: (1) the discovery of differentiated dyads; (2) the investigation of characteristics of LMX relationships and their organizational implications/outcomes; (3) the description of dyadic partnership building; and (4) the aggregation of differentiated dyadic relations to group and network levels.

Situational approach

was initially called Zeitgeist (a German word meaning "spirit of the time"); the leader is viewed as a product of the times and the situation. The person with the particular qualities or traits that a situation requires will emerge as the leader. Much support and basis for: situational—and then termed contingency and now contextual—theories of leadership

Followers' Impact on Leaders (traditional)

when associates were not performing very well, the leaders tended to emphasize the task or initiating structure, but when associates were doing a good job, leaders increased emphasis on their people or consideration. In a laboratory study it was found that group productivity had a greater impact on leadership style than leadership style had on group productivity and in another study it was found that in newly formed groups, leaders may adjust their supportive behavior in response to the level of group cohesion and arousal already present. seem to indicate that followers affect leaders and their behaviors as much as leaders and their behaviors affect followers. it is probably not wise to ignore followership.

The Real Managers Study - What Do Managers Do?

1. Communication. (29%) - exchanging routine information and processing paperwork. - answering procedural questions, receiving and disseminating requested information, conveying the results of meetings, giving or receiving routine information over the phone and e-mail, processing mail, reading reports, writing reports/memos/letters, routine financial reporting and bookkeeping, and general desk work. 2. Traditional management. (32%) - planning, decision making, and controlling. - setting goals and objectives, defining tasks needed to accomplish goals, scheduling employees, assigning tasks, providing routine instructions, defining problems, handling day-to-day operational crises, deciding what to do, developing new procedures, inspecting work, walking around inspecting the work, monitoring performance data, and doing preventive maintenance. 3. Human resource management. (20%) - most behavioral categories: motivating/reinforcing, disciplining/punishing, managing conflict, staffing, and training/developing. (disciplining/punishing category was subsequently dropped from the analysis) - arranging for training, clarifying roles, coaching, mentoring, and walking work group members through a task. 4. Networking. (19%) - socializing/politicking - interacting with outsiders. behaviors: non-work-related chitchat; informal joking around; discussing rumors, hearsay, and the grapevine; complaining, griping, and putting others down; politicking and gamesmanship; dealing with customers, suppliers, and vendors; attending external meetings; and doing/ attending community service events.

LEADERSHIP SKILLS

1. Cultural flexibility 2. Communication skills 3. HRD skills 4. Creativity 5. Self-management of learning. _____________________________________________________ More Empirical List Whetten and Cameron 1. Verbal communication (including listening) 2. Managing time and stress 3. Managing individual decisions 4. Recognizing, defining, and solving problems 5. Motivating and influencing others 6. Delegating 7. Setting goals and articulating a vision 8. Self-awareness 9. Team building 10. Managing conflict _________________________________________ results of the various research studies were combined into the following four categories of effective leadership skills 1. Participative and human relations (for example, supportive communication and team building) 2. Competitiveness and control (for example, assertiveness, power, and influence) 3. Innovativeness and entrepreneurship (for example, creative problem solving) 4. Maintaining order and rationality (for example, managing time and rational decision making) _____________________________________ Whetten and Cameron 1. The skills are behavioral. They are not traits or, importantly, styles. They consist of an identifiable set of actions that leaders perform and that result in certain outcomes. 2. The skills, in several cases, seem contradictory or paradoxical. For example, they are neither all soft- nor all hard-driving, oriented neither toward teamwork and interpersonal relations exclusively nor toward individualism and entrepreneurship exclusively. 3. The skills are interrelated and overlapping. Effective leaders do not perform one skill or one set of skills independent of others. In other words, effective leaders are multiskilled.

Impact of -- Fiedler's Contingency Model of Leadership (contingency approach) (traditional)

1. It was the first highly visible leadership theory to present the contingency approach, thus giving widespread attention to the important role that the situation or context plays in leadership. 2. It also emphasized the importance of the interaction between the situation and the leader's characteristics in determining leader effectiveness. 3. It stimulated a great deal of research, including tests of its predictions and attempts to improve on

Hersey and Blanchard's lifecycle / situational

1. Task style. The leader organizes and defines roles for members of the work group; the leader explains the tasks that group members are to do and when, where, and how they are to do them. 2. Relationship style. The leader has close, personal relationships with the members of the group and there is open communication and psychological and emotional support. Maturity of the followers 1. Degree of achievement motivation 2. Willingness to take on responsibility 3. Amount of education and/or experience The key for leadership effectiveness in this model is to match up the situation with the appropriate style. 1. Telling style. This is a high-task, low-relationship style and is effective when followers are at a very low level of maturity. 2. Selling style. This is a high-task, high-relationship style and is effective when followers are on the low side of maturity. 3. Participating style. This is a low-task, high-relationship style and is effective when followers are on the high side of maturity. 4. Delegating style. This is a low-task, low-relationship style and is effective when followers are at a very high level of maturity. Not a lot of research. Can not predict leadership. Some value of training.

Characteristics of Transformational Leaders

1. They identify themselves as change agents. 2. They are courageous. 3. They believe in people. 4. They are value driven. 5. They are lifelong learners. 6. They have the ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity, and uncertainty. 7. They are visionaries.1

House and Podsakoff have summarized the behaviors and approaches of great leaders that they drew from modern theories

1. Vision. Great leaders articulate an ideological vision that is congruent with the deeply held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have a moral right. 2. Passion and self-sacrifice. Great leaders display a passion for, and have a strong conviction of, the moral correctness of their vision. They engage in outstanding or extraordinary behavior and make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and the mission. 3. Confidence, determination, and persistence. Great leaders display a high degree of faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision they articulate. Theoretically, such leaders need to have a very high degree of self-confidence and moral conviction because their mission usually challenges the status quo and, therefore, is likely to offend those who have a stake in preserving the established order. 4. Image building. Great leaders are self-conscious about their own image. They recognize that they must be perceived by followers as competent, credible, and trustworthy. 5. Role modeling. Leader image building sets the stage for effective role modeling because followers identify with the values of role models who are perceived positively 6. External representation. Great leaders act as the spokesperson for their organization and symbolically represent the organization to external constituencies. 7. Expectations of and confidence in followers. Great leaders communicate high performance expectations to their followers and strong confidence in their followers' ability to meet such expectations. 8. Selective motive arousal. Great leaders selectively arouse those motives of followers that are of special relevance to the successful accomplishment of the vision and mission. 9. Frame alignment. To persuade followers to accept and implement change, great leaders engage in frame alignment. This refers to the linkage of individual and leader interpretive orientations such that some set of followers' interests, values, and beliefs, as well as the leader's activities, goals, and ideology, becomes congruent and complementary. 10. Inspirational communication. Great leaders often, but not always, communicate their messages in an inspirational manner using vivid stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies. cumulatively they probably represent the best evidence-based list concerning the most effective style of today's leaders/managers

Avolio and Luthans -- specific guidelines for leaders to be authentic and effective:

1. You must make sure that every follower fully understands the main message that guides the future direction you have chosen to pursue. 2. You must be consistent with your principles, beliefs, and values. 3. You need to provide appropriate reinforcing recognition for the contributions made by each follower. 4. Build ownership in the mission you are pursuing. 5. Build PsyCap (confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency) in yourself and others. 6. Explore the future with others and help each other bring it to the present.

research on a positive, authentic leadership style:

1. authentic leadership style was found to be related to effective performance. 2. there is evidence that an effective authentic style would be very transparent, and positive (i.e., exhibit high levels of psychological capital or PsyCap that involves confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency). 3. the more complex the problem they were trying to solve, the lower their PsyCap (and vice versa). leaders' style exhibiting a high level of PsyCap related both to their followers' level of PsyCap and their followers' performance on both the quality and quantity of solutions to real problems. 4. results indicated a significant relationship between these groups' collective PsyCap and group trust with their performance and organizational citizenship behavior

Leadership from heritablity

30 percent of both male and female leader emergence can be attributed to heritability. Thus the vast majority of one's leadership is open to experience, learning, and development.

Authentic Leadership Development Model

A Process & a Product

Definitions of Leadership

About the only commonality is the role that influence plays in leadership

Early Michigan Leadership Studies

At about the same time that the Ohio State studies were being conducted, researchers from the Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan began their studies of leadership. In the original study at the Prudential Insurance Company, 12 high-low productivity pairs of groups were selected for examination. supervisors of high-producing sections were significantly more likely to be general rather than close in their supervisory styles and be employee-centered (have a genuine concern for their people). The low-producing-section supervisors were found to be close, production-centered supervisors. employee satisfaction was not directly related to productivity, the type of supervision was the key to their performance. Rensis Likert, presented the results of the years of similar research in his books and became best known for his "System 4"

Ohio State Leadership Studies

At the end of World War II the Bureau of Business Research at Ohio State University interdisciplinary used the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) analyze leadership in numerous types of groups and situations started with the premise that no satisfactory definition of leadership existed. They also recognized that previous work had too often assumed that leadership was synonymous with good leadership. The same two dimensions of leadership continually emerged from the questionnaire data. They were consideration and initiating structure. Ohio State factors are task or goal orientation (initiating structure) and recognition of individual needs and relationships (consideration). The two dimensions are separate and distinct from each other. he first to point out and emphasize the importance of both task and human dimensions in assessing leadership. This two-dimensional approach lessened the gap between the strict task orientation of the scientific management movement and the human relations emphasis, which had been popular up to that time. Interestingly, when Colin Powell, usually considered one of the most-effective and most-admired leaders of recent years, speaks of his own leadership process, he uses this two-dimensional approach.

ALD - Authentic Leadership Development

Avolio and Luthans' ALD The process that draws upon a leader's life course, psychological capital, moral perspective, and a "highly developed" supporting organizational climate to produce greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors, which in turn fosters continuous, positive self-development resulting in veritable, sustained performance one's life course of events plays a big role in authentic leadership development (ALD), but also that life's both planned or unplanned "moments that matter" can be accelerated. heredity, life events, and specific leadership experiences all affect one's ALD. A key to ALD is bringing the future to the present. Another recently emerging method of leader development is coaching. When the relationship between a coach and a client is built on mutual trust, respect, and freedom of expression, the potential for heightened learning increases. Tactics that support effective coaching include - accessibility, - attention, - validation, - empathy, - support, - compassion, - consistency. important practices include a - strategic focus for coaching efforts, - integrating coaching into existing HR systems, - building reliable "pools" of coaches, - systematically evaluating the results.

"cesspool syndrome"

Bedeian and Armenakis organizations in decline lose their best employees first, leaving behind the "dreck," which then floats to the top. Consequently, although being successful as opposed to effective may seem less desirable to the organization, from an individual manager's perspective, it may be part of an effective career strategy.

MODERN THEORETICAL PROCESSES OF LEADERSHIP

Charismatic Leadership Theories Transformational Leadership Theory Substitutes for Leadership Authentic Leadership a comprehensive review of the traditional theories concluded that many of the tests conducted to identify moderating effects were judged to be inappropriate and that most of the results reported in this domain have not been replicated

Mintzberg Manager Roles - Decisional Roles

Decisional Acts upon the information. Entrepreneurial Initiates the development of a project and assembles the necessary resources. Disturbance Handler Is reactive to the problems and pressures of the situation. - manager has a crisis management type of role; for example Resource Allocator Decides who gets what in his or her department. Negotiator spends time at all levels in the give-and-take of negotiating with subordinates, bosses, and outsiders.

Ethical and Unethical Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

Ethical Charismatic vs. Leader Unethical Charismatic Leader • Uses power to serve others • Uses power only for personal gain or impact • Aligns vision with followers' needs and aspirations • Promotes own personal vision • Considers and learns from criticism • Censures critical or opposing views • Stimulates followers to think independently and to question the leader's view • Demands own decisions be accepted without question • Open, two-way communication • One-way communication • Coaches, develops, and supports followers; shares recognition with others • Insensitive to followers' needs • Relies on internal moral standards to satisfy organizational and societal interests • Relies on convenient, external moral standards to satisfy self-interests

Classic Styles

Hersey and Blanchard's lifecycle / situational

Transformational Leadership Theory

James MacGregor Burns two types of political leadership: transactional and transformational The more traditional transactional leadership involves an exchange relationship between leaders and followers transformational leadership is based more on leaders' shifting the values, beliefs, and needs of their followers. the "charisma" characteristic of transformational leadership has been changed to "idealized influence." Transformational vs. Charismatic the major differentiators are how followers are treated transformational leaders seek to empower and elevate followers charismatic leaders may try to keep followers weak and dependent on them transformational leaders characterized by - idealized leadership - inspiring leadership - intellectual stimulation - individualized consideration Aimed at -- 1. Changing situations for the better 2. Developing followers into leaders 3. Overhauling organizations to provide them with new strategic directions 4. Inspiring people by providing an energizing vision and high ideal for moral and ethical conduct Research uses Bass and Avolio's MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire)

Leadership Across Cultures

Key Factors personal values, the manager's background, and interpersonal skills Personal Values Same Company Italian, Mexican, Spanish, United States, and British revealed that the overall leadership approaches of the host-country nationals reflected the expectations of the local culture and workforce Manager's Background Whereas degrees from prestigious schools may offer a distinct advantage, U.S. managers come from a wide variety of colleges. in France managers are traditionally chosen from the graduates of the grandes ecoles. In Japan, graduates of prestigious schools have much better chances to become top managers in the larger corporations, and in Korea many top business leaders are educated in the United States. class and family status also can have an influence. U.S. managers come from all classes, but the same is not true in other countries. Family name and class are important in France. In India, it is common to accept the authority of elders, and this is revealed through little delegation of authority in many companies. In Scandinavian countries, however, differing family patterns are reflected in participatory decision-making styles and the routine delegation of authority by leaders Interpersonal Skills Leaders vary in their views of rules and procedures, deference to authority, levels of dependence and independence, use of objectivity versus intuition, willingness to compromise, and other interpersonal tactics. Even transformational and transactional tactics used by leaders may vary in their levels of success in differing cultures

Manager vs. Leader

Manager | Leader Administers • Innovates A copy • An original Maintains • Develops Focuses on systems and structure • Focuses on people Relies on control • Inspires trust Short-range view • Long-range perspective Asks how and when • Asks what and why Eye on the bottom line • Eye on the horizon Imitates • Originates Accepts the status quo • Challenges the status quo Classic good soldier • Own person Does things right • Does the right thing

Early Studies

Michigan - High Performing = General Leader not Close - Low performing = Close not General Leader - Performance NOT linked to Satisfaction Ohio - Two dimensions of leadership continually emerged from the questionnaire data -- Task or goal orientation (initiating structure) -- Recognition of individual needs and relationships (consideration). Iowa - Styles of leadership can produce different, complex reactions from the same or similar groups - used authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire styles

Beyond Mintzberg

Mintzberg "We remain grossly ignorant about the fundamental content of the manager's job and have barely addressed the major issues and dilemmas in its practice." informational responsibilities have moved to a position of primacy. ____________________ To go beyond Mintzberg's work, studies have used leadership roles such as vision setter, motivator, analyzer, and task master leaders with high behavioral - complexity—the ability to play multiple, competing roles—produce the best performance, senior-level executives as - mobilizer, ambassador, driver, auditor, and servant. higher-level executives are rated more favorably than are their subordinates in all five roles and that there were no differences in the ratings of executives in public versus private organizations

The Real Managers Study - Relative Distribution of Managers' Activities

Networking (19%) Human Resources (20%) Routine Communication (29%) Traditional Management (32%)

Contemporary Leadership Development Approaches

One is centered on competencies. three ways that competencies have been derived: (1) research based Research-based competencies are derived from behavioral data gathered from successful leaders. (2) strategy based Strategy-based competency models derive information from key informants regarding strategic company issues and directions. (3) values based. The values-based model focuses on the company's cultural values, as interpreted by company leaders.

Path Goal Versus Contingency (traditional)

Path Goal suggests that these various styles can be and actually are used by the same leader in different situations

Project GLOBE

Robert House Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Develop an empirically based theory to describe, understand, and predict the impact of cultural variables on leadership, organizational processes, and the effectiveness of the leader and the processes. Develop societal and organizational measures of culture and leader attributes that were appropriate to use across all cultures. Nine dimensions of cultures that differentiate societies and organizations. 1. Power distance, or the degree to which members of a collective expect power to be distributed equally 2. Uncertainty avoidance, which is the extent a society, organization, or groups rely on norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events 3. Humane orientation, reflected in the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others 4. Institutional Collectivism, described as the degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward the collective distribution of resources and collective actions 5. In-Group Collectivism, which is the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families 6. Assertiveness, defined as the degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationships with others 7. Gender egalitarianism, expressed as the degree a collective minimizes gender inequality 8. Future orientation, or the extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning, and investing in the future 9. Performance orientation, suggested by the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence

Jim Collins - Good to Great

The essence of Level 5 leadership is having an ambition for the cause of the work—the outcome, the company, the organization—above the self. And, at the same time, having the ferocious, frightening, terrifying willfulness to act on that ambition. Collins does have some empirically based investigations to support such leader styles as being effective. For example, Collins identified Level 5 leadership as a distinguishing factor in empirically derived great companies (outperforming the Standard & Poor's 500 by at least three to one for 15 years). However, he does not claim to have basic research supporting a causal relationship.

Path-Goal Leadership Theory (contingency approach) (traditional)

The other widely recognized theoretical development from a contingency approach Martin Evans and Robert House attempts to explain the impact that leader behavior has on associate motivation, satisfaction, and performance Four Leadership Types 1. Directive leadership. This style is similar to that of the Lippitt and White authoritarian leader. Associates know exactly what is expected of them, and the leader gives specific directions. There is no participation by subordinates. 2. Supportive leadership. The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine concern for associates. 3. Participative leadership. The leader asks for and uses suggestions from associates but still makes the decisions. 4. Achievement-oriented leadership. The leader sets challenging goals for associates and shows confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well. 2 situational factors personal characteristics of associates and the environmental pressures and demands facing associates the leader attempts to make the path to associates' goals as smooth as possible BY -- 1. Recognizing and/or arousing associates' needs for outcomes over which the leader has some control 2. Increasing personal payoffs to associates for work-goal attainment 3. Making the path to those payoffs easier to travel by coaching and direction 4. Helping associates clarify expectancies 5. Reducing frustrating barriers 6. Increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction contingent on effective performance

Traditional Leadership Theories

Trait Group and Exchange Contingency Path-Goal

Theory Progressions

Trait Group - Exchange - LMX Situational / Contingency / Contextual Path - Goal

Leadership Tools

Traits - States - Skills - Competencies

Characteristics and Approaches of Transactional Versus Transformational Leaders

Transactional Leaders 1. Contingent reward: Contracts the exchange of rewards for effort; promises rewards for good performance; recognizes accomplishments. 2. Management by exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards; takes corrective action. 3. Management by exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met. 4. Laissez-faire: Abdicates responsibilities; avoids making decisions. Transformational Leaders 1. Charisma: Provides vision and sense of mission; instills pride; gains respect and trust. 2. Inspiration: Communicates high expectations; uses symbols to focus efforts; expresses important purposes in simple ways. 3. Intellectual stimulation: Promotes intelligence; rationality; and careful problem solving. 4. Individual consideration: Gives personal attention; treats each employee individually; coaches; advises

Modern Dimensions of Leadership

both multidimensional, as first pointed out by the Ohio State studies, and multilevel (person, dyad, group, and collective/community)

trait theory of leadership

concerned mainly with identifying the personality traits of the leader Only intelligence seemed to hold up with any degree of consistency In recent years, however, with the emergence of the importance of the "Big Five" personality traits in organizational behavior (see Chapter 5), the trait approach to leadership effectiveness has resurfaced. recently strong empirical support for the leader trait perspective when traits are organized according to the five-factor model. Specifically, the personality trait of extraversion had the highest (.31) average correlation with leader emergence and leadership effectiveness, followed by conscientiousness (.28), openness to experience (.24), neuroticism (.24), and nonsignificant agreeableness (.08).24 These results and newly developed traitlike theoretical frameworks such as the motivation to lead (MTL), which has been demonstrated to predict leadership potential, indicate that a dispositional, traitlike approach to leadership is still alive and may have potential for the future

The Real Managers Study - What Do Successful Managers Do?

defined in terms of the speed of promotion only networking had a statistically significant relationship with success. human resource management activities made the least relative contribution. managers spend relatively more time and effort socializing, politicking, and interacting with outsiders than did their less-successful counterparts the successful managers did not give relatively as much time or attention to the traditional management activities of planning, decision making, and controlling or to the human resource management activities of motivating/reinforcing, staffing, training/developing, and managing conflict

Kerr and Jermier's Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership

found that substitutes such as feedback from the task being performed had more impact on certain job-related activities than leader behaviors did leaders do not have mystical powers over people. The situation or context plays a role. recent research testing the substitutes for leadership theory was generally not supportive and demonstrated that leadership does matter. substitutes idea does not negate leadership

The Real Managers Study - Implications Across Cultures and for Entrepreneurs and Knowledge

generalizability of the findings and conclusions to all managers. - replication of this study that observed Russian managers in a large textile factory found very similar results. - U.S. entrepreneurs (those who started and sustained their own business for at least seven years) using the same methodology found basically the same results as the Real Managers Study today's knowledge managers (explicit and tacit knowledge managers) - spend about the same amount of time on the traditional and networking activities as those in the Real Managers study "dark side" to leadership, which seems to be in evidence in many post-Communist countries. - includes power bases derived from the Communist era, which demanded loyalty at any cost. - a halo effect derived from leaders and a sense of nationalism ("Mother Russia" combined with the continued popularity of the Stalin legacy). - opposition is quickly removed. Follower characteristics > view change with suspicion and worry that unsuccessful attempts at free enterprise are indicative of weak and ineffective leadership. These needed changes in leadership called for "minishock therapy" for the entire Russian culture and economy.

Authentic Leadership

genuine, transparent, reliable, trustworthy, real, and veritable Positive psychologists refer to authenticity as both owning one's personal experiences (thoughts, emotions, or beliefs, "the real me inside") and acting in accord with the true self (behaving and expressing what you really think and believe) A process that draws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development. The authentic leader is confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, transparent, moral/ethical, future-oriented, and gives priority to developing associates to be leaders authentic leadership is more on a continuum, rather than just being dichotomous considered to be statelike and thus open to development and change Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, and more recently Nelson Mandela would be considered authentic leaders by our definition A process & a product

great person theory of leadership

implied that some individuals are born with certain traits that allow them to emerge out of any situation or period of history to become leaders Recent genetics may account for around a third of the variance in leadership style and emergence in leadership roles, but the majority still comes from development

"Pied Piper effect,"

job hopping by an effective leader can lead to defections and attrition among the subordinates who were under the departed leader.

Zand - leadership triad

knowledge trust power

Iowa Leadership Studies

late 1930s Ronald Lippitt and Ralph K. White under the general direction of Kurt Lewin they showed that different styles of leadership can produce different, complex reactions from the same or similar groups used authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire styles

Research on Path-Goal (traditional)

leader directiveness was (a) positively related to satisfactions and expectancies of associates engaged in ambiguous tasks and ( b) negatively related to satisfactions and expectancies of associates engaged in clear tasks. supportive leadership had its most positive effect on satisfaction for associates who work on stressful, frustrating, or dissatisfying tasks. nonrepetitive, ego-involving tasks, MANUFACTURING employees were more satisfied under participative leaders than under nonparticipative leaders. for employees performing ambiguous, nonrepetitive tasks, the higher the achievement orientation of the leader, the more associates were confident that their efforts would pay off in effective performance

Impact of Style

leader's style can make a difference. For example, studies have found that the leader's style is the key to the formulation and implementation of strategy and even plays an important role in work team members' creativity, team citizenship, emotion, and performance. Even humor and fun may play a role in leader effectiveness. there is little doubt that the way (style) leaders influence work group members can make a difference in their own and their people's performance.

Briscoe and Hall - metacompetancies

leaders would be trained utilizing a learning-based model. Continuous learning emphasizes flexibility and identity, so strong that the individual leader is able to "learn how to learn" and therefore adapt to continually changing circumstances as found in today's environment.

group approach

leadership is viewed more in terms of the leader's behavior and how such behavior affects and is affected by the group of followers

Implications of the Real Managers Study

more attention may need to be given to formal reward systems so that effective managers are promoted Organizations need to tie formal rewards (especially promotions) to performance in order to move ahead and meet the challenges that lie ahead. effective managers -- relative importance that they gave to the human-oriented activities of communication and human resource management

Other Indirect Techniques for Developing Leadership Effectiveness

personal growth training that may involve a combination of psychological exercises and outdoor adventures. - empowering participants to take greater responsibility for their own lives and ultimately their organizations. - there are arguments that personal training contributes to effective leadership. - bringing "peace, fulfillment, and awakening to all aspects of your life" are important components of transformational leadership, - too much attention may be paid to external aspects of leadership at the expense of internal matters. The Japanese, of course, have traditionally placed a high priority on training of all kinds. Recently, however, world-class United States corporations have also become committed to the importance of training. job redesign attempts to manage the job rather than the extremely complex person who holds the job. - Leaders need to give special attention to the autonomy and feedback characteristics of their people's jobs. - Autonomy - giving them more control over their own job. - Feedback can be built into some jobs, but leaders also must provide specific, immediate performance feedback to their people. -- (O.B. Mod.) techniques based on the principles of operant conditioning and social cognitive theory were shown in Chapter 12 to have excellent results on human performance in organizations. Examples include: - Leadership Lessons from Star Trek, The Next Generation, - Goldilocks on Management and - Beep! Beep! Competing in the Age of the Road Runner. E-Tools - we were able to develop a broad cross-section of managers'/leaders' positive psychological capital, which is an important dimension of authentic leadership, in a short online training intervention. Leadership is clearly important in a wide variety of settings beyond business and online - Multiplayer role-playing games. Researchers of the online games identified distinctive characteristics of leadership that, "as workplaces and overall business climate become more dynamic and gamelike, will be essential for tomorrow's leaders: speed, risk taking, and acceptance of leadership roles as temporary." Similarities between the capabilities of effective business leaders and political leaders, including the tendency to be a visionary with strong communications skills,

Whetten & Cameron

personal skills - developing self-awareness - managing stress - solving problems creatively overlap with one another and so do the interpersonal skills - communicating supportively - gaining power and influence - motivating others - managing conflict

Fiedler's contingency model of leadership effectiveness (traditional)

relationship between leadership style and the favorableness of the situation. Situational favorableness The leader-member relationship, which is the most critical variable in determining the situation's favorableness The degree of task structure, Which is the second most important input into the favorableness of the situation The leader's position power obtained through formal authority, - which is the third most critical dimension of the situation Fiedler concluded through his research that the favorableness of the situation in combination with the leadership style determines effectiveness. under very favorable and very unfavorable situations, the task-directed, or hard-nosed and authoritarian, type of leader was most effective. when the situation was only moderately favorable or unfavorable (the intermediate range of favorableness), the human-oriented or democratic type of leader was most effective. In highly unfavorable situations, the effective leader takes charge and makes the decisions that need to be made to accomplish the task without asking for input or trying to keep everyone happy. implication is that in general the human-oriented, democratic style of leadership would be most effective in managing human resources in the large majority of organizational situations.

Group and Exchange Theories of Leadership (traditional)

roots in social psychology, classic exchange theory, in particular -- This means simply that the leader provides more benefits/rewards than burdens/costs for followers. investments and returns occur on a one-to-one basis in each superior-subordinate dyad

GLOBE Leader Characteristics

six leader attributes and behaviors that are viewed as contributing to leadership in various cultures these six leadership dimensions differed in terms of their desirability and effectiveness in various cultures cultural dimensions do exist that can be identified and measured can be studied through etic (across cultures) or emic (within cultures, or country-specific information) approaches. 1. Charismatic/Value-Base the ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance outcomes from others on the basis of core beliefs. 2. Team-Oriented effective team building and implementation of a common purpose/ goal among team members. 3. Participative the degree to which managers/leaders involve others in making and implementing decisions. 4. Humane-Oriented supportive, considerate, compassionate, and generous leadership. 5. Autonomous independent and individualistic leadership. 6. Self-Protective ensuring the safety and security of the individual, it tends to be an approach that is self-centered and face saving.

The Real Managers Study

their day-today activities - DO (1) What do managers do? (2) What do successful managers do? (3) What do effective managers do?

Charismatic Leadership Theories (modern)

throwback to the old conception of leaders as being those who "by the force of their personal abilities are capable of having profound and extraordinary effects on followers." Robert House based on looking at political and religious leaders charismatic leaders are characterized by - self-confidence - confidence in their associates - high expectations for associates - ideological vision - the use of personal example Followers of charismatic leaders - identify with the leader - the mission of the leader - exhibit extreme loyalty to and confidence in the leader - emulate the leader's values and behavior - derive self-esteem from their relationship with the leader. Bass has extended the profile of charismatic leaders to include - superior debating and persuasive skills - technical expertise - fostering of attitudinal, behavioral, and emotional changes in their followers. Conger and Kanungo treat charisma as an attributional phenomenon and propose that it varies with the situation. Leader traits that foster charismatic attributions - self-confidence - impression-management skills - social sensitivity - empathy Situations that promote charismatic leadership - crisis requiring dramatic change - followers who are very dissatisfied with the status quo studies of charismatic leadership must be considered in the context in which the leader operates, and the nature of the task or work being performed should be included in the analysis. Charismatic leaders tend to be portrayed - wonderful heroes - can also be unethical characteristics associated with charismatic leaders. Bass, who suggests that charismatic leadership is really just a component of the broader-based transformational leadership

Authentic Leader

to know oneself to be consistent with oneself to have positive and strength-based orientations toward one's development and the development of others transparent with their values and beliefs honest with themselves and with others exhibit a higher level of moral reasoning capacity allowing them to judge between gray and shades of gray

LEADERSHIP IN THE NEW ENVIRONMENT

turbulent times characterized by high stress and financial concerns that there are 10 qualities that help make great leaders and shape managerial successes. (1) honesty, (2) ability to delegate, (3) communication, (4) sense of humor, (5) confidence, (6) commitment, (7) positive attitude, (8) creativity, (9) intuition, and (10) ability to inspire. Another observation is that organizational leaders now must have at least three "faces": (1) manager (disciplined, rational, organizing, controlling, intellect, strategic, decision maker); (2) artist (curious, independent, creative, emotional, innovator); and (3) priest (ethical, pure, empathetic, inspiring, comforting, transcendent). Gallup asked about 10,000 followers of all ages in all types of jobs what they wanted from their organizational leaders. They clearly answered trust, compassion, stability, and hope.