MCAT Master Set

osmotic pressure vs oncotic pressure

"Osmotic Pressure = ""Sucking"" pressure that draws water into blood Oncotic Pressure = Osmotic Pressure specifically caused by Proteins

Chargraff's Rule

# of adenines = # thymines; # of guanines = # of cytosines More generally, the number of pyramidines and purines are equal

products of anterior pituitary

(*FLAT PEG*) -*F*ollicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). -*L*uteinizing hormone (LH). -*A*drenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). -*T*hyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). -*P*rolactin. -*E*ndorphins. -*G*rowth hormone (GH). Additionally, the four hormones in FLAT are all tropic hormones, while the three hormones in PEG are all direct hormones.

process function

* describe the path taken to get from one state to another * heat and work

Simple distillation

- Liquids that boil below 150 C and have atleast 25C difference in boiling temperature. - Consists of a distilling flask (containing combined solution), distillation column ( thermometer, condenser, and receiving flask to collect the distillate.

Recrystallization

- Method for further purifying crystals in solution. - Solvent chosen should be one in which the product is soluble only at high temperatures; when the solution cools, only the desired product will recrystallize, leaving out impurities

Fat soluble vitamin absorption

- absorbed in SI - transported into intestinal cells as micelles - packaged into chylomicrons with lipds - chylomicrons travel through lymph to circulate

size exclusion chromatography

-beads contain tiny pores -small molecules enter the pores & get stuck so they elude later -large molecules don't fit in the pores so they move around taking a shorter path & elude faster

rate of SN2 reaction depends on

-concentrations of substrate & nucleophile have role in determining the rate --> rate = k[Nu][R-L]

alditol

-forms when the aldehyde group of an aldose is reduced to an alcohol

log(1/A)

-logA

amide naming

-oic acid of the carboxyic acid is replaced with -amide, substituents attached to the Nitrogen are put as prefixes with N- in front

four regions of the spinal cord

1. Cervical 2. Thoracic 3. Lumbar 4. Sacral

sin30°

1/2

Body pH

7.35-7.45

Body pH

7.4

aldol

A molecule with an alcohol and and aldehyde group

head to head or tail to tail overlap of orbitals form what kind of bond?

A sigma bond

How do the O-H in carboxylic acids show up on IR spectroscopy?

A wide peak around 3000 cm^-1

How do the O-H in alcohols show up on IR spectroscopy?

A wide peak around 3300 cm^-1

Fat soluble vitamins

A, D, E, K

What's more reactive -- aldehydes or ketones?

Aldehydes -- less steric hinderance

Which stages of protein synthesis require energy? (initiation, elongation, termination)

All do

diamagnetic

All electrons are paired; slightly repelled by a magnetic field.

internal intercostal muscles

Along with the abdominal muscles, lowers the rib cage during forced expiration, such as during exercise

Subunits of G protein

Alpha, beta, gamma Inactive form: alpha binds GDP and is in complex with B and G Ligand binding --> GDP replaced with GTP --> alpha dissociates --> activates or inhibits adenylate cyclase GTP dephosphorylated to GDP --> alpha rejoins G protein complex

Rh Factor symbol

D

Formula for Celsius to Fahrenheit

F=(9/5)C+32

Pressure definition

Force per unit area.

Glutamate 1 and 3 letter codes

Glu, E

Cyanohydrin Formation

HCN, KCN or KCN, HCl are used to make a CN- nucleophile which will attack a carbonyl carbon, generating a tetrahedral center with an OH, a CN, and two R groups

A, B, O alleles

I^A, I^B, i

What effects do insulin and glucagon have on beta oxidation?

Insulin inhibits it, glucagon stimulates it

In nuclear fission, what are the reactant atoms?

Large, lanthanides and actinides

Vitamin K

Lipid-soluble vitamin Group of compounds including phylloquinone (K1) and the menaquinones (K2). Vital to formation of prothrombin, a clotting factor Also vital for post translational introduction of calcium binding sites

Vitamin A

Lipid-soluble vitamin unsaturated hydrocarbon important in vision, growth, and immune function retinal is a metabolite of vitamin A

sacroplasmic reticulum

Modified endoplasmic reticulum that wraps around the myofibrils. Contains a high concentration of calcium ions

multiplet

Peaks that have more than four shifts in NMR spectroscopy.

what causes darker skin tones at the melanocyte level?

People with darker skin have more active melanocytes (everyone has roughly the same number)

Aminopeptidase

Peptidase secreted by glands in the duodenum that removes the N-terminal amino acid from a peptide.

parathyroid hormone

Peptide hormone released by the parathyroid glands in response to low blood calcium, promotes resorption of bone, increasing the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the blood.

gastrin

Peptide hormone that induces the parietal cells in the stomach to secrete more HCl and also signals the stomach to contract, mixing its contents. Secreted by G-cells

Thymosin

Peptide hormone which facilitates the maturation of T-cells in the thymus

At what source speed are shock wave the most strong?

Right at the speed of sound

Reversing the order in vector subtraction yields what effect? (A-B versus B-A)

Same magnitude, opposite direction

What effect do saturated and unsaturated fats have on the cell membrane?

Saturated fats decrease fluidity, unsaturated fats increase fluidity

corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

Secreted by the hypothalamus, promotes secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the anterior pituitary. This will cause the adrenal cortex to release cortisol

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

Secreted by the hypothalamus, promotes secretion of growth hormone (GH) by the anterior pituitary

Thyroid Releasing Hormone (TRH)

Secreted by the hypothalamus, promotes the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) by the anterior pituitary

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Secreted in response to the entry of chyme into the duodenum. The peptide hormone stimulates the release of both bile from pancreas and pancreatic juices. 1) Also promotes satiety signal in the brain.

Intensity (description)

The average rate of energy transfer per area across a surface perpendicular to the wave

Precision

The degree to which repeated measurements show the same result.

Gas Chromatography (GC)/ vapor-phase chromatography (VPC)

The eluent is a gas (usually helium or nitrogen) instead of a liquid - The adsorbent is a crushed metal or polymer inside a 30 foot column. - The gaseous compounds travel through the column at different rates because they adhere to the adsorbent in the column to different degrees and will separate in space by the time they reach the end of the column. - The injected compound must be volatile: low melting point, subsumable solids or vaporizable liquids.

photoelectric effect

The emission of electrons from a metal when light of certain frequencies shines on the surface of the metal

archenteron

The endoderm-lined cavity, formed during gastrulation, that develops into the digestive tract of an animal.

cristae of mitochondria

The folds of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion, contains the components of the ETC

What is the body's biggest source of triacylglycerols?

The liver

Mutarotation

The rapid interconversion between different anomers of a sugar via ring opening and closing

Radiation

The transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves

provirus/prophage

The virus that has become part of its host DNA

antioncogenes

Tumor supressor genes ex. p53 or Rb (retinoblastoma) Normally function to stop tumor progression

Tyrosine 1 and 3 letter codes

Tyr, Y

Bicinchoninic Acid (BCA) Assay

Used to access protein concentration in a sample

menaquinone

Vitamin K2

allele frequency

a measure of how common a certain allele is in the population

aldehyde + diol

acetal

thin filaments

actin, troponin, tropomyosin AT&T has THIN service

D-galactose

aldohexose where there are two left-facing hydroxyl groups in the Fischer projection (the 3 and 4 carbons)

what is the carbon adjacent to a carbonyl called? How about the successive carbons?

alpha, beta, gamma, delta

first condition of equilibrium

an object is in translational equilibrium when the sum of forces pushing it one direction is counterbalanced by the sum of forces acting in the opposite direction (net force = 0). The object could still have non-zero speed

alpha-racemization

any aldehyde or ketone with a chiral alpha carbon will rapidly become a racemic mixture as the keto and enol forms interconvert

Interferons

cells that have been infected with viruses produce these proteins that prevent viral replication and dispersal by causing nearby cells to decrease production of viral and cellular proteins, and decreasing cell permeability, making infection harder. They also increase MHC production, making it easier for the immune system to recognize infected cells

Chondrocytes

cells that secrete chondrin (cartilage)

first phase of birth

cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures

chiral vs achiral

chiral: A molecule that is not superimposable on its mirror image (eg. a hand) achiral: A molecule that is superimposable on its mirror image (eg. a form)

Effects of hypothyroidism

cold intolerance, fatigue, weight gain, depression

atelectasis

collapsed lung

gastric juice

combination of secretions from chief cells and parietal cells

interstitium

connective tissue surrounding the nephron

lactams

cyclic amides--replace -oic acid with -lactam

parathyroid glands

four small glands on the posterior of the thyroid gland. Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH)

important substrates for gluconeogenesis

glycerol 3-phosphate (from stored fats, or triacylglycerols in adipose tissue); lactate (from anaerobic glycolysis); glucogenic amino acid (from muscle proteins)

rate-limiting enzyme of glycogenolysis

glycogen phosphorylase

What kinds of carbons are preferred for sn1? Sn2?

in sn1, more substituted carbons are preferred (more stable intermediate), in sn2 less substituted carbons are preferred (less steric hinderance)

zymogen

inactive form of an enzyme

log(A/B)

logA - logB

Mesoderm

middle germ layer; develops into muscles, skeleton, and much of the circulatory, reproductive, and excretory systems, muscular/connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems and adrenal cortex

dermis

middle layer of skin. Sweat glands, blood vessels, most sensory receptors, hair follicles originate in the dermis

Codominance

more than one dominant allele exists for a gene ex. A and B blood types

sarcolemma

muscle cell membrane

Organic and inorganic components of bone

organic- collagen, glycoproteins, other peptides inorganic - calcium, phosphate, hydroxide (in hydroxyapatite crystals) , sodium, magnesium, potassium

pKa and Ka relationship

pKa = -logKa

eluent

solvent applied to the beginning of a chromatography column

F0 subunit of ATP synthase

spans the membrane, functions as an ion channel

Langerhans cells

special macrophages that serve as antigen-presenting cells in the skin

threshold frequency (photoelectric effect)

the minimum frequency of light required to produce the photoelectric effect. Depends on the type of metal exposed to radiation.

uniform circular motion

the movement of an object at a constant speed around a circle with a fixed radius. Instantaneous velocity vector is always tangent to the path, acceleration vector (and centripetal force) is always inwards.

expressivity

varying phenotypes despite identical genotypes

probe DNA

(DNA with known sequence) In PCR added to a mixture of target DNA sequences, when it binds to target DNA sequences, it may provide evidence of the presence of a gene of interest

Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution

(in carboxylic acids) Step 1: Nucleophilic Addition Step 2: Elimination of the leaving group and reformation of the carbonyl.

lipid rafts

(within the phospholipid bilayer) Collections of similar lipids with or without associated proteins that serve as attachment points for other biomolecules

nephron secretion

*Secretion* is the transfer of solutions from the blood vasculature *directly* into the nephron tubule filtrate. This occurs with things like ammonia, urea, and medication metabolites. After going up the ascending limb of the loop of Henle, the filtrate flows through the *distal convoluted tubule*. The distal convoluted tubule, as well as the proximal convoluted tubule are the areas of secretion.

SN1 reaction

*unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions: 2 steps 1. Leaving group leaves forming a positively charged carbocation (rate limiting step) 2. Nucleophile attacks the carbocation (unstable) *results in substitution product

GPCRs

-G Protein Coupled Receptors: membrane proteins involved in signal transduction -Have seven membrane-spanning alpha helices -binding of an intracellular G protein turns on an active site to affect an intracellular pathway 3 kinds: Gs, Gi, Gq

D-fructose

-a ketohexose with the formula C6H12O6

Tollen's reagent

-detects presence of reducing sugar -uses Ag(NH3)2+ as oxidizing agent *in a + test, aldehydes reduce Ag+ to metallic silver

geminal diols

-diols with hydroxyl groups on the same carbon -easily oxidized to carboxylic acids

membrane-associated (peripheral) proteins

-may be bound through electrostatic interactions with the lipid bilayer, especially at lipid rafts, or to other transmembrane or embedded proteins, like the G proteins found in G protein-coupled receptors -may act as recognition molecules or enzymes

Pleurae

-membranes that surround each lung -form a closed sac against which the lung expands

hecto-

10^2

What rRNAs compose eukaryotic ribosomes?

28S, 18S, 5.8S, 5S

Specific heat of water in J/g*K

4.18

ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by the stomach in anticipation for a meal. Also stimulates secretion of orexin

dendritic cells

Antigen-presenting cells. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the cell surface to the T cells of the immune system. They act as messengers between the innate and the adaptive immune systems.

How do you tell what harmonic a string is oscillating at?

Corresponds to the number of antinodes

gravitational force equation

F = (G*m1*m2)/r^2 G= 6.67 x 10^-11 N*m^2/kg^2

intensity equation and units

I=P/A Intensity = power/area units are Watts/m^2

Gi (GPCR)

Inhibits adenylate cyclase, decreasing cellular levels of cAMP

What effect do competitive inhibitors have on Vmax and Km?

No effect on Vmax, increases Km

Is glucagon a major fat-mobilizing hormone?

No, because it only acts on fat in the liver, not in adipose tissue

kcat

Rate at which [ES] gets converted to E + P

Bacilli

Rod shaped bacteria

resultant resistance of resistors in series

Sum of the resistance of the resisters Rs = R1+R2+R3+...

standard deviation calculation

Sum up the squares of the mean minus each value, divide by n-1, and take the square root

How do hydrolytic enzymes like trypsin and chymotrypsin break peptide bonds?

They break the amide bond by adding a hydrogen to the amide nitrogen and an OH to the carbonyl carbon

How do dielectrics affect isolated capacitors?

They decrease voltage by shielding the opposite charges, thus increasing capacitance

How do electric field lines point?

They describe how a positive test charge would act in the field, so they point away from positive charges and towards negative charges

potential energy due to gravity equation

U = mgh

What slows heart rate? What increases it?

Vagus nerve slows heart rate, epinephrine increases it

alpha amino acid

an amino acid in which the amino group is bonded to the alpha carbon (the carbon adjacent to the carbonyl group)

immunoglobulins

antibodies

Epiglottis

covers the entrance to the larynx (the glottis) during swallowing

coordinate covalent bond

forms when one atom (a Lewis base/nucleophile) donates a pair of electrons to be shared with another atom (a Lewis acid/electrophile)

Ribosome P site

holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain

bacterial envelope

the bacterial cell wall+cell membrane

load

the output force of a simple machine

Wavelength of a standing wave (strings and open pipes)

λ = 2L/n Where n is any positive integer

decay constant

λ=ln2/T = 0.693/T, where T is half life

Resistance equation

ρ*L/A ρ is the resistivity L is the length A is the cross-sectional area

Torque about the center of the dipole axis (tbh probably don't need to know this)

τ = q·d·E·sinθ = pEsinθ

angular frequency equation

ω = 2πf = 2π/T

sugar-phosphate backbone structure

• Each of the *five carbon atoms* in the *sugar molecule* is *numbered* • Each new nucleotide can be added *only* to the *-OH* connected to the *3' Carbon* -new phosphate group links 3' carbon of one sugar to the 5' phosphate group on the next sugar in the chain >> So we say that a DNA strand has a *5' end* and a *3' end*, and it can *only grow* from its *5' end to its 3' end*

For mirrors where do real images appear? For lenses?

• For mirrors: real images are on same side as object, virtual images are behind the mirrors • For lenses: real images are on the other side of the lens, virtual images are on the same side of lens as object

sin(45)

√2/2

sin45°

√2/2 = 0.7

tan(60)

√3

sin 60°

√3/2 = 0.9

tan(30)

√3/3

5' cap

- 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap added to 5' end - protects the nascent mRNA from degradation and assists in ribosome binding during translation

Heterolytic Reactions

- A bond is broken and both electrons are given to one of the two products. - The best leaving group is able to stabilize the extra electrons. * Weak bases (conjugate bases of strong acids such as I-, Br-, and Cl-) make good leaving groups -opposite of coordinate covalent bond formation

Hypersensitivity reactions

- A family of immune reactions including allergies and autoimmunity.

Gabriel Synthesis

- An amino acid is generated from phthalimide (nucleophile) and diethyl bromomalonate, using two SN2 reactions, hydrolysis, and decarboxylation.

Lewis acid

- Electron Acceptor in the formation of a covalent bond. - Tend to be electrophile - vacant p orbitals, or positively polarized atoms

Bohr effect

- Increased CO2 production causes bicarbonate buffer equation to shift right, resulting in decreased pH (high H+) -protons bind to hemoglobin reducing its affinity for O -Caused by high O demand (high rates of cellular metabolism) which results in increased CO2 production and accumulation of lactic acid which decreases pH -decreased affinity of hemoglobin to O allows more O to be unloaded at tissues (such as during exercise)

Hemiacetal Formation

- The oxygen in an alcohol functions as a nucleophile, attacking the carbonyl carbon of an aldehyde, and generating a hemiacetal. - The OH group is retained if only 1 equivalent of alcohol is added, if 2 equivalents are added, an acetal with two -OR groups results

X-ray diffraction

- Uses bending of light rays to create a model of molecules - Often combined with protein crystallography during protein analysis

modified standard state

- [H+] = 10^-7 M - pH = 7 - Other than that, same as standard state, so T=298K, P=1atm, other reactants have conc. of 1M

Water soluble vitamin absorption

- absorbed with water and enter bloodstream directly - absorbed in duodenum and jejunum into portal vein into liver - excess is excreted in urine

atrial kick

- additional volume of blood pushed into ventricles causes by atrial systole -accounts for 5-30% of cardiac output

single stranded DNA binding proteins

- bind to the unraveled strand preventing the re-association of the DNA strands & degradation of DNA by nucleases -Unpaired strands of DNA are very "sticky" so proteins are required to hold the 2 strands apart

Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q)

- biologically active quinone -vital electron carrier associated w/ complexes I, II, and II of the e- transport chain -very oxidized -reduced form is ubiquinol

Functions of Calcium

- bone structure & strength -release of NTs from neurons - regulation of muscle contraction - cofactor that helps in blood clotting - exocytosis

pancreatic juices

- complex mixture of enzymes in a bicarbonate rich alkaline solution - help to increase the pH of the acidic chyme, so digestive enzymes can function better - contain enzymes that break down all macronutrients

How do antibodies neutralize their antigens?

- directly neutralizing the antigen - marking it for destruction by other WBCs (opsonization) - Clumping together (agglutinating) the antigen and antibody into large insoluble complexes which can be digested by macrophages

glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle

- electrons are transferred from NADH to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), forming glycerol 3-phosphate - these electrons can then be transferred to mitochondrial FAD, forming FADH2 -results in 1.5 ATP/NADH

malate-aspartate shuttle

- electrons are transferred from NADH to oxaloacetate, forming malate - malate can then cross the inner mitochondrial membrane and transfer electrons to the mitochondrial NAD+, forming NADH -Results in 2.5 ATP/NADH

Belmont report

- established research ethics respect for persons justice beneficence

endocrine vs exocrine

- exocrine glands secrete their products by way of a duct onto the epithelial surface such as skin or mucosa - endocrine glands don't have ducts and release secretions into bloodstream

oximes

- form when N-OH (hydroxylamine) replaces the oxygen of a carbonyl

hydrazones

- forms when N-NH2 (hydrazine) replaces the oxygen of the carbonyl

Starling forces

- hydrostatic and oncotic pressures -balance of these forces maintains proper fluid volumes & solute concentrations inside & outside the vasculature -Imbalance of these pressures results in too little or too much fluid in tissues

slit-lens system

- if a lens is placed between a narrow slit and screen, a pattern of bright and dark fringes are seen surrounding a large central light fringe from diffraction. * as the slit gets smaller the central max gets larger equation: asinθ=nλ - gives the location of the dark fringes (minima) a = width of the slit, θ= angle between the line of the center lens to the dark fringe and the axis of the lens, n = number of the fringe, λ = incident wave

Sphingomyelins

- major class of sphingophospholipids that are also phospholipids - contain phosphatidylcholine or phosphatydylethanolamine head group, so have a phosphodiester bond - major component of myelin sheath

Jacob-Monod Model

- model of repressors and activators - explains how operons work

modern synthesis model

- neo-darwinism -Combines Darwinian ideas with knowledge of modern genetics - account for mutation and recombination as mechanisms of variation and considers differential reproduction to be the mechanism for reproductive success

reverse phase chromatography

- opposite of Thin Layer (TLC) - stationary phase is non polar so polar molecules move up the plate quickly -often needs to be visualized under UV light

enoyl-CoA isomerase

- rearranges cis double bonds to trans double bonds for oxidation of monounsaturated fatty acids

Tetramethylsilane (TMS)

- used to calibrate NMR spectra - has chemical shift of 0

Charge of an electron

-1.6x10^-19 C

What is the x-intercept of the Lineweaver-Burk plot?

-1/Km

Prostoglandins

-20C fatty acid, 5 member ring -paracrine/autocrine signaling molecules -regulates synthesis of cAMP -play a role in many bodily functions like the sleep/wake cycle, raising body temp, and smooth muscle function

Macrophages

-Activate when bacteria invades a tissue -Phagocytizes the invader through endocytosis -digests invader with enzymes -Presents pieces of the invader to other cells using the MHC (major histocompatibility complex) -release cytokines

red fibers vs white fibers

-Different muscles have different combinations, depending on function and individual differences. Proportions are dependent on muscle function and genetics. -Red is also called slow twitch, white is also called fast twitch -red fibers have a lot of myoglobin and a high amount of mitochondria. They are good for sustained activities -white fibers have low myoglobin/mitochondria. they contract quickly, but fatigue easily

Mendel's first law of segregation

-Genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) -An organism has two alleles for each gene (1 from each parent) -Alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes with only one allele for any trait -If two alleles are different, only one will be expressed (exceptions are codominance and incomplete dominance) -Correlates closely with anaphase I of meiosis (segregation of homologous chromosomes)

Three irreversible steps of glycolysis

-Hexokinase/glucokinase -PFK-1 -Pyruvate kinase

alpha hydrogens

-Hydrogens attached to the carbon adjacent to the carbonyl carbon (the alpha carbon) -relatively acidic -can be removed by a strong base

constant region

-Makes of most of an antibody molecule -involved in recruitment & binding of other cells of the immune system (like macrophages, NK cells)

equalization of fluid distribution

-Net inward pressure at venule end of capillaries is slightly less than outward at arterioles -Lymphatic vessels drain tissues of this excess and return it to the bloodstream -Edema occurs when this system is overwhelmed

Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)

-Source: Thyroid (follicular cells) -Type: Amino acid derivative (from tyrosine) -Action: Stimulate metabolic activity (increase cellular respiration)

Map Unit (Centimorgan)

-Unit of genetic mapping -1 map unit = 1% chance of recombination occurring between two genes

nucleotide excision repair

-Used to repair damage such as thymine dimerization. -Cut and patch process -excision exonuclease makes nicks in the phosphodiester backbone to remove the defective portion -ligase closes the gap

IDL (intermediate density lipoprotein)

-VLDL becomes IDL once its triacylglycerol is removed -Some is reabsorbed by liver, some is further processed in the bloodstream -Can pick up cholesterol esters from HDL to become LDL -transition particle between cholesterol transport and triacylglycerol transport

nucleosides

-a 5 carbon sugar (pentose) linked to a nitrogenous base - formed by covalently linking the base to C-1' of the sugar

ventilation center

-a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata that regulate ventilation - fire rhythmically to cause regular contraction of respiratory muscles - contain chemoreceptors that are sensitive to carbon dioxide concentration -also respond to changes in oxygen concentration --> only significant during period of hypoxemia (low [O] in blood)

induction

-ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells -inducers diffuse from organizing cells to responsive cells

impulse propagation

-action potential travels down the axon - initiates neurotransmitter release

cortical sex hormones

-androgens and estrogens - made by adrenal glands -Males secrete a lot of androgens in testes so adrenal testosterone plays a small role - excess androgen production in females leads to masculinized genitalia

phenols

-aromatic alcohols -Hydroxyl groups can be attached to aromatic rings (these hydroxyl hydrogens are very acidic due to possible resonance b/w the ring & the lone pairs on the O atom)

Venturi effect

-as the area decreases from point 1 to point 2, the linear speed increases -as the dynamic pressure increases, the absolute pressure decreases at point 2 -with a lower absolute pressure, the column of fluid sticking up from the Venturi tube is lower at point 2

SN2 reaction

-bimolecular nucleophilic substitution reactions - only 1 step (concerted reaction) -nucleophile attacks the compound at the same time as the leaving group leaves -Nucleophile actively displaces the leaving group in a backside attack for this to occur, nucleophile must be strong & substrate can't be sterically hindered -Position of the substituents around the substrate carbon is inverted

cerebrosides vs globosides

-both types of glycosphingolipids -cerebrosides have a single sugar, globosides have 2 or more

Poiseuille's Law

-calculates rate of flow through a pipe of confined space (laminar flow) Q= (πr^4 ∆P)/8ηL η: viscosity of the fluid Q: flow rate (volume flowing per time) ΔP: pressure gradient r: radius of tube L: length of tube

protecting groups

-can be used to increase steric hindrance or otherwise decrease the reactivity of a particular portion of a molecule -aldehyde or ketone can be converted to acetal or ketal

suffix for an aldehyde attached to a ring

-carbaldehyde

anhydrides

-carboxylic acid derivative -had water molecule removed during formation -formed from 2 carboxylic acid molecules -two carbonyl carbons connected with an oxygen -named by replacing acid with anhydride in the name of the carboxylic acid if anhydride is formed from only 1 type of carboxylic acid -if anhydride is not symmetrical, both carboxylic acids are named before the anhydride is added to the name (ex: ethanoic propanoic anhydride) ex: pentanoic acid becomes pentanoic anhydride

Adipocytes

-cells that store large amounts of fat in animals - found under the skin

flavoproteins

-contain a modified vitamin B2 (riboflavin). -nucleic acid derivatives (FAD or FMN) -electron carriers in mitochondria and chloroplasts -coenzymes for the oxidation of fatty acids, decarboxylation of pyruvate, and reduction of glutathione

Peroxisomes

-contain hydrogen peroxide -break down long chain fatty acids via beta oxidation -involved in pentose phosphate pathway

genomic libraries

-contain large fragments of DNA - include both coding (exon) and non-coding (intron) regions of DNA

cDNA libraries

-contain smaller fragments of DNA, and only include exons of genes expressed by the sample tissue -can be used to make recombinant proteins or for gene therapy -also called expression libraries

Thyroid

-controlled by thyroid stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary -located on front surface of trachea -sets the basal metabolic rate with triiodothyronine (T3) thyroxine (T4) and maintains calcium homeostasis with calcitonin

Helper T cells (CD4+ T cells)

-coordinate immune response by secreting lymphokines -lymphokines recruit other immune cells and increase their activity -loss of these cells occurs in HIV, making the body susceptible to infection -respond to antigens on MHC II molecules -Most effective for exogenous infections (non-viral)

renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

-decreased blood pressure causes the juxtaglomerular cells of kidneys to secrete renin which converts angiotensinogen (inactive) to angiotensin I (active) which is then converted into angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) -Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone - leads to absorption of Na and increased blood pressure -once blood pressure is restored, there is a decreased drive to stimulate renin release

fertilization membrane

-depolarized & impenetrable membrane that forms after sperm joins with egg, forming a zygote

terpenoids

-derivatives of terpenes -have undergone oxygenation & rearrangement of the carbon skeleton -contribute to steroid biosynthesis -similar characteristics w/ terpenes

steroid hormones

-derived from cholesterol -produced by gonads and adrenal cortex -Bind to intracellular/intranuclear receptors -function by binding to DNA to alter gene transcription -Slower and longer lived (have direct actions on DNA) -Not water soluble --> must be carried by proteins in bloodstream --> inactive while attached to carrier protein (must dissociate from carrier to function) -Have names that end in -one, -ol, or -oid (testosterone, cortisol, glucocorticoids)

Benedict's reagent

-detects presence of reducing sugar -aldehyde group of an aldose is readily oxidized indicated by a red precipitate of Cu2O

plane-polarized light

-electric field off all waves originated in same direction -e.g. optically active compounds -limits light into only two dimensions

Reducing agents

-elements in redox reactions that donates e- to another species -it losses e- so it becomes oxidized while reducing other species -Metals on the left side of the periodic table, Al, Zn, or metal hydrides (LiAlH4, NaBH4, NaH)

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

-eluent is a liquid - similar to column chromatography, but uses liquid under pressure instead of gas - The whole process is under computer control, hence higher performance - HPLC historically used high pressure and columns uses gravity, but today HPLC can use variable temperature and solvent gradients so high pressures aren't necessarily required

glycogen phosphorylase

-enzyme that cleaves glucose from the non-reducing end of a glycogen branch by phosphorylating it -glycogen is more branched (branches occur more frequently) --> more points where enzymes can come in & break down glycogen *permits rapid release of glucose from glycogen stores *produces glucose-1-phosphate

Waxes

-esters of long-chain fatty acids w/ long chain alcohols - form pliable solids at room temp. - function as protection for plants and animals

second trimester

-fetus undergoes a lot of growth - face takes on human appearance - toes and fingers elongate -moves within amniotic fluid -30-36 cm long

base excision repair

-fixes non-deforming lesions of the DNA helix by removing the base leaving an apurinic/apyrimidinic site (AP) -AP endonuclease removes the damaged sequence which is can be filled in w/ the correct bases by DNA polymerase (strand is sealed by DNA ligase) -Used to correct cytosine deamination * loss of amino group from cytosine resulting in conversion of cytosine to uracil

neural crest cells

-found at the tip of each neural fold -migrate outward to form the peripheral nervous system (sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla, Schwann cells)

michaelis-menten plot

-graphs reaction rate vs substrate concentration -generally graphs as a hyperbola unless there's cooperatively (in which case it's sigmoid) -when substrate concentration is less than K_m, changes in substrate concentration will greatly affect the reaction rate -at high substrate concentrations exceeding K_m, the reaction rate increases much more slowly as it approaches v_max, where it becomes independent of substrate concentration

Z-DNA

-has zig-zag appearance - left handed helix -turns every 12th base pair - only stable with high GC content or high salt concentration

acetals and ketals

-have 2 -OR substituents on the same carbon

Hydroxyquinones

-have 2 carbonyls and a variable number of hydroxyl groups -named by indicating the position of the OH group with a number & indicating the total number of OH groups by a prefix (di- or tri-) with the substituent name hydroxyl- (ex: 1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone) - To convert phenols to hydroxyquinones, they must be converted to quinones to an oxidation step first and then another oxidation is required to further oxidize the quinones (total of 2 oxidation steps)

Hormone Sensitive Lipase (HSL)

-hydrolyzes triacyglycerols, yielding fatty-acids and glycerol -released glycerol can feed into glycolysis and gluconeogenesis *activated by low levels of insulin or high levels cortisol/epinephrine

dielectric material

-insulator (air, glass, plastic) -introduced b/w the plates of a capacitor - increases capacitance by a factor called dielectric constant (k)

branching enzyme

-introduces alpha-1,6 linked branches into the glycogen granule as it grows -step 1: braching enzyme hydrolyzes an alpha-1,4 bond -step 2: branching enzyme transfers the oligoglucose unit and attaches it with an alpha-1,6 bond to create a branch -step 3: glycogen synthase extends both branches

Post-transcriptional modifications

-intron/exon splicing -5' cap -3' poly A tail

first trimester

-major organs begin to develop -heart begins to beat at 22 days - cartilaginous skeleton begins to harden into bone by 7th week - embryo becomes fetus -9 cm long

terpenes

-metabolic precursors to steroids and other lipid signaling molecules -odiferous chemicals -class of lipids built from isoprene - carbons are grouped in multiples of 5 -grouped according to the # of isoprene units present -a single terpene consists of 2 isoprene units

chorionic villi

-microscopic fingerlike projections that penetrate the endometrium -develop into the placenta & support maternal-fetal gas exchange

pyruvate carboxylase

-mitochondrial enzyme activated by Acetyl-CoA -Converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate which can eventually lead to glucose production (Gluconeogenesis) Acetyl-CoA in this situation NOT from glycolysis or Pyruvate Dehydrogenase but from fatty acids being burned

Leaving groups

-molecular fragments that retain e- after heterolysis -Weak bases are more stable w/ extra electrons -->good leaving groups

enteric nervous system

-neurons that govern the function of the gastrointestinal system. -Present on the walls of the tract -Trigger peristalsis (rhythmic contractions of the gut tube to move materials down the system) -Can function without CNS input, but are under autonomic control

Resonating

-oscillating with maximum amplitude - occurs when the frequency of the periodic force is equal to the natural frequency of the system

quinones

-phenols treated with oxidizing agents in H2SO4 -ketones on six-membered rings with conjugated pi system -Named by indicating the position of the carbonyls numerically & adding quinone to the name of parent phenol -Serve as electron acceptors in e- transport chain

Chemoselectivity

-preferential reaction of one functional group in the presence of other functional groups

main functions of the liver

-processing and synthesis of nutrients (like sugars, fats) -production of urea -detoxification of chemicals -production of bile -synthesis of albumin and clotting factors

cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

-proteins found on surface of most cells -aid in binding the cell to the extracellular matrix or to other cells

cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

-proteins found on surface of most cells -aid in binding the cell to the extracellular matrix or to other cells -includes cadherins, integrins, selectins

isoelectric focusing

-proteins separated based on isoelectric point (pI) -mixture of proteins is placed on a gel with a pH gradient -electric charge is applied to the sample - protein migrates and stops when it reaches its isoelectric point(stops b/c charges cancel out)

third trimester

-rapid fetal growth and deposition of adipose tissue -most major organ systems are fully functional -fetus becomes less active as it has less room to move -transfer of antibodies to fetus

streamlines

-representations of molecular movements -indicate pathways followed by tiny fluid particles as they move -streamlines never cross

tropic hormones

-require an intermediate to act - usually originate in the brain or anterior pituitary gland b/c these structures are involved in coordination of processes within the body -cause release of another hormone at the organ level - ex. GnRH causes release of FSH and LH which act on the gonads (testes and ovaries)

hydrolysis of amides

-requires acidic conditions so carbonyl O can be protonated and easier for nucleophilic attack -results in ammonia + carboxylic acid

cooperative binding

-results in sigmoidal curve -as first O binds to a heme group, it induces a conformational shift in shape of hemoglobin from tense to relaxed which increases hemoglobin's affinity for O making it easier for subsequent O molecules to bind to remaining 3 unoccupied heme groups -as other heme groups acquire O, affinity increases (+ feedback mechanism) -Once all of the hemoglobin subunits are bound to O, the removal of 1 O induces conformational shift decreasing affinity for O making it easier for other O molecules to leave the heme groups -as O molecules leave, it becomes progressively easier for more O to be removed

Notochord

-rod of mesodermal cells -forms along the long axis of the organism (like a spine)

direct hormones

-secreted and then act directly on a target tissue - ex: insulin acts directly on muscles

adrenal cortex

-secretes corticosteroids (steroid hormones divided into 3 classes) -functions of the corticosteroids are the 3 S's -Salt: mineralocorticosteroids -Sugar: glucocorticosteroids -Sex: cortical sex hormones

Fischer projection

-simple, 2D drawing of stereoisomers -Horizontal lines: wedges (out of the page) -Vertical lines: dashes (into the page)

yolk sac

-site of early blood cell development -supports the embryo until the placenta is developed -forms the umbilical cord, with the allantois

laminar flow

-smooth and orderly -often modeled as layers of fluid that flow parallel to each other

ion exchange chromatography

-stationary phase is made of either negatively or positively charged beads (attract & bind compounds that have opposite charge) -salt is added to elute proteins stuck to column

Aldosterone

-steroid hormone -secreted within adrenal cortex -response to decreased blood pressure -increases Na+ absorption= increased H2O absorption -Increases K+ and H+ secretion -ACE inhibitors block this pathway to decrease BP

amnion

-surrounds the allantois - thin, tough membrane filled w/ amniotic fluid -fluid serves as shock absorber during pregnancy (lessens impact of maternal motion on embryo)

eddies

-swirls of fluid of varying sizes occurring on the downstream side of object - caused by turbulence

nontemplate synthesis

-synthesis that do not rely directly on the coding of a nucleic acid -carbohydrate and lipid synthesis are most common examples

Absolute (hydrostatic) pressure

-total pressure that is exerted on an object that is submerged in a fluid P = P0 + ρgz P0: incident or ambient pressure (pressure at the surface) ρ = density of the fluid z: depth of the object g: acceleration due to gravity

collagen

-trihelical fiber -makes up extracellular matrix of connective tissue -provides strength and flexibility

intramembranous ossification

-undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue (mesenchymal tissue) is transformed into, and replaced by, bone -occurs in the bones of the skull

2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase

-used in polyunsaturated fatty acids -convert two conjugated double bonds to just one double bond at the 3,4 position, where it will undergo same rearrangement as monounsaturated with enoyl-CoA isomerase

Southern blot

-used to detect presence and quantity of various DNA strands in a sample -After electrophoresis, the sample is transferred to a membrane that can be probed w/ single stranded DNA molecules to look for a sequence of interest -radiolabeled probe binds to its complementary sequence & forms double stranded DNA

Edman degradation

-used to sequence small proteins (up to 70 AAs) - selectively & sequentially removes the N terminal AA of the protein which is analyzed by mass spectroscopy

Jones Oxidation

-uses chromium trioxide dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid and acetone (stronger oxidizing agent) to oxidize primary alcohols to carboxylic acids or secondary alcohols to ketones

phylloquinone

-vitamin K1 -important for photosynthesis and the carboxylation of some of the clotting factors in blood

electromotive force (emf)

-voltage when no charge is moving b/w the 2 terminals of a cell that are at different potential values -Pressure to move exerted by the cell on the electrons unit is volts -- 1V = J/C V= (emf) -i (R internal)

static friction equation

0 <= fs <= us N us = coefficient of static friction N = normal force

sp3 hydrogen shift

0-3 ppm (more if electron withdrawing groups are present)

Capacitance of capacitors in series

1 / C_s = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ...

S.I. unit of magnet field strength

1 Tesla = 1 N*s/m*C

How many origins of replication do prokaryotes? Eukaryotes?

1 in prokaryotes, a lot in eukaryotes

IUPAC name of glycerol

1,2,3 pronanetriol (propane with alcohols on each carbon)

Tenants of Cell Theory

1. All living things are composed of cells 2. The cell is the basic functional unit of life 3. Cells arise only from preexisting cells 4. Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA, this is passed from mother to daughter cell

antibody response types

1. Attract other leukocytes to phagocytize the antigen in opsonization 2. Antibodies cause pathogens to clump together (agglutinate) forming large complexes that can be phagocytized 3. Antibodies can block the ability for pathogens to invade tissues

Why are lipids better for energy storage than carbs?

1. Lipid carbons are more reduced, meaning that more energy can be derived from their oxidation 2. Their hydrophobic nature means that they don't need to be hydrated, decreasing storage weight 3. Fat can serve a dual purpose in protecting from the cold

Why do red blood cells extrude their mitochondria during developement?

1. Maximizing space for hemoglobin 2. Ensuring the oxygen they transport isn't reduced

Five conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

1. Very large populations 2. No emigration or immigration 3. No mutations 4. Random mating 5. No natural selection (genes in population are equally likely to be reproduced)

Steps of fatty acid synthesis

1. activation 2. bond formation 3. reduction 4. dehydration 5. reduction

How to calculate quartiles

1.) Arrange the observations in increasing order and locate the median M in the ordered list of observations. 2.) The first quartile Q1 is the median of the observations whose position in the ordered list is to the left of the median. 3.) The third quartile Q3 is the median of the observations whose position in the ordered list is to the right of the median.

sqrt(2)

1.4

sqrt(3)

1.7

Four steps of beta-oxidation

1.oxidation of fatty acid to form a double bond (creates FADH2) 2. hydration of the double bond to form a hydroxyl group (req. H2O) 3. oxidation of the hydroxyl group to form a carbonyl; called a beta-ketoacid (generates NADH) 4. splitting of the beta-ketoacid into a shorter acyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA (req. CoA-SH) -process continues until chain has been shortened to two carbons (for even chained fatty acids)

Resistors in Parallel

1/R=1/R₁+1/R₂+1/R₃+... V=V₁=V₂=...

lensmaker's equation

1/f = (n-1)(1/r1 - 1/r2) -used for lenses with non-negligible thickness -n = index of refraction of lens material -r1 is radius of curvature of first lens, r2 is second

multiple lenses in series focus length and power

1/f = 1/f1 + 1/f2 + ... P = P1 + P2 + ...

What is the relationship in mirrors between f, r, o, and i?

1/f = 1/o + 1/i = 2/r

What is the y-intercept of the Lineweaver-Burk plot?

1/vmax

Carboxylic acid NMR shift

10.5-12ppm

full penetrance

100% of the individuals with the allele show phenotype

How many kg of water are in a m^3

1000 kg

tetrahedral bond angle

109.5

deci-

10^-1

pico-

10^-12

nano-

10^-9

deka-

10^1

tera-

10^12

mega-

10^6

giga-

10^9

sqrt (169)

13

sqrt (196)

14

sqrt (225)

15

sqrt (256)

16

sqrt(289)

17

sqrt(324)

18

sqrt (361)

19

Normal blood osmolality

190 mOsm

electron volt

1eV=1.6x10⁻¹⁹J work done moving charge of e=1.6x10⁻¹⁹ through potential difference of 1volt.

the softest sound a human can hear

1x 10^12 W/m^2 = 0 dB

A 95% confidence interval will fall between how many standard deviations from the mean?

2 standard deviations

sp hydrogen shift

2-3 pm

isoprene

2-methyl-1,3-butadiene

isopropyl alcohol IUPAC name

2-propanol

How many ATP equivalents are produced by NADH? By FADH2?

2.5 ATP from each NADH, 1.5 ATP from each FADH2

At maximum, what proportion of the brain's energy can come from ketone bodies?

2/3

What frequency range is audible to adults?

20-20,000 Hz

how much s character does an sp3 orbital have

25%

for a molecule with n chiral centers, how many possible stereoisomers are there?

2^n

Number of stereoisomers with common backbone

2^n where n is the number of chiral carbons

How many phosphate groups are on the nucleotides used for DNA synthesis?

3

triose

3 carbon sugar

speed of light

3.00 x 10^8 m/s

Net ATP yield of one molecule of glucose

30-32 ATP

Speed of sound through air at 20 C

343 m/s

Body temperature in celsius

37 degrees

What is the ratio of free fatty acids to glycerol produced in lipid mobilization?

3:1

diterpenes

4 isoprene units -- ex. vitamin A

1 calorie = ____ joules

4.184

sp2 hydrogen shift

4.6-6 ppm

visible light spectrum

400-700 nm

possible wavelengths of a standing wave in a closed pipe

4L/n n is any odd integer

What and how many energetic molecules are produced by one molecule of pyruvate passing through the TCA cycle?

4x NADH 1x FADH2 1x ATP

In what direction is mRNA synthesized?

5' to 3'

In what direction is mRNA translated?

5' to 3'

Aromatic NMR shift

6-8.5ppm

gravitational constant

6.67E-11 N*m²/kg²

9+2 structure

9 prs microtubules surrounding 2 central microtubules for stability (structure of cilia&flagella). Seen in eukaryotes, not prokaryotes

Aldehyde NMR Shift

9-10 ppm

phenotype distribution for dihybrid cross of heterozygotes

9:3:3:1

missense mutation

A base-pair substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.

negative pressure breathing

A breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs when the lung volume is expanded. (Normal way that humans breath)

What circuit unit can we compare the cell membrane to?

A capacitor, because charge is stored up on both sides

mutagens

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)

A collection of lymphoid tissue in the gastrointestinal tract that includes the appendix, the tonsils and adenoids, and Peyer's patches.

intermediate filaments

A component of the cytoskeleton, a diverse group of filamentous proteins including keratin, desmin, vimentin. Many are involved in cell-cell adhesion or maintenance of cytoskeleton integrity. They can withstand a lot of tension, increasing cellular structural rigidity. They also help anchor organelles.

meso compound

A compound with chirality centers and an internal plane of symmetry causing it to be an achiral molecule

glycosidic linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.

release factor (translation)

A cytoplasmic protein that binds to a stop codon where it appears in the A-site of the ribosome. This causes a water to be added to the polypeptide chain, which allows peptidyl transferase and termination factors the hydrolyze the polypeptide chain from the final tRNA

What kind of reaction forms disaccharides? What kind of bond is formed?

A dehydration reaction between the alcohol groups of two monosaccharides results in a glycosidic bond

sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)

A detergent which disrupts all non-covalent interactions, and gives proteins uniformly negative charges, so separation in PAGE is based purely on size

Ammeter

A device used to measure current in a circuit. Wired in series to where current is being measured. Requires the circuit to be on to work. An ideal ammeter has no resistance.

Voltmeter

A device used to measure voltage drop between two points. Wired in parallel to these points. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.

chromatic aberration

A dispersive affect within a spherical lends that leads to a rainbow halo at the edge of the image.

What is an omega-3 fatty acid?

A fatty acid that has the first double bond in the third placement from the end of the chain (non-carboxilic acid end)

furanose

A five-membered ring sugar.

active immunity

A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens. This activates when someone is given a vaccine with an inactivated form of a virus. Results in the production of memory T and B cells

ester

A functional group containing a carbonyl and an alkoxy group (RCOOR). Formed by a condensation reaction between a carboxylic acid with an alcohol.

ketal

A functional group that contains a carbon atom bonded to two -OR groups and two alkyl chains.

acetal

A functional group that contains a carbon atom bonded to two- OR groups, an alkyl chain, a hydrogen atom.

Granulocytes

A group of leukocytes containing cytoplasmic granules in their cytoplasm; neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils. These granules have toxic compounds which can be released by exocytosis to fight off pathogens

Granulocytes

A group of leukocytes containing granules in their cytoplasm; neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells.

Integrins

A group of proteins that have 2 membrane-spanning chains involved with binding and communicating with the extracellular matrix. Have a role in cell signaling and cell cycle regulation

Hfr

A high-frequency recombination bacterial strain, caused by the presence of a chromosomally integrated F factor after conjugation

Microtubules

A hollow rod composed of tubulin proteins (alpha and beta) that makes up part of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is found in cilia and flagella. Provide the pathways along which motor proteins like kinesin and dynein carry vesicles. Also involved in axonal transport

datum

A horizontal plane from which heights and depths are measured.

Erythropoietin

A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow in response to low blood oxygen levels

Erythropoietin

A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.

leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

Oxytocin

A hormone synthesized by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding. Also may be involved in bonding

What generally occurs in dehydrogenase reactions?

A hydride is transfered to electron acceptor, usually NAD+ or FAD. A redox reaction is catalyzed

blackbody

A hypothetical object that absorbs all of the radiation that strikes it. It would appear completely black if it were at a lower temperature than its environment.

fatty acid synthase

A large multi-enzyme complex found in the cytosol that is rapidly induced in the liver following a meal high in carbohydrates because of elevated insulin levels, contains ACP (acyl carrier protein) that requires vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid); requires NADPH.

Epididymis

A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature and are stored

Flagella

A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility. Many bacteria are flagellated, and sperm are flagellated.

Sound

A longitudinal wave transmitted by the oscillation of particles in a deformable medium

ferromagnetic material

A material that is strongly attracted to a magnet, and which can be made into a magnet.

diffraction gratings

A material with many slits or tiny ridges that refracts light at different angles into its various frequencies / colors. Ridges on CDs act as diffraction gratings, as do oil puddles.

Entropy

A measure of the spontaneous dispersal of energy at a specific temperature: how much energy is spread out

Strecker synthesis

A method of synthesizing amino acids that uses an aldehyde, potassium cyanide, ammonium chloride, and water. Reactions are condensation, nucleophilic addition, and hydrolysis.

racemic mixture

A mixture that contains equal amounts of the (+) and (-) enantiomers. Racemic mixtures are not optically active.

serial endosymbiosis theory

A model of the origin of eukaryotes that proposes that mitochondria, chloroplasts, and perhaps other cellular structures were formerly small prokaryotes that lived symbiotically inside larger cells.

motor unit

A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates

external intercostal muscles

A muscle that raises the rib cage, increasing volume and decreasing pressure inside the chest cavity during inhalation x

nonsense mutation

A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.

isotopic notation

A naming convention that includes the symbol, atomic number, and mass number of an element. It specifies the exact composition of an atom.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via control over the pituitary gland , and is linked to emotion and reward.

β- decay

A neutron is converted into a proton, and an electron (β-) is emitted. The atomic number of the daughter nucleus will be one higher than the parent and the mass number will not change.

operator site

A nontranscribable region of DNA that is capable of binding a repressor protein

lysogenic cycle

A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.

When p orbitals line up parallel, what kind of bonding orbital is formed?

A pi bond

Nucleophiles must have either...

A pi bond or a lone pair

F factor

A piece of DNA that can exist as a bacterial plasmid. The F factor carries genes for making sex pili and other structures needed for conjugation, as well as a site where DNA replication can start. F stands for fertility. After conjugation, the recipient also becomes F+

Electrophiles must have either...

A positive charge or positive polarized atom which can accept electrons

Isochoric process

A process in which volume remains constant and in which no net pressure-volume work is done

isobaric process (what is it and how can you measure work?)

A process that occurs at a constant pressure. Work can be calculated by multiplying pressure by the change in volume

TATA box

A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.

β+ decay

A proton is converted into a neutron, and a positron is (β+) emitted. The atomic number of the daughter nucleus will be one lower than the parent and the mass number will not change.

ventricular tachycardia

A rapid heart rhythm in which the electrical impulse begins in the ventricle (instead of the atrium), which may result in inadequate blood flow because the ventricles don't have time to fill with blood due to shortened diastole

retardation factor (Rf)

A ratio used in thin-layer chromatography to identify a compound; calculated as how far the compound traveled relative to how far the solvent front traveled.

enhancer

A segment of eukaryotic DNA containing multiple control elements, usually located far from the gene whose transcription it regulates. Hairpin loops form to connect them to their associated gene.

cirrhosis of the liver

A severe medical condition where scar tissue in the liver replaces functional tissue. Leads to backup in the portal vein, which causes swollen veins in the digestive system, especially the esophagus, which can rupture and cause hematemesis (vomiting blood). Causes mental issues due to ammonia in blood and bleeding issues due to decreased clotting factors. Also can lead to cancer

How do N-H bonds show up on IR spectroscopy?

A sharp peak around where O-H shows up (~3100-3500cm^-1)

Which is stronger, a sigma or pi bond?

A sigma bond is stronger (even though double bonds are stronger than single bonds. This means that turning a double bond into a single bond is easier than breaking a single bond altogether)

pyranose

A six-membered ring sugar.

Cholesterol

A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes, maintaining their fluidity. Acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids including hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D.

Glycogen

A storage polysaccharide in animals consisting entirely of glucose. Linked alpha-D-glucose monomers with alpha 1,4-glycosidic bonds, as well as branching with alpha 1,6-glycosidic bonds

Starch

A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose. Linked alpha-D-glucose monomers with alpha 1,4-glycosidic bonds.

cross-sectional study

A study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time. ex. looking at lung cancer rates in smokers vs non-smokers at a specific time point (not a longitudinal study)

noncompetitive inhibitor

A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate. It can bind to either the lone enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex.

epimers

A subtype of diastereomers that differ in absolute configuration at exactly one chiral carbon

ketose

A sugar whose most oxidized group is a ketone

aldose

A sugar whose most oxidized group is an aldehyde

closed system

A system in which matter is not allowed to enter or leave, but energy can

isolated system

A system that can exchange neither energy nor matter with its surroundings.

X-ray crystallography

A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule, measuring electron density to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule. This is the way that most protein 3-D structures have been worked out.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

A technique that measures the alignment of magnetic moments from certain molecular nuclei with an external magnetic field; can be used to determine the connectivity and functional groups in a molecule.

Bolus

A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva

reversible reaction

A theoretical process which can spontaneously reverse corse--like water freezing and melting when always kept at 273K

zona pellucida

A thick coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte and contains compounds necessary for sperm binding

Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)/paper chromatography

A type of chromatography that uses silica gel or alumina on a card (in TLC) or cellulose (in paper) as the medium for the stationary phase. Sample is spotted on the card, then it is developed by putting it in a jar with some solvent (elutent) at the bottom, which creeps up through capillary action.

guache conformation

A type of staggered conformation in which the two largest groups are 60 degrees from each other

anti conformation

A type of staggered conformation in which the two largest groups are antiperiplanar to each other; the most energetically favorable conformation

Newton (unit of force)

A unit of measure that equals the force required to accelerate 1 kilogram of mass at 1 meter per second squared

hepatic portal vein

A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and gluocse absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system.

transverse wave

A wave in which the particles of the medium move perpendicularly to the direction the wave is traveling ex. electromagnetic waves

longitudinal wave

A wave in which the vibration of the medium is parallel to the direction the wave travels ex. sound waves

Hormones that affect hunger/thirst

ADH and aldosterone trigger thirst Glucagon and ghrelin trigger hunger Leptin and cholecystokinin triggers satiety

What provides the energy for the powerstroke?

ADP and Pi dissociating from myosin

start codon

AUG (methionine)

edema

Abnormal accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces of tissues.

How do the side chains point in a beta pleated sheet?

Above and below the chain of the sheet

glycosides

Acetals of carbohydrate hemiacetals. Furanosides are made from furanose rings, pyranosides are made from pyranose rings.

rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis

Acetyl CoA carboxylase

What inhibits the PDH complex? Why is this important?

Acetyl-CoA inhibits the PDH complex, so when Acetyl-CoA builds up pyruvate is instead converted to oxaloacetate, which enters gluconeogenesis

What neurotransmitter is used in the neurons that innervate sweat glands?

Acetylcholine

How is citrate converted to isocitrate?

Aconitase first converts it to cis-aconitate, losing the alcohol and forming a double bond, then to isocitrate, regaining the alcohol on the 2 carbon (rather than the 3, where it started)

first step of the TCA cycle

Acteyl-CoA and Oxaloacetate are combined by citrate synthase to form citrate

What molecules inhibit PFK-1? What activates it?

Activated by AMP and Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, inhibited by ATP and citrate

adenylate cyclase

Activated by a G-protein. Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal.

What molecules regulate glycogen synthase?

Activated by insulin and glucose-6-phosphate Inhibited by glucagon and epinephrine

Vitamin D

Activated by parathyroid hormone (PTH), required for calcium and phosphate absorption in the gut

titin

Acts as a spring and anchors the actin and myosin filaments together, preventing excessive stretching of the muscle

debranching enzyme

Actually 2 enzymes deconstructs branches in glycogen exposed by glycogen phosphorylase Breaks alpha- 1,4-bond adjacent to branch point, moves the small chain to the exposed end of the other chain, and forms a new 1,4-bond Hydrolyzes the alpha-1,6 bond, making 1 free glucose

purines

Adenine and Guanine Contain two rings (6 and 5 membered)

collecting duct

After the distal convoluted tubule. Involved in water reabsorption. Variable permeability, water reabsorption increases with increasing permeability. Last point where reabsorption can occur before emptying into the renal pelvis.

Trachea

Air passageway in between the larynx and the bronchi

Alveoli

Air sacs at the end of bronchioles that constitute the gas exchange surface of the lungs. They have a one cell thick membrane to allow for gas exchange.

Alanine 1 and 3 letter codes

Ala, A

Are the alpha carbons more acidic in aldehydes or ketones?

Aldehydes, because the alkyl group in ketones are electron donating, destabilizing the carbanion

Hormonal release for low BP

Aldosterone, ADH (vasopressin)

how does cartilage differ from bone?

All bone begins as cartilage, and then it is calcified and mineralized. Bone is harder; cartilage is flexible and softer. Cartilage is avascular and not innervated.

In a measured quantity, what is considered significant?

All but the last digit

geometric isomers

Also called cis-trans isomers. A type of diastereomer in which the substituents differ in their position around and immovable bond

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Also called vasopressin, increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys. Synthesized by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary in response to increased solute concentration in the blood.

ketogenic amino acids

Amino acids that can be converted into acetyl-CoA and ketone bodies Pretty Lit Phe Leu Lys Ile Trp Thr Tyr

Residual Volume (RV)

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation

Base unit of current

Ampere (coulomb/s)

Retrovirus

An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome, where it's transcribed and translated as if it were the host DNA

enamines

An amino group attached to a carbon in a carbon-carbon double bond. The less common tautomer of imines

Wavenumber

An analog of frequency used for infrared spectra instead of frequency. Equal to 1/wavelength. Units are cm^-1

Capacitor

An electrical device used to store electrical charge, holding it at a particular voltage

creatine phosphate

An energy storage molecule used by muscle tissue. The phosphate from creatine phosphate can be removed and attached to an ADP to generate ATP quickly.

Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT)

An enzyme found in the bloodstream that is used to convert cholesterol to a transportable form for lipoproteins like HDL by adding a fatty acid, making it soluble

telomerase

An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells.

aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

An enzyme that joins each amino acid to the appropriate tRNA.

helicase

An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks.

cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

An intracellular second messenger in the signaling cascade initiated by a peptide hormone.

Newton's First Law

An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

What causes shock waves?

An object emitting sound while traveling at or above the speed of sound, which causes a buildup of sound waves. This can cause very high pressure followed by low pressure, creating a sonic boom.

inducible operon

An operon under positive control. It is usually "off" because the repressor is bound to the operator but can be turned "on" by an inducer binding to the repressor, releasing it from the operator and allowing transcription. Ex. lac operon

Effector

An organ (a gland or muscle) that becomes active in response to nerve impulses.

Forced oscillation

An oscillation in which a periodic driver force is applied to an oscillator. If this is close to the natural frequency of the system, the amplitude becomes much larger. Think pushing a kid on a swing right at the crest

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

Analog of LH. if an egg is fertilized by a sperm and implantation occurs, hCG is secreted. This keeps estrogen and progesterone levels high and the uterine lining in place. Drops off in second trimester because the placenta can produce a lot of estrogen and progesterone

kinetochores

Anchor on the Sister Chromatid that attaches to the microtubules that pulls the sister chromatids apart.

connective tissue

Animal tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues, making up the stroma (support structure). Most produce/secrete materials such as collagen/elastin that make the extracellular matrix. Ex. bones, cartilage, blood, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue (fat).

In electrophoresis, _____ move towards the anode and _____ move towards the cathode.

Anions move towards the anode, cations move towards the cathode

Acetic acid

Another name for ethanoic acid (2 carbons with a carboxylic acid group at the end)

Agglutination

Antibodies cause pathogens to clump together forming large complexes that can be phagocytized

Arginine 1 and 3 letter codes

Arg, R

detection bias

Arises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations

Huckel's rule for aromaticity

Aromatic compounds have 4n+2 pi electrons

What protein properties allow UV spectroscopy to be used as a method for determining concentration?

Aromatic side chains contain conjugated systems which are detected by UV spec

biliary tree

Arrangement of ducts that transports bile from the liver to the gallbladder and duodenum; includes hepatic ducts, cystic duct, and common bile duct.

Vasodilation/vasoconstriction effect on thermoregulation

As blood vessels expand, more heat is dissipated, as they contract, heat is conserved

pressure-volume curve

As in pistons. A way to present gas compression and expansion with volume on the x axis and pressure on the y axis. Work can be found by finding the area enclosed in a pressure-volume curve.

dose-response relationship (Hill's criteria)

As the independent variable increases, the dependent variable increases proportionally. The more consistent this relationship, the more likely it is to be causal.

Asparagine 1 and 3 letter codes

Asn, N

Aspartate 1 and 3 letter codes

Asp, D

Where are amino acids attached to tRNAs?

At the 3' OH

paramagnetic

Atom or substance containing unpaired electrons and is consequently attracted by a magnet.

How do the side chains point in an alpha helix?

Away from the helix core

sound level equation

B = 10*log(I/I0) I is the intensity of the sound I0 is the threshold of hearing (1x 10^12 W/m^2 = 0 dB)

Magnitude of the electric field produced by a current in a circular wire at the center of the circle

B = μ*I/2r

Magnitude of the electric field produced by a current in a wire

B = μ*I/2πr μ is permeability of free space (4π*10^-7) I is current

Which of the following tissues is most dependent on insulin A. Active skeletal muscle B. Resting skeletal muscle C. Cardiac muscle D. Smooth muscle

B. resting skeletal muscle (and adipose tissue) need insulin for glucose uptake

Sacromere

Basic contracting unit of muscle cell consits of actin and myosin filaments between z-lines in a muscle cell

lymph nodes

Bean-shaped structures along the lymphatic vessels. contain a lymphatic channel, an artery, and a vein provide a place for immune cells to communicate, be exposed to pathogens, and mount an attack. B cells can be activated here.

Can proline be found in alpha helices? In beta sheets?

Because of its rigid cyclic structure, proline is rarely found in the interior of alpha helices or beta sheets. It is, however, often found in turns between chains of beta sheets, and at the very beginning of alpha helices.

how to name salts of carboxylic acids

Begin with the cation, then replace -oic acid with -oate

How does glycogenesis begin?

Begins with a core protein, glycogenin. Glucose 6-phosphate is converted to glucose-1-phosphate, which is activated by coupling to UDP, which can then be integrated into the glycogen chain by glycogen synthase

normal blood pressure

Between 90/60 and 120/80

distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium. The DCT responds to aldosterone, which encourages sodium uptake, which carries water with it. Also a site of waste product secretion, like the PCT

Is enzyme-substrate binding exergonic or endergonic? How about un-binding?

Binding is endergonic, release is exergonic

What causes the myosin head to disconnect from actin?

Binding of ATP

What kind of orbital is formed if the signs of the wave functions are the same? Different?

Bonding orbital (more stable) is formed if they're the same, anti-bonding orbital (less stable) is formed if they're different

What monosaccharides make up cellulose? How about starch?

Both are composed of glucose

amylose vs amylopectin

Both are kinds of starch amylose 1. only α(1⎯→4) linkages 2. linear linkages / no branching 3. insoluble in water amylopectin 1. both α(1⎯→4) and α(1⎯→6) linkages 2. linear and branching components 3. insoluble in water

glycogen phosphorylase

Breaks alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds by introducing an inorganic phosphate, releasing glucose 1-phosphate from periphery Cannot break alpha-1,6 bonds (branch points) Activated by glucagon in the liver, and by AMP and epinephrine in skeletal muscle Inhibited by ATP

Ester synthesis (esterification)

Bring together a Carboxylic acid and an Alcohol in acidic conditions. The acidic conditions help by protonating the carbonyl carbon, increasing bond polarity

things secreted by the duodenum

Brush border enzymes (disaccharidases, peptidases, break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers) enteropeptidase (activates other digestive enzymes in accessory organs of digestion) hormones including secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK)

Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor

C = (AkE0/d) E0 =8.85 X 10-12 F/m A is the area of overlap of the plates d is the distance between the plates k is the dielectric constant Capacitors are CAkEd with charge!

Basic formula of alkanes

C n H 2n+2

Nitriles

C triple bond N

Monoterpenes

C10H16 - two isoprene units

Capacitance equation

C=Q/V Q = Charge that collects on the plates V = voltage applied across the capacitor

bicarbonate buffer system

CO2 (g)+ H2O(l)↔H2 CO3 (aq)↔H+ (aq)+HCO3- (aq)

Mnemonic for remembering Kreb's cycle intermediates

Can I Keep Selling Sex For Money, Officer? Citrate Isocitrate α-Ketoglutarate Succinyl-CoA Succinate Fumarate Malate Oxaloacetate

What vessels have more resistance--arteries or capillaries?

Capillaries individually have higher resistance, but because they act in parallel, they collectively have lower resistance

Chemotaxis

Cell movement that occurs in response to chemical stimulus

Role of carbohydrates in the cell membrane

Cell to cell recognition and immune response. Blood groups differ in the carbohydrate groups on sphingolipids

Melanocytes

Cell type derived from neural crest cells and found in the stratum basale. Produce melanin

basement membrane

Cells at the base of an epithelial layer are attached to this connective tissue.

T cells

Cells created in the bone marrow and matured in the thymus that produce substances that attack infected cells in the body. They create cell-mediated immunity

T cells

Cells created in the thymus that produce substances that attack virally infected cells in the body.

B cells

Cells manufactured in the bone marrow that create antibodies for isolating and destroying invading bacteria and viruses.

B cells

Cells produced and matured in the bone marrow and activated in the spleen and lymph nodes. They create antibodies, present antigens through MHC II, and secrete cytokines. They govern the humoral response.

Nucleophilicity is determined by...

Charge (higher with more neg. charge) Electronegativity (decreases with high electronegativity) Steric hinderance (decreases with bulkier molecules) Solvent (decreases in protic solvents which can H-bond or donate protons to the nuc.)

What causes splitting in NMR?

Chemically different hydrogens on adjacent carbons

closed vs open boundaries in standing waves

Closed boundaries don't allow oscillations and correspond to nodes (like the secured end of a string). Open boundaries allow maximum oscillations like an antinode (like the free end of a flag)

Formula for complex sugars

Cn(H2O)m

Formula for simple monomeric sugars

Cn(H2O)n

structural gene (operon)

Codes for the protein of interest

cofactor vs coenzyme

Cofactor- non-organic, ions, metals. Often ingested as dietary minerals Coenzyme- Organic groups, often vitamins or derived from vitamins

transcription factors

Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter and the initiation of transcription. They have a DNA binding domain and an activation domain, which binds other regulatory proteins, RNA polymerase, and histone acetylases involved in chromatin remodeling.

Ganglia

Collections of nerve cell bodies in the PNS

propionic acid

Common name for propanoic acid (3 carbons with a carboxylic acid group at the end)

inositol triphosphate (IP3)

Common second messenger for peptide hormones

Competent responder

Competent means that the responder is able to respond to the signal from the inducer

Which complex in the ETC has the highest reduction potential?

Complex IV (they increase along the chain)

elastin

Component of extracellular matrix of connective tissue - stretches and recoils to restore original shape of tissue.

clots

Composed of both coagulation factors and platelets to prevent blood loss.

Stereoisomers

Compounds with the same chemical formula and atomic connectivity. Differ in how the atoms are arranged in space (wedges and dashes). All isomers which aren't structural isomers are stereoisomers.

isomer

Compounds with the same formula but different structures.

stereoisomers

Compounds with the same structural formula but with a different arrangement of the atoms in space.

When do you have a concave meniscus? When do you have a convex meniscus?

Concave when adhesive forces are stronger, convex when cohesive forces are stronger

The formation of esters, amides, and anhydrides from carboxylic acids is what kind of reaction?

Condensation

What kind of reaction is peptide bond formation?

Condensation/dehydration. Also an acyl substitution

Hyperthyroidism

Condition caused by excessive secretion of two hormones of the thyroid gland. Results in heightened activity level, heat intolerance, increased body temp, weight loss

eclipsed conformation

Conformation where electron clouds from atoms across a single bond overlap, causing steric hinderance. Totally eclipsed occurs when the two largest groups overlap.

bile ducts

Connect the liver with both the gallbladder and small intestine. Bile is produced in the liver and then it travels down these ducts to the gallbladder, where it's stored until release into the duodenum

synovium

Connective membrane that lines joints and produces synovial fluid.

pyloric glands

Contain G-cells that secrete gastrin, a peptide hormone.

negatively skewed distribution

Contains a preponderance of scores on the high end of the scale. The mean will be lower than the median in a negatively skewed distribution. There is a tail on the left side.

positively skewed distribution

Contains a preponderance of scores on the low end of the scale. The mean will be higher than the median in a positively skewed distribution. There is a tail on the right side.

A-band

Contains thick filaments entirely, along with overlap from thin filaments

What kind of glasses are converging lenses? Diverging lenses?

Converging lenses are used by people who are far-sighted (reading glasses). Diverging lenses are used by people who are near sighted.

How do you tell what harmonic an open pipe is oscillating at?

Corresponds to the number of nodes

Do hormonal controls of glycogen metabolism result in covalent or noncovalent modifications?

Covalent modifications like phosphorylation and dephosphorylation

Capacitance of capacitors in parallel

Cp = C1 + C2 + ...

Purpose of pentose phosphate pathway

Creation of ribose-5-P for nucleotide synthesis Creation of NADPH as a reducing agent in anabolic pathways

Four rules that define aromatic compounds

Cyclic Planar Conjugated Huckel's rule is followed (Aromatic compounds have 4n+2 pi electrons)

Lactones

Cyclic esters Named by replacing '-oic acid' with '-lactone'

Cysteine 1 and 3 letter codes

Cys, C

What is the relationship between D-gluocose and L-glucose? How about between D-glucose and D-galactose?

D-gluocose and L-glucose and enantiomers, D-glucose and D-galactose are diastereomers.

Which DNA polymerase fills in the gaps when RNA primers are removed?

DNA Polymerase delta

Why are there more mistakes on the lagging strand?

DNA ligase, which closes gaps between the Okazaki fragments, lacks proofreading ability

Which DNA polymerase synthesize the daughter strands in prokaryotes?

DNA polymerase III

Recombinant DNA

DNA produced by combining DNA from different sources

What is the role of DNA polymerase β and ε?

DNA repair

What effect do noncompetitive inhibitors have on Vmax and Km?

Decrease Vmax, no effect on Km

reticular layer

Deeper, more dense layer of the dermis

Myogenic

Describes muscle tissue (heart muscle) that generates its own contractions.

conduction pathways

Different pathways through a resistor--increasing the cross-sectional area of a resister grants more of these

What kind of mutation does UV light induce in DNA?

Dimerization between adjacent thymines

Vmax and kcat relationship

Direct. Vmax = kcat[E]

Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ T cells)

Directly kill virally infected cells by injecting chemicals that induce apoptosis. Respond to antigens presented on MHC I

induction (bonding)

Distribution of charge across sigma bonds due to electronegativity

cystine

Disulfide bonded cysteine residues

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm during cell division

insulators

Do not allow electricity to flow through them easily -- like very strong resistors

Are NH2 groups electron withdrawing or donating?

Donating

Are OCH3 groups electron withdrawing or donating?

Donating

Nuclear membrane/envelope

Double membrane that surrounds the nucleus and DNA. Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus and separates it from the cytoplasm.

Major waste products excreted in the urine

Dump the HUNK H+ Urea NH3 K+

magnitude of the electric field on the perpendicular bisector of the dipole (tbh probably don't need to know this)

E = (1/(4*pi*Epsilon) x p/r^3

Nernst equation for membrane potential from intra and extracellular concentration of ions

E = 61.5/z * log([ion]inside/[ion]outside) z is the charge of the ion

How to calculate energy dissipated in a circuit

E = P*t (power times time)

Magnitude of the electric field made by a Parallel Plate Capacitor

E = V/d V is voltage difference d is distance between plates

energy of an photon

E = hc/lambda = hf

magnitude of an electric field equation

E=F/q = kQ/r^2 E=the magnitude of the electric field F=force a test charge would experience q= the magnitude of the test charge Q = source charge magnitude

Energy of a photon equation

E=hf h = planck's constant: 6.6x10^-23 J*s

Prototherians

Egg laying mammals

chondrin

Elastic cartilage matrix substance secreted by chondrocytes

Lewis base

Electron pair donor in the formation of a covalent bond Tend to be nucleophiles Have a lone pair to donate, often anions

What occurs in complex I of the ETC?

Electrons are transferred from NADH to Coenzyme Q. NADH first transfers its electrons to FMN to make FMNH2, electrons are then transferred to iron-sulfur clusters, finally, the electrons are donated to coenzyme Q to make CoQH2. In this process, 4 protons are moved to the intermembrane space.

What occurs in complex II of the ETC?

Electrons are transferred from succinate to Coenzyme Q. Succinate first transfers its electrons to FADH2, then they go to iron-sulfur clusters, then to Coenzyme Q, reducing it to CoQH2. No hydrogen pumping occurs here.

first law of thermodynamics

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

bisphosphoglycerate mutase

Enzyme found in erythrocytes (RBCs) 1,3-BPG → 2,3-BPG; 2,3-BPG binds to beta chain of HbA decreasing affinity for oxygen

Pepsin

Enzyme in gastric juice that digests proteins by cleaving peptide bonds near aromatic amino acids. Most active at low pH

salivary amylase

Enzyme in saliva that hydrolyzes starch into smaller sugars

Daltons (unit)

Equivalent to molar mass. C-12 is 12 daltons.

Triacylglycerols (triglycerides)

Esters of long chain fatty acids and glycerol

Ovulation

Estrogen levels become high enough that positive feedback occurs and GnRH, LH, and FSH spike, triggering ovulation

Eukaryotic vs prokaryotic flagella

Euk = made of tubulin in 9+2 arrangement Pro = simple helices made of flagelin with a filament, basal body, hook

Heterochromatin

Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed. It shows up as dark spots under light microscopy.

Are the reactions catalyzed by the PDH complex exergonic, endergonic, or roughly neutral?

Exergonic

supressor (regulatory) T cells

Express CD4 but can be differentiated form helper T cells because they also express a protein called Foxp3. They tone down the immune response once infection has been adequately contained. These cells also turn off self-reactive lymphocytes to prevent autoimmune disease: self-tolerance.

Force of a magnetic field on a current-carrying wire

F = ILB sinθ I = current in wire L = length of wire B = magnitude of magnetic field θ is angle between L and B

Magnetic force on a moving charge

F = qvBsinθ q is the charge v is the magnitude of its velocity B is the magnitude of the magnetic field θ is the angle between the velocity vector and magnetic field vector

Coulomb's Law

F=K q₁*q₂/r², magnitude of force between two charges k = 9x10^9 N*m^2/C^2

Newton's Second Law

F=ma

what reaction does dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase catalyze?

FAD is used as a coenzyme to reoxidize lipoic acid, reducing FAD to FADH2, which will later be transferred to NADH

Newton's Third Law

Fab = -Fba For every force exerted by object a on object b there is an equal and opposite force exerted by object b onto object a.

What occurs in complex III (cytochrome reductase) of the ETC?

Facilitates transfer of electrons from coenzyme Q to cytochrome c in a few steps. Each CoQH2 reduces two molecules of cytochrome c from Fe3+ to Fe2+ in the Q cycle. This causes a net of four protons being taken from the matrix and put out into the intermembrane space.

True or false: all lipids enter circulation through the lymphatic system?

False: some free fatty acids enter circulation directly

SI unit of capacitance

Farad = 1 C/V

What hormones can act rapidly? Which enact longer effects?

Faster - peptide hormones Slower - steroid hormones and amino acid derivative hormones like thyroid hormones

What is the primary fuel source of cardiac muscle?

Fatty acids (they mirror skeletal muscles during extended periods of exercise)

centripetal force equation

Fc=mv^2/r

FINER method of evaluating a research question

Feasible Interesting Novel Ethical Relevant

fibrous vs globular proteins

Fibrous form long strands while globular are more ball-shaped

Three main functions of the nephron

Filtration - movement of solutes from blood to filtrate in Bowman's capsule Secretion - movement of solutes from blood to filtrate outside of Bowman's capsule Reabsorption - movement of solutes from filtrate to blood

Gram staining process

First a crystal-violet stain, then counter-stain with safranin. If the crystal-violet is absorbed, the bacteria will appear purple and is gram positive. If the bacteria doesn't absorb the crystal-violet, but absorbs the safranin, it will appear pink-red and is gram-negative.

how is isocitrate converted to alpha ketoglutarate?

First, isocitrate is oxidized to oxalosuccinate by isocitrate dehydrogenase (coupled with reduction of NAD+ to NADH), then oxalosuccinate is decarboxylated at the middle carbon to produce alpha ketoglutarate

How is galactose metabolized?

First, it's phosphorylated by galactokinase, then it's converted to glucose-1-phosphate by galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase and an epimerase.

What is created in Beta oxidation?

For every round, 1 acetyl-CoA, 1 NADH, 1 FADH2

directional selection

Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve

speciation

Formation of new species

Nucleotides

Formed when 1 or more phosphate groups are attached to C-5 of a nucleosides Composed of a 5-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate

Egg pathway

From puberty to menopause; one egg per month dropped into peritoneal sac lining abdominal cavity -->into fallopian tube aka oviduct for fertilization --> uterus for fetal development

What lines should be drawn to find where an image will be for a lens?

From the tip of the object... draw a line to the focal point, which reflects back parallel to the axis. draw a line parallel to the axis, which reflects back through the focal point draw a line to the center of the lens, which continues straight without refracting

What lines should be drawn to find where an image will be for a mirror?

From the tip of the object... draw a line to the focal point, which reflects back parallel to the axis. draw a line parallel to the axis, which reflects back through the focal point draw a line to the center of the mirror, which reflects back at the same angle

What molecule activates pyruvate kinase and what type of regulation is this?

Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate activates pyruvate kinase, an example of feed-forward activation

What is the rate-limiting step in gluconeogenesis?

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

What reaction does PFK-1 catalyze?

Fructose-6-phosphate + ATP ->Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate + ADP

How is malate produced from fumarate?

Fumarase catalyzes the hydrolysis of fumarate's central double bond, leaving an OH group. Only L-malate is formed.

What step of the TCA cycle occurs on the inner membrane?

Fumarate formation via succinate dehydrogenase

Vibrating at multiple frequencies

Fundamental pitch and overtones

Downfield (NMR)

Further to the left on the chart, meaning more desheilded (closer to heteroatoms)

microtubule organizing center (MTOC)

General term for any structure (e.g., centrosome and basal body) that organizes microtubules in cells.

What interactions stabilize tertiary structure?

Generally, R-group interaction, but also the backbone plays a role

megakaryocytes

Giant cells in bone marrow that release platelets

Glutamine 1 and 3 letter codes

Gln, Q

Name the 5 hormones which oppose the action of insulin

Glucagon, cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, growth hormone

What two processes can maintain glucose levels in the blood during fasting?

Gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis

Glycine 1 and 3 letter codes

Gly, G

Which occurs more quickly in a fasting state: gluconeogenesis or glycogenolysis?

Glycogenolysis

gangliosides

Glycolipids with a polar head group composed of oligosaccharides with a terminal sialic acid (NANA) molecule.

When is gravity filtration used? When is vacuum filtration used?

Gravity filtration is more often used when you are interested in the filtrate, vacuum filtration is more often used when you're interested in the solid.

effect of axon cross-sectional area and length

Greater cross-sectional area decreases resistance and increases speed, increasing length does the reverse (but to a lesser degree)

Groups on the right in the Fischer projection go where in the hawthorne projection? Those on the left?

Groups on the right go on the bottom, groups on the left go up.

what happens to the H, I, and A bands during sarcomere contraction?

H and I shorten, A remains unchanged

What spectroscopy technique do MRI scanners use?

H-NMR, spectra of water molecules the in body

Which histone protein is not part of the histone core?

H1

Rate limiting step of cholesterol synthesis

HMG-CoA reductase catalyzed conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonate

cilia

Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion along the surface of the cell (such as movement of mucus in the respiratory track)

pronuclei

Haploid aspect of sperm. Joins ovum to make the zygote.

compact bone

Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone (periosteum)

mast cells

Have preformed antibodies on their surface, make histamine to activate the immune response. Largely responsible for allergies

myocardial infarction

Heart attack occurs due to lack of blood flow through the coronary arteries to the heart muscle. This insufficient oxygen causes heart tissue to die. Beta blockers stop this by decreasing heart rate, making cardiac tissue require less oxygen

Ways to denature DNA

Heat, alkaline pH, chemicals like formaldehyde/urea

tail fibers of bacteriophage

Help the bacteriophage to recognize and connect to the correct host cell

hnRNA

Heterogeneous nuclear RNA; the primary transcript made in eukaryotes before splicing.

Physiological changes that cause a right shift in the oxygen dissociation curve

High 2,3-BPG Low pH/High H+ High pCO2

What property of telomeres and centromeres allows them to stay tightly raveled, even when the rest of the DNA is uncondensed?

High GC content, which increases hydrogen bonding, making DNA association very strong

Histidine 1 and 3 letter codes

His, H

effects of hyperthyroidism

Hyperactivity, weight loss, fever, anxiety

osmotic pressure equation

II=iMRT i: van't Hoff factor (number of particles obtained when a single molecule is dissolved) M: molarity R: gas constant T: temp in Kelvins

cis vs trans with rings

If both groups are on same side of the ring, it's cis, else it's trans

How can a mixture of products be avoided in aldol condensations?

If the alpha carbon on one of the molecules doesn't have any hydrogens (or if you use one type of molecule)

In nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl, when will the carbonyl reform and when will it not? What happens if it doesn't?

If there's a good leaving group present, as in carboxylic acids and their derivatives, then the carbonyl can reform. If it's an aldehyde or ketone, then there will be no leaving group and the oxygen will generally be protonated, leaving an alcohol.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. When brought into contact, these objects will have no thermal flow.

Isoleucine 1 and 3 letter codes

Ile, I

Lymphocytes

Important to specific immune response. There are primary responders, and longer term ones with memory. Vaccines work by acting on these

residue vs. filtrate

In a filtration, the residue is the solid left in the filter and the filtrate is the liquid that goes through the filter

fingerprint region

In an IR spectrum, the region of 1500 to 400 cm-1 where more complex vibration patterns, caused by the motion of the molecule as a whole, can be seen; it is characteristic of each individual molecule.

Partitioning Coefficient

In chromatography, measures the adherence to the stationary phase, causing elution to occur at variable rates

AC vs DC

In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows in one direction. Electric charge in alternating current (AC), on the other hand, changes direction periodically. DC is tested on the MCAT

3' poly-A tail

In eukaryotes, a series of 1-200 adenine residues added to the 3' end of an mRNA; the tail appears to enhance the stability of the mRNA by protecting it from degradation.

Ketogenesis (location, enzymes, intermediate)

In mitochondria of liver cells HMG-CoA synthase makes HMG-CoA from acetyl-CoA HMG-CoA lyase breaks down HMG-CoA into acetoacetate which can be reduced to 3-hydroxybutyrate

What enzyme converts glucose to glucose-6-phosphate?

In most cells, hexokinase. In pancreatic and liver cells, glucokinase

negative vs positive control (transcription)

In negative control, the binding of a protein to DNA stops transcription. In positive control, the binding of a protein to DNA increases transcription.

pinocytosis and phagocytosis

In pinocytosis the cell takes up liquid; in phagocytosis, the cell takes up solid particles. Both are types of endocytosis

What role do waxes play in cell membranes?

In plants, they provide stability and rigidity within the nonpolar tail region

Nucleophilicity trend in protic vs aprotic polar solvents

In polar protic solvents, nucleophilicity increases as you move down the periodic table (because atoms with lower atomic number are more likely to be protonated). In polar aprotic solvents nucleophilicity decreases as you move down the periodic table (bc nucleophilicity is directly related to basicity)

What enzyme removes RNA primers in prokaryotes? In Eukaryotes?

In prokaryotes, DNA polymerase I, in eukaryotes, RNAse H

where does the blood pressure drop the most?

In the arterioles. The capillaries cannot withstand the pressure in the arteries

What happens in hydration of a ketone/aldehyde?

In the presence of water, it will attack the carbonyl carbon and make a geminal diol. This occurs slowly but the rate will increase in the presence of catalytic acid or base.

How does type II diabetes relate to glucose transport?

In type 2 diabetes, cellular receptors become insensitive to insulin, so GLUT 4 transporters aren't brought to the cell surface, resulting in decreased glucose intake and increased blood sugar levels

spherical aberration

Inability of spherical mirror or lens to focus all parallel rays to a single point, leading to blurring at the periphery

six simple machines

Inclined Plane, Wedge, Screw, Lever, Wheel and Axle, and Pulley

hypercarbia/hypercapnia

Increased carbon dioxide level in the bloodstream ventilation center increases respiratory rate so more is exhaled

glucagon effects

Increased glycogenolysis Increased gluconeogenesis Increased liver ketogenesis Decreased lipogenesis Increased lipolysis in the liver

Respiratory response to acidemia

Increasing breathing rate, which blows out CO2, shifting equilibrium away from H+ ion formation

How does epinephrine increase heart rate?

Increasing intracellular calcium levels within cardiac myocytes

Parameter vs. Statistic

Information calculated using every person in a population is a parameter. Information gathered from a sample of a population is called a statistic.

adrenal medulla

Inside adrenal cortex, secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

Pitot tube

Instrument that is inserted into a flowing fluid (such as a stream of water) to measure the velocity pressure of the stream; commonly used to measure flow. A pitot tube functions by converting the velocity energy to pressure energy that can then be measured by a pressure gauge.

How are charges distributed in insulators vs conductors?

Insulators don't distribute charge over their surfaces, whereas conductors will distribute charge evenly on their surface

Describe insulin and glucagon's effects on PFK-1

Insulin activates PFK-2 which converts some fructose-6-phosphate into fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, which activates PFK-1. Glucagon does the opposite by inhibiting PFK-2. Insulin can drive glycolysis even when the cell is energetically satisfied, and the metabolites can be fead into other pathways

How is intensity related to amplitude?

Intensity is proportional to amplitude squared

How is intensity related to distance from the source?

Intensity is proportional to distance from source squared

molten globules

Intermediate states in the folding of a protein

internal vs external validity

Internal: extent to which we can say that the change in outcome variable (dependent) is due to intervention External: extent to which findings can be generalized to real world

Transduction

Introduction of new genetic material to a bacterium through a vector (a bacteriophage)

What three enzymes make NADH in the TCA cycle?

Isocitrate dehydrogenase, α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and malate dehydrogenase

What can sound travel though? What can't it travel through?

It can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. It cannot travel in a vacuum.

Does order matter for dot products? For cross products?

It doesn't matter for dot products (scalar multiplication) but it does for cross-products. Order will determine the direction of the resultant

how does flow rate change when cross-sectional area changes?

It doesn't--flow rate (the volume per time) stays constant in a closed system

How does a two-pulley system affect the force needed to lift a load? How does it affect the effort distance?

It halves the force needed, but doubles the effort distance (the length of rope that one must pull)

What makes phosphoric acid a good buffer?

It has three hydrogens with pKa values which span a wide range

What is the affect of insulin on the PPP?

It induces glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, the rate-limiting step, thus driving the pathway forward

How does oxaloacetate leave the mitochondria?

It is converted to malate by malate dehydrogenase and then reoxidized outside of the mitochondria.

How does cholesterol affect membrane fluidity?

It makes it more fluid in very cold temperatures, by not allowing formation of crystal structures. In very warm temperatures it decreases fluidity by limiting movement of phospholipids in the bilayer.

When does the brain use fatty acids for energy?

It never does because they can't pass the blood brain barrier.

What reaction does glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyze?

It oxidizes glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate with the addition of Pi, along with the reduction of NAD+ to NADH

What effect does insulin have on cholesterol synthesis?

It promotes cholesterol synthesis

In what direction does DNA polymerase act?

It reads 3'-5' and synthesizes the new strand 5'-3'

what reaction does lactate dehydrogenase catalyze?

It reduces pyruvate to lactate, oxidizing NADH to NAD+, replenishing NAD+ stores so that glycolysis can continue to anaerobic conditions

in sp2 hybridization what happens to the third p orbital?

It remains unhybridized, and it participates in the formation of a pi bond

What is the role of DNA polymerase γ

It replicates mitochondrial DNA

What reaction does 3-phosphoglycerate kinase catalyze?

It transfers a phosphate from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP, forming ATP in substrate-level phosphorylation

The resultant of a cross product will always be in what direction with respect to the two vectors?

It will always be perpendicular to the plane created by the two vectors

How is the respiratory quotient expected to change when a person goes from resting to exercise?

It will increase as glucose becomes the predominant energy source over lipids

What is the role of NADPH?

It's an electron donor (reducing agent) used in: -biosynthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol -assisting in cellular bleach production in WBCs -Maintaining bodily supplies of glutathione (natural antioxidants)

How is fructose metabolized?

It's first phosphorylated by fructokinase, then split by aldolase B into DHAP and Glyceraldehyde, which can then be phosphorylated and fed in glycolysis

How is cardiac muscle like smooth muscle? Skeletal muscle?

It's striated and occasionally multinucleated like skeletal muscle, but it's under autonomic control like smooth muscle

In amino acid catabolism, what happens to the carbon skeleton?

It's transported to the liver for processing to glucose or ketone bodies

Watt (unit)

J/s kg*m^2/s^3

SI unit for heat

Joule

Movement of ions during repolarization

K+ moves out of the cell

Kinetic energy equation

KE=1/2mv^2

catalytic efficiency

Kcat/Km -- the higher, the greater catalytic efficiency

Which amino acids can be catabolized?

Ketogenic amino acids

Maximum energy of an ejected electron in the photoelectric effect

Kmax = hf-W Where W is the work function of the metal, the minimum energy needed to eject an electron. W = h(fT) where fT is the threshold frequency of the metal

Are naturally occurring amino acids L or D? What exception(s) exist to this?

L. Glycine is the exception because it isn't optically active

What do the following lipoproteins primarily carry? LDL HDL Chylomicrons VLDL IDL

LDL and HDL carry cholesterol, Chylomicrons and VLDL carry triacylglycerols, IDL is intermediate (transition state between VLDL and LDL).

chromosomal mutation

Large-scale mutations in which all or part of a chromosome is changed or relocated.

spongy bone

Layer of bone tissue having many small spaces and found just inside the layer of compact bone. Has bony spicules called trabeculae

Hypodermis

Layer of connective tissue that connects the skin to the rest of the body. Contains fat and fibrous tissue.

mucociliary escalator

Layer of mucus moved by cilia lining the respiratory tract that traps bacteria and other particles and moves them into the throat where they can be expelled or swallowed

Differences between left and right lungs

Left lung is slightly smaller and it has two lobes instead of three

Leucine 1 and 3 letter codes

Leu, L

What reducing agent can reduce carboxylic acids?

LiAlH4 can (NaBH4 cannot)

ependymal cells

Line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid, which physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber

vitamin D

Lipid-soluble vitamin Can be consumed or formed by a UV-driven rxn in skin Converted in liver or kidneys to calcitriol, the active form, which increases calcium and phosphate uptake in intestines, promoting bone growth

Vitamin E

Lipid-soluble vitamin Group containing tocopherols and tocotrienols Biological antioxidants

Where are lipoproteins produced?

Liver and intestines

Thymus

Located behind the sternum, releases thymosin, which is important for T-cell development and differentiation. Atrophies by adulthood

RNA polymerase II

Located in the nucleus and synthesizes hnRNA and some snRNA.

Saponification

Long-chain carboxylic acid reacts with sodium or potassium hydroxide, forming a salt

What does a small difference between the HOMO and LUMO tell us?

Longer wavelengths of light can be absorbed by the molecule

what blood volume and blood osmolarity would lead to the most concentrated urine?

Low blood volume, high blood osmolarity

What condition makes static charge buildup more easily?

Low humidity

Causes for the hemoglobin curve to shift right

Low pH, high CO2 concentration, increased temperature, increased 2,3-BPG

In IR spectroscopy, would conjugation of double bonds cause lower or higher wavenumbers?

Lower, because the bonds lose double bond character, making them closer to C-O stretches

Lysine 1 and 3 letter codes

Lys, K

microfilaments

Made up of polymerized rods of actin, which protects the cell. Involved in muscle contraction with myosin. Involved gross cell movement such as in cytokinesis by forming the cleavage furrow.

LDL

Main cholesterol carrier. Main role is to deliver cholesterol to tissues for biosynthesis.

Cellulose

Main structural component of plants. Chain of beta-D-glucose molecules linked by beta-1,4-glycosidic bonds

How is malate converted to oxaloacetate?

Malate's alcohol group is oxidized to a carbonyl group by malate dehydrogenase, coupled with the reduction of NAD+ to NADH

Metatherians

Marsupials Ex: Opossum, Kangaroos, Koala Born very early and finish in pouch of mother (Marsupium)

tight junctions

Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

Methionine 1 and 3 letter codes

Met, M

secondary oocyte is arrested in what phase?

Metaphase II

Force of gravity perpendicular to an inclined plane

Mg*cos(theta)

Force of gravity parallel to an inclined plane

Mg*sin(theta)

What structures are formed by lipids in the small intestine?

Micelles

What molecules can't be measured with IR? Why?

Molecules with no dipole moment like O2 or C2H2 won't be shown, because for absorption to be recorded, vibrations much affect a dipole moment

monocistronic vs polycistronic

Monocistropic - The coding pattern of eukaryotes in which one mRNA molecule codes for only one protein. Polycistronic - In bacteria, different proteins can result based on starting point of translation

smooth muscle in arteries vs veins

More smooth muscle in arteries

Neutrophils

Most abundant white blood cell Very short lived Phagocytic, target bacteria and follow them with chemotaxis Can detect bacteria once opsonized

How does temperature affect resistance?

Most conductors have more resistance at higher temperatures, although not all (ex. glass and silicone don't)

Rank amides, esters, and anhydrides in terms of reactivity

Most reactive to least: Anhydride, ester, amide

Rank the following by abundance in the plasma membrane: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Most to least abundant: lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids (essentially absent)

kinesins and dyneins

Motor proteins associated with microtubules; important for cell transport, chromosome alignment, cilia/flagella. Have two heads, one of which always stays attached to the microtubule. Kinesins bring vesicles to the positive end of microtubules, dyneins bring vesicles to the negative end of microtubules.

facilitated diffusion

Movement of specific molecules down their concentration gradient (passively) across cell membranes through protein channels

myocyte

Muscle cell. Contains many myofibrils arranged in parallel and can also be called a muscle fiber.

In what orientation are polypeptides drawn and read?

N-terminus to C-terminus

exponential decay equation

N=N0*e^-λt N0 is the number of undecayed nuclei at time t λ is the decay constant and is equal to 0.693/half life

What molecules inhibit the PDH complex?

NADH, acetyl-CoA

Movement of ions during depolarization

Na+ is moving into the cell

seminiferous tubules

Narrow, coiled tubules that produce sperm in the testes.

stabilizing selection

Natural selection that favors intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes

Where on the titration curve are buffers most effective?

Near the pKa of the buffer.

Is Strecker synthesis stereospecific? Is Gabriel Synthesis?

Neither are--they both produce racemic mixtures of amino acids.

What two cell types are insensitive to insulin?

Nervous tissue, because it's always oxidizing glucose to CO2 and water in both normal and fasting states. This is only changed in extreme fasting. Red blood cells can only use glucose anaerobically regardless of energy needs, so they're also insensitive.

signalling between the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary

Neurons in the hypothalamus send their axons down the pituitary stalk directly into the posterior pituitary

Epinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline. Increases breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increases basal metabolic rate, increase heart rate, dilate bronchi, shunt blood flow to systems involved in sympathetic response

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla. increase heart rate, dilate bronchi, shunt blood flow to systems involved in sympathetic response

lactation hormones

Nipple stimulation causes activation of hypothalamus . This causes oxytocin release by the posterior pituitary, causing ejection of milk through the nipple. Additionally, the hypothalamus stops releasing dopamine (PIF) to the anterior pituitary, allowing prolactin release, which causes production of milk and regulation of milk supply.

Reversing the order in vector addition yields what effect? (A+B versus B+A)

No difference

Can the PDH complex convert acetyl-CoA back to pyruvate?

No, the process is irreversible

Can all amines undergo condensation with carboxylic acids to make an amide?

No--tertiary amides cannot because they don't have a hydrogen to lose

Can we use nonpolar solvents in nucleophile-electrophile reactions? Why?

No--the reactants are polar and thus won't dissolve in nonpolar solvents

Is beta oxidation in the mitochondria the only form of fatty acid catabolism?

No--there's also beta oxidation in peroxisomes, alpha oxidation in branched fatty acids, and ω-oxidation in the ER

What is the pH gradient between the cytoplasm and the intermembrane space of the mitochrondria?

None- the outer mitochondrial membrane is highly permeable, including to ions

In a silica gel TLC, do polar or nonpolar compounds move up more?

Nonpolar compounds move up more because they have less affinity for the polar stationary phase, and more affinity for the mobile phase which has weak to moderate polarity

natural killer cells (NK cells)

Nonspecific lymphocyte that can detect downregulation of MHC proteins, and kill these infected cells. This occurs also in cancer cells, so they help fight off cancer as well as infection

Does RNA polymerase proofread?

Nope! Only DNA polymerases alpha and delta proofread

BMI ranges for normal, overweight, obese

Normal: 18.5-25 Overweight: 25-30 Obese: >30

Through what does mRNA leave the nucleus?

Nuclear pores

How to convert carboxylic acids to amides

Nucleophile is ammonia or an amine, done in either acidic or basic solution

Aldol condensation

Nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl Aldehyde/ketone acts as both the nucleophile (in the enolate form) and the electrophile (in the keto form) Ends in the formation of a C-C bond and an aldol (contains both an alcohol and and aldehyde)

Nucleophilicity vs basicity

Nucleophilicity is a kinetic property based on rates of reaction with a common electrophile, basicity is based on equilibrium position, so it is a thermodynamic property

How are fatty acids named?

Number of carbons:Number of double bonds ex. 18:2 would have an 18 carbon chain with 2 double bonds

(R) and (S) confirmation

Number substituents, put lowest priority in the back. If you need to swap two things, you need to invert the answer for confirmation. Draw a circle, if it's clockwise, R, counterclockwise, S.

Conjugation of bilirubin

Occurs in the liver, conjugation makes bilirubin water soluble by attaching it to a protein; if not removed, will build up in bloodstream and cause jaundice

rotary evaporator (rotovap)

Once the desired product is extracted substance is placed in rotovap in order to evaporate the solvent Leaving solute extract behind

Do oncogene mutations tend to be dominant or recessive? How about tumor suppressor genes?

Oncogenes tend to be dominant, tumor suppressor genes tend to be recessive

lacteal

One in the center of each villus of the small intestine-- Lymphatic channel that takes up fats for transport into the lymphatic system

thoracic duct

One-way vessels carrying lymph come together to form this duct in the posterior chest, which then delivers fluid to the subclavian vein (near the heart)

clonal selection

Only B cells that bind to the antigen with high affinity will survive.

Can fatty acids be converted to glucose?

Only odd-numbered fatty acids can.

amides

Organic compounds whose molecules have a carbonyl nitrogen bond. They are the product formed in a reaction between a carboxylic acid and an amine.

white and grey matter in spinal cord

Outer is white, inner is gray

Capsid

Outer protein coat of a virus, may be surrounded by an envelope composed of phospholipids

chorion

Outermost layer of the two membranes surrounding the embryo; it forms the fetal part of the placenta. Monochorionic twins share a placenta

How to use standard deviation to find outliers

Outliers are 3 standard deviations from the mean

How to use interquartile range to find outliers

Outliers are values more than 1.5 interquartile ranges below the first quartile or above the 3rd quartile

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase

Oxaloacetate -> phosphoenolpyruvate Gluconeogenesis, irreversible enzyme In cytosol Requires GTP Induced by glucagon and cortisol

What kind of reaction is disulfide bond formation?

Oxidation

In a well-fed state, from where does the liver get most of its energy?

Oxidation of excess amino acids

What negative effect can antibiotics and antimalarial drugs have, which can also result from consumption of fava beans?

Oxidative stress (remedied by NADPH produced in PPP)

pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC)

Oxidizes primary alcohols into aldehydes (doesn't fully oxidize to carboxylic acid) Oxidizes secondary alcohols into ketones

power of lens equation

P = 1/f f = focal length

Hydraulics equation (relating pressure, force, area)

P = F1/A1 = F2/A2 F2 = F1 * (A2/A1)

Power in an electrical circuit

P=IV=I^2 * R = V^2/R P is power I is current R is resistance V is voltage drop across a resistor

What glycolysis enzyme is inhibited by citrate?

PFK-1

Glucocorticoids

Part of the stress response Produced in the adrenal cortex Biggest example is cortisol

PaO2

Partial pressure of oxygen in the blood, normal is 80-100 mmHg. Requires blood draw to measure

chyme

Partially digested, semiliquid food mixed with digestive enzymes and acids in the stomach.

Pressure units

Pascals (Pa) = 1 N/m^2

punctuated equilibrium

Pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change

Interkinesis

Period of time between meiosis I and meiosis II during which no DNA replication takes place.

descending limp of loop of henle

Permeable to water but not salt; therefore, as the filtrate moves into a more osmotically concentrated renal medulla, water is reabsorbed from the filtrate. The vasa recta and nephron flow in opposite directions, creating a counter-current multiplier system that allows the maximal reabsorption of water. 1) Since we are going down the osmolarity gradient (its increasing), water leaves the filtrate.

Anaphase

Phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell

Phenylalanine 1 and 3 letter codes

Phe, F

differential reproduction

Phenomenon in which individuals with adaptive genetic traits produce more living offspring than do individuals without such traits.

What reaction does nucleosidediphosphate kinase catalyze?

Phosphate transfer from GTP to ADP, making ATP and GDP

rate limiting enzyme of glycolysis

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)

What is the difference between a sphingolipid that is also a phospholipid and one that isn't?

Phospholipids contain phosphodiester bonds

physical vs chemical properties

Physical- no change of composition of molecules (melting & boiling point, solubility, odor, color and density) Chemical- reactivity of molecules resulting in change in composition

gap junctions

Points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with membrane proteins, connexin. Water and solutes can go through but not proteins.

gap junctions

Points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another. Seen in cardiac muscle to allow for coordinated depolarization of cells that cause efficient contraction

For a positive source charge, what sign in the electrical potential (V)?

Positive

How do positive charges move to change their electric potential? How do negative charges move?

Positive charges move to decrease their electric potential, negative charges move to increase it. In both cases, electrical potential energy is decreasing

What does if mean if an image has a positive distance? Negative?

Positive means its a real image, negative means its a virtual image

Are phase changes related to potential energy change or kinetic energy change?

Potential energy change

brush border enzymes

Present on the luminal surface of cells lining the duodenum and break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorbable monomers ex. disaccharidases, peptidases

hydrostatic pressure

Pressure exerted by a volume of fluid against a wall, membrane, or some other structure that encloses the fluid. Ex. the pressure that blood exerts on the vessel walls

Where does triacylglycerol synthesis take place?

Primarily in the liver, also in adipose tissue

Eosinophils

Primarily involved in allergic reactions and parasitic infection When activated, release histamine

which muscle cells are multinucleated?

Primarily skeletal/striated muscle cells. Some cardiac muscle cells contain two nuclei

primary vs secondary active transport

Primary - transport directly coupled with ATP Secondary- ATP first used to create a gradient and the potential energy is used to drive something across membrane

Proline 1 and 3 letter codes

Pro, P

endochondral ossification

Process of transforming cartilage into bone.

dihydroxyacetone phosphate (how is it made, how is it used)

Produced by breaking of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by aldolase, along with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Can be converted to G3P by triose phosphate isomerase, or can be used for triacylglycerol synthesis

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Produced by hypothalamus, promotes secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary, these go on to affect the gonads

Crossing over occurs during

Prophase I

apolipoproteins

Protein molecules responsible for the interaction of lipoproteins with cells and the transfer of lipid molecules between lipoproteins; also called apoproteins

fibrin

Protein threads that form the basis of a blood clot by cross-linking fibers into a woven structure that captures blood cells and platelets, forming a clot. This will turn into a scab, if on a surface vessel

coagulation factors

Proteins in blood plasma which help initiate the blood coagulation process, most of which come from the liver

elongation factors

Proteins involved in the elongation phase of translation, assisting ribosomes in the synthesis of the growing peptide chain by recruiting aminoacyl-tRNA and GTP, and bringing away GDP once its energy is used

When a new nucleotide is incorporated into a DNA strand by DNA polymerase, what is released?

Pyrophosphate (P2O7)4-

Bernoulli's Equation

P₁+ρv₁²/2+ρgy₁=P₂+ρv₂²/2+ρgy₂, where P=absolute pressure, ρ=density, and y=height relative to reference height

continuity equation (fluids)

Q = v1A1 = v2A2 Q is the flow rate v1 is linear speed at point 1 A1 is cross-sectional area at point 1

Interquartile Range (IQR)

Q3-Q1

Hill's coefficient

Quantifies cooperativity If it is greater than 1, positively cooperative binding occurs If it is less than 1, negatively cooperative binding occurs If it is equal to 1, no cooperativity occurs

When n identical resisters are wired in parallel what is the resistance?

R/n

main RNA polymerase which makes hnRNA

RNA Polymerase II

saltatory conduction

Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.

mechanical advantage

Ratio of the output force exerted by a machine to the input force applied to the machine. F out/ F in

Which tissue is least able to change its fuel source during periods of prolonged starvation?

Reb blood cells--they can only use glucose

right ventricle

Receives blood from right atrium, pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs

Conductance and units

Reciprocal of resistance, units are siemens (S)

What kind of reactions do dehydrogenases catalyze?

Redox

What kind of reactions do oxidases catalyze?

Redox reactions with oxygens as the final electron acceptor

Paracrine

Referring to a secreted molecule that acts on a neighboring cell.

What kinds of images do diverging mirrors form?

Regardless of the object's position, diverging mirrors always form a virtual, upright, and reduced image. The further away the object, the smaller the image will be.

What do pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase and pyruvate dehydrogenase phosphatase do?

Regulate the activity of pyruvate dehydrogenase. Kinase inactivates with high ATP , dehydrogenase activates with high ADP

mast cells

Related to basophils but have smaller granules, release histamine. Exist in tissues, mucosa, epithelium (like skin) Involved in allergic response, causing inflammation

atrial natriuretic peptide

Released by the heart when it stretches too much from excess blood volume. Promotes excretion of sodium, increasing urine volume.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Released by the hypothalamus. Promotes secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary gland, these trigger production of sex hormones which develop and maintain the reproductive system

mismatch repair

Repair done in the G2 phase to right mistakes that were missed in proofreading. Enzymes for this are encoded by MSH2 and MLH1 in eukaryotes and MutS and MutL

Griffith's experiment

Reported in 1928 by Fredrick Griffith, was the first experiment suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation. Found using nonvirulent strain of bacteria with heat-killed virulent strain

Internal resistance

Resistance of a source of power, such as a battery. V = Ecell - ir(int) Ecell = emf of the cell i = current through the cell r(int) = internal resistance

vericose veins

Results from venous valves failing, allowing backflow and pooling of blood

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

Reverses PFK-1, F-1,6-BP → F-1P; activated by ATP; inhibited by AMP, F-2,6-BP

B-DNA

Right-handed helical structure of DNA that exists when water is abundant; the most common DNA structure in cells. Contains 10 bases per turn and a major and minor groove

second condition of equilibrium

Rotational equilibrium exists only when the vector sum of all the torques acting on an object is zero

In cellular conditions, what is the standard free energy change from ATP hydrolysis?

Roughly -30 kJ/mol

Are naturally occurring amino acids S or R? What exception(s) exist to this?

S. Glycine is an exception because it doesn't have a chiral center, Cysteine is an exception because the Sulfur in its R group changes priority numbering.

heart conduction pathway

SA node, AV node, bundle of His (AV bundle), bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers

Watt

SI measure of power equal to one joule of work per second in units (kg*m^2)/s^3

Joule

SI unit of energy equal to one newton-meter in units (kg*m^2)/s^2

sperm pathway

Seminiferous tubules, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Ejaculatory Duct, Urethra (SEVE(N) UP) Seminiferous tubules Epididymis Vas Deferens Ejaculatory duct (Nothing) Urethra Penis

Segregation

Separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I

Serine 1 and 3 letter codes

Ser, S

How do carbonyls show up on IR spectroscopy?

Sharp peak at 1750 cm^-1

superinfection

Simultaneous infection, usually prevented by lysogenic cycles.

SA node

Sinoatrial node: pacemaker of the heart. Small collection of cells at the wall of the right atrium

Where does synthesis of mevalonic acid for cholesterol biosynthesis take place?

Smooth ER

intrapleural space

Space between the two membranes, visceral pleura and parietal pleura, that cover the lungs. Contains a thin layer of fluid

semilog graphs

Specialize representation of a logarithmic data set, Easily interpreted because curved nature of log graphs is converted to a linear form Typically the x-axis changes by set intervals, while the y-axis changes based on ratio ( 10^0, 10^,1, 10^2)

lacteals

Specialized lymphatic capillaries in the center of the villi in intestines that take up lipids packaged into chylomicrons. The fluid is called chyle, and puts fat into the bloodstream

Baroreceptors

Specialized neurons on the walls of the vasculature that are sensitive to blood pressure changes.

miles per hour to m/s approximation

Speeds in m/s are a bit less than half of what they are in mph. So 60 mph can be approximated at 30m/s (actually 27 m/s)

What are the backbones of sphingolipids?

Sphingosine or sphingoid

What are the start and end points of the pentose phosphate pathway?

Start: glucose-6-phosphate End: ribulose-5-phosphate (NADPH also produced)

occluded state of carrier protein

State in which the carrier is open to neither side of the plasma membrane

Kirchoff's Loop Rule

States that the sum of the voltage sources in a circuit loop is equal to the sum of voltage drops along that loop V source = V drop

conformational isomers

Stereoisomers that differ by rotation about one or more single bonds, usually represented using Newman projections. The most similar type of isomer.

Gs (GPCR)

Stimulates adenylate cyclase, increasing cellular levels of cAMP

retinol

Storage form of vitamin A Also oxidized to retinoic acid, which regualtes gene expression during epithelial development

Amplification

Strengthening of a signal during a signalling cascade ex. a hormone binding to multiple receptors before being degraded

What catalyzes hydrolysis of peptide bonds?

Strong acid or base

cohort studies

Subjects are sorted into two groups based on differences in risk factors (exposures), and then assessed at various intervals to determine how many subjects in each group had a certain outcome.

Nucleolus

Subsection of the nucleus where rRNA is synthesized

Km

Substrate concentration at 1/2 Vmax. Measures substrate affinity--lower Km means higher affinity

What reaction does pyruvate kinase catalyze?

Substrate-level phosphorylation of PEP to Pyruvate along with conversion of ADP->ATP

how is fumarate produced from succinate?

Succinate gains a double bond in the middle by oxidation via succinate dehydrogenase, coupled with the production of FADH2

trophoblast

Surround the blastocoel and give rise to the chorion and eventually the placenta

Period equation

T=1/f

preparative TLC

TLC on a larger scale to be used for purification larger plate develops with a larger spot the sample splits into bands on individual compounds which can then be scarped off to yield pure compounds

Diuretic method of action

Taken due to edema (excess fluid). Inhibits the reabsorption of sodium. Because sodium pulls water with it, this increases the amount of water that is excreted.

Tense state vs Relaxed state

Tense state is low-affinity, relaxed state is high-affinity. Binding of substrate encourages other subunits to switch from t to r

What level of protein structure does denaturation affect?

Tertiary (and quaternary)

what reaction does dihydrolipoyl transacetylase catalyze?

The 2C molecule bound to TPP is oxidized and transferred to lipoic acid whose disulfide group oxidizes it, making the acetyl group attached to lipoic acid. This acetyl is then transferred to the 2C molecule making acetyl-CoA. Lipoic acid is left in its reduced form.

How are fatty acyl-CoA molecules transported into the inner mitochondrial membrane?

The CoA is exchanged for carnitine, which can cross the membrane, where the molecule can undergo beta oxidation

What will the PI of amino acids with basic side chains be like? Acidic?

The PI of amino acids with basic side chains will be high (the average between the R group pKa and the amino group pKa) the PI of amino acids with acidic side chains will be low (the average between the R group pKa and the carboxylic acid group pKa)

DNA methylation

The addition of methyl groups to bases of DNA after DNA synthesis; may serve as a long-term control of gene expression. Methylation decreases expression

Current definition (and unit)

The amount of charge, Q, passing through a conductor per unit time, t Q/t 1C/s = 1 Ampere

specific heat

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree celsius

cleavage furrow

The area of the cell membrane that pinches in and eventually separates the dividing cell. Microtubules form it.

Doppler effect (qualitatively)

The change in frequency of a wave as its source moves in relation to an observer. If the source and detector are moving closer together, the frequency will be detected as higher than the source frequency, and if they're moving apart, the frequency will be detected as lower.

What is larger--the coefficient of static friction or the coefficient of kinetic friction? Is this always true?

The coefficient of static friction is always larger

What determines D or L in sugars?

The conformation of the highest numbered chiral carbon. If it's on the left in a Fischer projection it's L, if it's on the right it's D.

Myosin

The contractile protein that makes up the thick filaments of muscle fibers. Actin and myosin interact and use ATP to generate force

oxygen debt

The difference between the amount of oxygen needed by the muscles and the actual amount present. This equals the amount of oxygen needed to convert the lactic acid produced into pyruvate, which can then enter the TCA cycle

Vital Capacity (VC)

The difference between the minimum and maximum volume of air in the lungs (TLC-RV)

spermatogonia

The diploid cells in a testis that can give rise to primary spermatocytes.

Conduction

The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching.

if there is a tie in assigning priority in a molecule with double or triple bonds, which takes precedence?

The double bond

coupling constant (J value)

The energy difference between spin states caused by spin-spin coupling. Also the chemical shift difference between the lines in a split NMR signal due to spin-spin coupling.

G1 phase

The first growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins. Cells create organelles for energy/protein production. Governed by a restriction point which checks if cell is ready for S phase.

follicular phase

The first phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a follicle (an oocyte and its surroudning cells) enlarges and matures. This phase is under the control of FSH from the anterior pituitary, and typically lasts from day 1 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. The follicle secretes estrogen during this time period. GnRH increases, causing secretion of FSH and LH. Increased estrogen causes regrowth of endometrial lining.

Blastula

The hollow ball of cells marking the end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development

What do the fischer projection lines represent?

The horizontal lines are wedges (out of the page) and vertical lines are dashes (into the page)

What happens in dehydration of an aldol?

The hydroxyl group is removed, and a double bond forms between the alpha and beta carbons, making a conjugated pi system

What happens to odd-numbered fatty acids in beta oxidation?

The last splitting results in 1 acetyl-CoA and 1 propionyl-CoA. The propionyl-CoA is then converted to methylmalonyl-CoA by Propionyl-CoA carboxylase (requires biotin B7) this is then converted to succinyl-CoA by methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (requires cobalamin B12). This is a TCA cycle intermediate. P-M-S

Euchromatin

The less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription. It appears light under light microscopy.

Why is inorganic phosphate useful for energy transfer?

The negative charge on bonded phosphate molecules repel one another, and inorganic phosphate is resonance stabilized

How many peaks will there be in an NMR spectrum?

The number of protons in unique chemical environments

blastopore

The opening of the archenteron in the gastrula that develops into the mouth in protostomes and the anus in deuterostomes (like humans)

origin vs insertion

The origin is the larger, fixed attachment, while the insertion is a smaller attachment that moves with contraction.

oncotic pressure

The osmotic pressure in the blood vessels due only to plasma proteins (primarily albumin) --> causes water to rush back into capillaries at end.

How do sugars cyclize?

The oxygen in an alcohol group acts as a nucleophile, the carbonyl carbon acts as an electrophile

penetrance

The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.

afterbirth

The placenta, membranes of the amniotic sac, part of the umbilical cord, and some tissues from the lining of the uterus that are delivered after the birth of the baby.

voltage

The potential difference measured in volts. The amount of work to be done to move a charge from one point to another along an electric circuit. V = Wab/q The work to move a charge, q, from a to b is equal to the voltage or potential difference

Blastulation

The process by which a morula develops into a blastula with a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel.

hypermutation

The process each B-cell's antigen-bind region undergoes to find the best match for antigen

Transesterification

The process that transforms one ester to another when an alcohol acts as a nucleophile and displaces the alkoxy group on an ester.

reciprocal development

The process where structures developed from the induction of other structures cause the development of the inducing structure into a new structure. i..e. the optic vesicle induces part of ectoderm to form lens placode. Lens placode induces optic vesicle to create optic cup. Optic cup induces lens placode to become cornea and lens.

Shine-Dalgarno sequence

The prokaryotic ribosome-binding site on mRNA, found 10 nucleotides 5' to the start codon.

self antigens

The proteins and carbohydrates present on the surface of every cell of the body

Where does glucose reabsorption occur in the nephron?

The proximal convoluted tubule

When in the TCA cycle is ATP produced?

The reaction catalyzed by succinyl-CoA synthetase

What happens when an object is at the focus point of a converging mirror?

The reflected rays are parallel, so the image is at infinity (no image is formed)

Where do the renal artery, renal vein, and ureter enter/exit the kidneys?

The renal hilum

wash

The reverse of extraction, in which a small amount of solvent is poured over the compound of interest to dissolve and remove impurities.

G2 phase

The second gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs. Cell checks to ensure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm for two cells. Checks also to ensure DNA replication went smoothly

Cytosol

The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm. Allows for diffusion of molecules throughout the cell

Dehydroxyacetone

The simplest ketose -- 3 carbons, first and third have an alcohol, second has a ketone

ceramide

The simplest sphingolipid, with a single hydrogen as its head group.

Where does the ribosome bind to mRNA in Eukaryotes?

The small subunit of the ribosome binds to the 5' cap

critical speed (fluids), and equation

The speed of a fluid which, once reached, flow becomes turbulent. At this point, laminar flow only occurs by the wall in the boundary layer Vc = (Nr * η)/(ρ*D) Vc = critical speed Nr = Reynolds number η = viscosity ρ = density of the fluid D = diameter of the tube

How do proofreading DNA polymerases distinguish between the template and daughter strands?

The template strand will be more methylated because it's older

Thermnodynamic vs kinetic enolate

The thermodynamic form is more substituted, the kinetic is less substituted

endothelial cells

The thin layer of cells that line the interior surface of all blood vessels. Releases chemicals which aid in vasodilation and vasoconstriction, allows white blood cells to pass through and help inflamed tissue, when damaged releases chemicals involved in clot formation.

luteal phase

The third phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a corpus luteum is formed from the remnants of the follicle that has ovulated its oocyte. The corpus luteum secretes progestrone and estrogen during this time period, which typically lasts from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle. Formation of the corpul luteum is triggered by the same LH surge that triggers ovulation, however in the absence of LH (levels quickly decline after the surge) the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.

inclusive fitness

The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring. Helps us understand altruism

Convection

The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid over a material

Heat

The transfer of thermal energy from a warmer object to a cooler object.

How are amino groups which are removed from amino acids taken out of the body?

The urea cycle

semilunar valves

The valves in the heart that separate the ventricles from the arteries. Allow the heart to create pressure and prevent backflow

In substitution reactions, does the stronger or weaker base leave?

The weaker base leaves

A diabetic patient begins insulin injections. What is the expected impact on their weight and why?

Their weight should increase because low insulin levels cause fat breakdown and high insulin levels cause fat storage.

Z-lines

These define the edges of a sarcomere in the muscle cell

In what way do enzymes impact the thermodynamics vs the kinetics of a reaction?

They have no effect on thermodynamics, they just affect the kinetics by increasing reaction rate via decrease of activation energy

How do dielectrics affect circuit capacitors?

They increase charge, increasing capacitance

How do dietary lipids get from chylomicrons to the bloodstream?

They leave the small intestine via lacteals (lymphatic vessels), then enter the bloodstream via the thoracic duct.

What occurs upon B-cell activation?

They proliferate, producing two kinds of daughter cells- plasma cells (which produce large quantities of antibodies) and memory B-cells (which stay in the lymph node, awaiting re-exposure)

What role do waxes play in the plasma membrane?

They provide stability

Is the stereochemistry of amino acids R or S?

They're all S except cysteine (and glycine bc it isn't chiral)

How are fatty acids activated for beta oxidation?

They're attached to CoA by fatty-acyl-CoA-synthetase

How are lipids digested in the duodenum and small intestine?

They're emulsified, increasing surface area and allowing for more enzymatic processing. This process is aided by bile which contains bile salts, pigments, and cholesterol. Next, the pancreas secretes pancreatic lipase, colipase, and cholesterol esterase into the small intestine, breaking down dietary lipids into 2-monoacylglycerol, free fatty acids, and cholesterol.

diluting segment

Thicker portion of the ascending loop of Henle with larger cells due to more mitochondria in these cells to facilitate active transport. These cells are pushing out salts against their concentration gradient, since the fluid inside the loop of Henle has become hypotonic compared to the interstitium. This is the only portion of the nephron that can produce urine more dilute than blood.

gram-negative cell wall

Thin peptidoglycan Outer membrane (contains phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides (what causes immune response)) Periplasmic space (between peptidoglycan wall and cell membrane)

What occurs at complex IV of the ETC?

This facilitates transfer of electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen, making water. Electrons are moved with cytochrome a and a3. Cu2+ is also involved. 2 protons are pumped into the intermembrane space.

p53

This tumor suppressor gene causes cell cycle arrest in G1, not allowing movement on to S, providing time for DNA repair when there is damage. If repair is successful, cells re-enter the cycle. If unsuccessful, apoptosis. Also plays a role in G2/M checkpoint

Threonine 1 and 3 letter codes

Thr, T

When doing an extraction, would it be better to due three with 10 mL of water, or one with 30 mL

Three with 10 mL; more compound of interest will be extracted

How are alpha helices stabilized?

Through intrachain hydrogen bonding between a carbonyl oxygen atom and the amide hydrogen four residues down the chain

right hand rule for magnetic force

Thumb - velocity Fingers - field lines --> Palm - force on + charge back of hand - force on - charge

Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)

Thyroid hormones which regulate the rate of metabolism. Amino acid derivative hormones which act similar to steroid hormones, binding intracellularly and being slow-acting and long-lasting.

esophagus masculature

Top third has skeletal muscle, bottom third has smooth muscle, middle has a mix. The top is under somatic control, and the bottom (and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract) is under autonomic control

If light goes to a medium where the index of refraction is greater, how does it bend?

Towards the normal

Transverse tubules (T-tubules)

Transmit action potential through cell Allow entire muscle fiber to contract simultaneously Oriented perpendicular to myofibrils

What does IR plot against wavenumber?

Transmittance, the amount of light which passes through the sample

Tryptophan 1 and 3 letter codes

Trp, W

Schwann cells

Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.

Oligodendrocytes

Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs)

Type of pattern recognition receptor (PRR) recognize category of invader (bacteria, virus, etc) release appropriate cytokines to recruit right immune cells

elastic potential energy equation

U = 1/2 k x^2 k is spring constant x is distance from equilibrium position

electrical potential energy equation

U = kQq/r k = k = 9x10^9 N*m^2/C^2 like charges result in positive values The amount of work required to bring charges from infinitely far away to that point

Potential energy stored in a capacitor

U=1/2CV^2

stop codons

UGA, UAA, UAG ( u go away, u are away, u are gone)

What kind of ion channel is active at all times?

Ungated ion channels (potassium channels are often ungated)

volt

Unit of electric potential, J/C

acetylation of histones

Unwinds DNA, adds actyl group- changes shape = genes turned ON. Weakens histone-DNA binding by decreasing the positive charge of lysine.

How to sequence larger proteins

Use a digestive enzyme to break it up into smaller chunks, then use Edman degradation or electrophoresis

Hershey-Chase Experiment

Used radioactive material to label DNA and protein in bacteriophage; infected bacteria passed on DNA, not proteins; helped prove that DNA is genetic material not proteins

Lowry reagent assay

Used to access protein concentration in a sample

ultrasound

Uses Sound waves with frequencies above 20,000 Hz to measure density of difference body tissues, can map anatomy by reflected waves

electric potential equation

V = U/q = kQ/r V is electric potential in volts U is electrical potential energy q is the point charge's magnitude Q is the source charge k is 9x10^9

Kinematic Equations

V = Vo + at X = Xo + Vot + 1/2at^2 V^2 = Vo^2 + 2a(delta x)

Electric potential near a dipole (tbh probably don't need to know this)

V=(kqd/r^2)cos(theta)

Ohm's Law

V=IR

kinematics (no displacement)

V=Vo + at

Valine 1 and 3 letter codes

Val, V

ileocecal valve

Valve at the junction of the small and large intestines (ilium into cecum)

dispersion (optics)

Various wavelengths of light separate from one another when moving through a medium such as a prism. Shorter wavelengths experience more refraction than longer ones.

Why does inactivity increase the chance of blood clots?

Veins rely on external force to generate pressure to push blood towards the heart. If you're too inactive, like on a long airplane flight, blood can pool in the lower extremities and clot

Is more of the blood volume in the veins or arteries?

Veins--they have less recoil than arteries and can stretch to carry more blood

Systole

Ventricular contraction and closure of the AV valves occurs and blood is pumped out of the ventricles.

visceral vs parietal pleura

Visceral is adjacent to the lung, parietal is on the outer portion

Work equation

W = F x d = Fdcos(theta)

Work in terms of pressure and volume

W = P ΔV

Weight by density

W = density * volume * g g is the gravitational constant

Where does water move relative to osmotic pressure?

Water moves to the compartment with the highest osmotic pressure

peptide hormones

Water-soluble, so travel through the blood to all of the cells of the body, where they bind to specific receptors, like G-protein coupled receptors in the plasma membrane of their target cells. Rapid, short-lived effect. Most peptide and amino acid derivative hormones have names that end in -in or -ine

When moving from one medium to another, what property of a wave changes? Frequency, wavelength, or amplitude?

Wavelength

Traveling waves

Waves with nodes and antinodes which move through propagation

Weight and mass relationship

Weight = mass*force of gravity

Degranulation

When an antigen binds to antibodies on the surface of a mast cell, exocytosis of granule contents, releasing histamine and causing an inflammatory allergic reaction.

How do the kidneys regulate blood pH?

When blood pH is low, kidneys excrete more H+ and increase reabsorption of bicarbonate ions. When it's high, they do the opposite. This works less quickly than the respiratory system's method of regulating pH

Pascal's Principle

When force is applied to a confined fluid, the change in pressure, is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid and to the walls in the containment vessel

Antagonistic pairs of muscles

When one contracts the other relaxes, causes opposite movements like biceps and triceps

What happens when the action potential enters the myocyte?

When the AP reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium is released. These ions bind to a regulatory subunit on troponin, causing a conformational change to tropomyosin, to which troponin is bound. This exposes the myosin-binding site on the actin thin filament

white fat vs. brown fat

White: helps insulate body, fat just below skin vs. infants mostly less efficient ETC - more heat energy released as fuel burned

ampulla

Widest part of the Fallopian tube. Where fertilization occurs

Are NO2 groups electron withdrawing or donating?

Withdrawing

Can enzymes have multiple cofactors/coenzymes?

Yep!

Z vs E configuration

Z - higher priority groups are on the same side of the double bond E - higher priority groups are on different sides of the double bond

Ka equation

[H+][A-]/[HA]

Mesylates and Tosylates

[organic redox] alcohols can be converted to these to make them better leaving groups from substitution reactions, and can be used as protecting groups Mesylates are made with methylsulfonyl chloride and alcohol in basic solution Tosylates are made with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride and alcohol

Michael addition

a 1,3 dicarbonyl is deprotonated (the hydrogen removed is basically a double alpha carbon) This carbon then acts as a nucleophile and attacks a double bond, making a michael addition, creating a new C-C bond

liposome

a bilayered vesicle

ductus arteriosus

a blood vessel in a fetus that bypasses pulmonary circulation by connecting the pulmonary artery directly to the ascending aorta

hypophyseal portal system

a blood vessel system that directly connects the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary

fatty acids

a carboxylic acid consisting of a hydrocarbon chain and a terminal carboxyl group

phosphodiester bond

a chemical bond of the kind joining successive sugar molecules in a polynucleotide. Consists of a phosphate group attached to the sugars

oxygen saturation

a clinical measurement of the percentage of hemoglobin that is bound with oxygen in the blood. Most healthy people are above 97%

operon

a cluster of genes transcribed as a single mRNA

spina bifida

a congenital defect that occurs during early pregnancy when the spinal canal fails to close completely around the spinal cord to protect it

coefficient of volumetric expansion

a constant that characterizes how a specific material's volume changes as the temperature changes. It equals three times the coefficient of linear expansion.

real image

a copy of an object formed at the point where light rays actually meet. A real image can be projected onto a screen

monohybrid cross

a cross in which one trait is tracked

damping/attenuation

a decrease in amplitude of a wave caused by an applied or nonconservative force

erythroblastosis fetalis

a disorder that results from the incompatibility of a fetus with Rh-positive blood and a mother with Rh-negative blood, the mother's Rh antibodies attack the fetal blood supply causing red blood cell destruction in the fetus. Can happen if a mother has multiple children who are Rh+ and she is Rh-

Chylomicrons

a droplet of fat present in the blood or lymph after absorption from the small intestine.

intrinsic factor

a glycoprotein needed for vitamin B12 absorption

box and whisker plot

a graphic way to display the median, 1st and 3rd quartiles, and extremes of a data set on a number line to show the distribution of the data. Outliers can be shown as dots.

neural tube

a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord (CNS). Forms from the ectoderm

Enterogastrone

a hormone that slows motility through the digestive tract to allow more time for digestive enzymes to work ex. secretin

Phospholipids

a lipid consisting of a glycerol bound to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The phosphate and alcohol make up the polar head

Fluorescence

a material absorbs light at one wavelength and then emits light at a longer wavelength

tissue factor

a mixture of lipoproteins and phospholipids released from the surfaces of damaged cells that initiates the extrinsic pathway of blood clotting

lower esophageal sphincter

a muscular ring that controls the flow between the esophagus and stomach. Weakness results in GERD/acid reflux/heartburn

stratum lucidum

a nearly transparent layer of the epidermis found only in the thick skin of the fingers, palms, and soles

dorsal root ganglion

a nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that responds to light-sensitive retinal proteins; causes pineal gland to increase or decrease production of melatonin, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. Composed of a cortex and a medulla.

Rarefaction

a part in a longitudinal wave where the particles are spread apart -- the opposite of compression

positron

a particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge

resident population

a permanent (rather than transient) cell group in the tissue

state function

a property of the system that changes independently of its pathway (pressure, temperature, volume, density, enthalpy, entropy)

cortical reaction

a reaction that occurs during fertilization, when the sperm cell unites with the egg's plasma membrane, that causes release of calcium ions which prevents entry of a second sperm and increase the metabolic rate of the new zygote

lariat structure

a ring of intron segments that has been spliced out of a messenger ribonucleic acid molecule by enzymes

polar body

a small cell containing little cytoplasm that is produced along with the oocyte and later discarded

Morula

a solid ball of cells resulting from multiple rounds of division of a zygote, and from which a blastula is formed.

stereospecific reaction

a special type of stereoselective reaction in which the stereochemistry of the product is dependent on the stereochemistry of the starting material

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Ranges from -1 to 1, with +1 being a strong positive correlative relationship and -1 being a strong negative correlative relationship.

Cortisol

a steroid hormone secreted by the cortex (outer layer) of the adrenal gland Released in times of stress, like exercise, cold temperature, emotional stress Promotes mobilization of energy stores Increases blood sugar Enhances activity of glucagon, epinephrine

Nucleosome

a structural unit of a eukaryotic chromosome, consisting of a length of DNA coiled around a core of 8 histones.

Amphoteric

a substance that can act as both an acid and a base (ex. water)

Antigen

a substance that can be targeted by an antibody

open system

a system in which exchanges of matter or energy occur across system boundaries

umbilical cord

a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta. Contains two arteries and one vein. Gives oxygenated blood with nutrients to the fetus, and takes away deoxygenated blood and waste

recombinant vector

a vector (often a plasmid) that contains an inserted fragment of DNA, such as a gene from a chromosome, which can be transferred into bacteria

lytic cycle

a viral reproductive cycle in which copies of a virus are made within a host cell, which then bursts open, releasing new viruses. This maximizes use of cellular machinery with little regard for the host cell survival. Viruses in this phase are virulent

standing wave

a wave that appears to stay in one place and does not seem to move through a medium. Nodes and antinodes exist. Will form whenever two faves of the same frequency travel in opposite directions and interfere with one another.

myogenic activity

ability of a muscle cell to contract without input from the nervous system; found in smooth and cardiac muscle types

large intestine function

absorbs water, salts, forms feces

small intestine function

absorption of nutrients, water

ketone bodies made in the liver from acetyl-CoA

acetoacetate, 3-hydroxybutyrate

parasympathetic neurotransmitter

acetylcholine

how to remove protecting group

acidic workup + heat

parturition

act of giving birth vaginally

vitamin D

activated by parathyroid hormone, promotes reabsorption of bone, and encourages the growth of new, stronger bone

Gq (GPCR)

activates phospholipase C, which cleaves a phospholipid from the membrane to form PIP2, which is then cleaved to IP3 which can open calcium channels increasing cellular calcium concentration

Antigen binding to B-cell antibody effect

activation of the b cell, proliferation and formation of plasma cells and memory cells

How are simple sugars and amino acids transported into the small intestine?

active transport and facilitated diffusion

prenylation

addition of lipid groups to certain membrane-bound enzymes

Acetyl CoA carboxylase

adds CO2 to acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA requires biotin and ATP co-factors rate-limiting step of fatty acid biosynthesis

seminal vesicles

adds fructose to nourish the sperm, and contributes to making seminal fluid alkaline

afferent vs efferent arterioles

afferent: carrying blood TOWARD glomeruli efferent: carrying blood AWAY from glomeruli

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. Effects vary for different fetuses and different substances and durations

How can alcohol feed into catabolism?

alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase convert ethanol to acetyl-CoA, but this also causes NADH buildup, which inhibits the Kreb's Cycle

D-mannose

aldohexose where there are two left-facing hydroxyl groups in the Fischer projection (the 2 and 3 carbons)

glucogenic amino acids

all except leucine and lysine; can be converted into intermediates that feed into gluconeogenesis

total internal reflection

all light incident of a boundary is reflected back into original material occurs when θ1=θc (the critical angle)

circularly polarized light

all of the light rays have electric fields with equal intensity but constantly rotating direction

postzygotic mechanisms

allow for gamete fusion but yield either nonviable or sterile offspring

Which DNA polymerase synthesizes the daughter strands in eukaryotes?

alpha, delta, epsilon

alpha vs beta anomers

alpha: OH on the anomeric carbon trans to free -CH2OH group (axial) beta: OH on the anomeric carbon cis to free -CH2OH group (equatorial)

Other than low blood sugar, what triggers glucagon release?

amino acids, especially basic amino acids. So glucagon is secreted in response to a protein-rich meal

alkoxy group

an -OR group

Lysozyme

an enzyme found in nasal cavity and saliva and sweat and tears that destroys the peptidoglycan cell walls of gram positive bacteria

Plasmin

an enzyme that dissolves the fibrin of blood clots

lipoprotein lipase (LPL)

an enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides passing by in the bloodstream (chylomicrons and very low density lipoproteins (VLDL)) and directs their parts into the cells, where they can be metabolized for energy or reassembled for storage.

confounding

an error during analysis, unlike bias, which affects the data collection

Ohmmeter

an instrument for measuring electrical resistance. They can only be used when the circuit is off and they generate their own current.

spirometer

an instrument used to measure respiratory volumes. It cannot measure things like the total lung capacity, because it can't measure reserve volume that is kept in the lungs after exhalation

virtual image

an upright image formed where rays of light appear to meet or come from

hexose monophosphate shunt

another name for pentose phosphate pathway

Thrombocytes

another name for platelets. Cell fragments released from cells in bone called megakaryocytes. Assist in clotting

hypophysis

another name for the pituitary gland

validity

another term for accuracy -- the ability for an instrument to measure a true value

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

antagonistic hormone to calcitonin, raising blood calcium levels by decreasing calcium excretion by the kidneys, increasing calcium absorption by the gut, inhibiting calcium uptake by bones. Also promotes phosphorous homeostasis by increasing reabsorption of phosphate by bones and reducing reabsorption of phosphate by the kidneys, increasing excretion in the urine. Activates vitamin D

Defensins

antibacterial enzymes found on the skin

immunoglobulins

antibodies secreted by the B cells

reducing sugar

any monosaccharide with a hemiacetal ring

Holoenzyme

apoenzyme + cofactor

What reagent is used in a retro-aldol reaction to break the alpha-beta double bond?

aqueous base and heat

embedded proteins

are associated with only the interior/cytoplasmic or exterior/extracellular surface of the cell, but they don't go all the way through like transmembrane proteins

Ideal pH for gastric enzymes

around 2

Ideal pH for pancreatic enzymes

around 8.5 (in the small intestine)

astral vs interpolar microtubules

astral microtubules attach the centrosome to the poles of the dividing cell, interpolar microtubules attach the centrosome to the kinetochores of the chromosomes

inactivation of sodium channels

at +35mV, sodium channels become inactivated until the resting potential is regained

Kirchoff's Junction Rule

at any point or junction in a circuit, the sum of currents directed into that point equals the sum of currents directed away from that point

P wave

atrial depolarization, proceeds atrial contraction

Hemidesmosomes

attach epithelial cells to underlying structures, especially the basement membrane

Myofibrils

attached end to end sarcomeres

Conjugation

bacterial form of mating. Two cells form a conjugation bridge, and there is unidirectional transfer from the donor male to the recipient female through the sex pili

Beat frequency equation

beat frequency = f1-f2

strong acid pka value

below -2

probability of Type II Error

beta (1-power)

atrioventricular valves

between atria and ventricles

aortic valve

between left ventricle and aorta

binding proteins

bind a specific substrate, either to sequester it in the body, transfer it, or hold its concentration at steady state. Hemoglobin is an example

desmosomes

bind adjacent cells by anchoring to their cytoskeletons. Often found in the interface between layers of connective tissue

selectins

bind to carbohydrate molecules that project from other cells -expressed in white blood cells & endothelial cells that line blood vessels -role in host defense (inflammation & white blood cell migration)

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

binds to a pathogenic peptide (antigen) and carries it to the cell surface where it can be recognized by cells of the adaptive immune system

log(A^B)

bloga

deep vein thrombosis

blood clot forms in a large vein, usually in a lower limb. Can travel to the lungs, causing a life-threatening pulmonary embolus

portal system

blood flows through two consecutive capillary networks (rather than the usual 1) before returning to the heart

hypophyseal portal system

blood leaving capillary beds in hypothalamus travels to a capillary bed in anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones

hepatic portal system

blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut passes through the hepatic portal vein before reaching the capillary beds in the liver

renal portal system

blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta

Osteoblasts

bone forming cells

appendicular skeleton

bones of the limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvis

symport vs antiport

both facilitated diffusion symport = 2 substrates in the same direction (Na+/glucose) antiport = 2 substrates in opposite direction (Na+/H+)

pancreatic amylase

breaks down large polysaccharides into small disaccharides

Tracts

bundles of axons in the CNS. They carry one type of information (sensory or motor)

succinic acid

butanedioic acid (4 carbons with carboxylic acid groups at the ends)

Bilirubin

byproduct of the breakdown of hemoglobin and the main pigment in bile.

Speed of Light in relation to wavelength and frequency

c=λf

protein kinase A

cAMP activates protein kinase A, which then phosphorylates transcription factors like cAMP Response element-binding protein (CREB), or others

Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation

calculates the membrane potential that results from the contribution of all ions that can cross the membrane: sodium, potassium, chloride V = 61.5*log(permeability of Na * [Na]outside + ... for each ion, over their concentration inside, but flipped for negative ions

pluripotent stem cells

can become any cell type except those which make placental structures

configurational isomers

can only be interchanged by breaking and reforming bonds. The two types are stereoisomers and diastereomers, both of which are optical isomers, because their differences in spacial arrangement affect rotation of plane-polarized light

acrosome of sperm

cap that covers the head, contains hydrolytic enzymes to penetrate egg

glomeruli

capillary networks that produce a blood filtrate that enters the urinary tubules

electron capture

capture of an electron by a proton to produce a neutron. Atom number decreases by one and mass number doesn't change. Sorta like the reverse of β- decay.

obligate anaerobes

carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration and cannot survive in the presence of O2 due to production of harmful radicals

epiphyseal plate

cartilaginous area at the ends of long bones where lengthwise growth takes place in the immature skeleton

epiphyseal growth plate

cartilaginous structure and the site of longitudinal growth. Prior to adulthood, these are filled with mitotic cells that contribute to growth. In puberty, these plates close, halting vertical growth.

Ligases

catalyze addition or synthesis reactions involved in nucleic acid synthesis and repair, generally requiring ATP

Lyases

catalyze cleavage of a single molecule into 2 products don't require water as substrate, and without doing redox. Can also do the reverse, in which they're often called synthases

Oxidoreductases

catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions

cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP)

catalyzes the transition of IDL to LDL by transferring cholesteryl esters from HDL

Negative selection of T cells

causing apoptosis in cells that are self-reactive (activated by proteins produced by the organism itself)

sections of large intestine

cecum, colon, rectum

islets of Langerhans

cell clusters in the pancreas that form the endocrine part of that organ. Contains alpha, beta, and delta cells

cell specification

cell is reversibly designated to a specific cell type

G0 stage of cell cycle

cell performs its function without any preparation for division

Isotype switching

cells change which isotope of antibody they produce when stimulated by specific cytokines

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Cytokines

chemicals that stimulate inflammation and recruit immune cells to the area

bile salts

cholesterol derivatives that function in fat emulsification into micelles and absorption. Not enzymes. They act as detergents

sphincter

circular smooth muscles around the alimentary canal that allow for compartmentalization of function

Which steps in the Kreb's cycle are inhibited by ATP and NADH?

citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex

Hydrolases

cleave bonds on molecules with the addition of water

beta amylase

cleaves at the nonreducing end of the polymer to yield maltose only

alpha-amylase

cleaves randomly along the chain to yield shorter polysaccharide chains, maltose, and glucose

nuclei

clusters of neural cell bodies in the CNS

Surfactant

coats the alveoli detergent that lowers surface tension and prevents alveoli from collapsing on themselves

regulator gene (operon)

codes for the repressor protein

specific gravity

comparison of the density of a substance to the density of water SG = density of substance/1 g/cm^3 Objects over 1 will sink, under 1 will float

Bile

complex fluid with bile salts, pigments, cholesterol

basal body of flagella

complex structure that anchors the flagellum to the cytoplasmic membrane also the motor for the flagella rotating up to 300Hz

yellow marrow

composed primarily of fat and is relatively inactive

converging mirror

concave mirror

Rate of an SN1 reaction depends on

concentration of the substrate (R-L)

What type of reaction forms peptide bonds?

condensation

Prophase

condensation of chromatin into chromosomes, centriole pairs separate and move to poles, spindle fibers form, microtubules form asters which anchor centrioles to cell membrane, nuclear membrane dissolves

Anhydride formation

condensation of two carboxylic acids *not soluble in water, they just convert back to -cooh*

Hypothyroidism

condition of hyposecretion of the thyroid gland causing low thyroid levels in the blood that result in sluggishness, slow pulse, cold intolerance, and often obesity. Often caused by an iodine deficiency

what type of tissue is bone? What embryonic layer does it originate from?

connective tissue, mesoderm

hook of flagella

connects the filament and the basal body so that the basal body rotates exerts a torque on the filament thus it can spin and propel the cell forward

Sesquiterpenes

contain 3 isoprene units (sesqui means 1 and 1/2)

unsaturated fatty acids

contain one or more double bonds

deoxy sugar

contains a hydrogen that replaces a hydroxyl group on the sugar

thoracic cavity

contains heart and lungs

articular cartilage

contributes to the joint by coating the articular surface of the bone so impact doesn't cause bone-bone friction

thromboplastin

converts prothrombin to thrombin

pyruvate dehydrogenase

converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. - stimulated by insulin - inhibited by acetyl-CoA

Enteropeptidase

converts trypsinogen to trypsin converts procarboxypeptidases A and B to their active forms

diverging mirror

convex mirror

Menstruation

corpus luteum loses its stimulation from LH , progesterone levels decline, uterine lining is shed, loss of estrogen and progesterone removes block on GnRH so next cycle can begin

renal cortex, renal medulla, renal hillum

cortex is the outside of the kidney, medulla is the inside, hilum is the deep slit on the medial side

epithelial tissue

covers the body and lines its cavities, provides a means for protection against pathogen invasion and desiccation. Sometimes involved in absorption, secretion, sensation. Tied together by the basement membrane. Often polarized (one end faces a lumen, the other interacts with internal cells)

Bowman's capsule

cup-shaped strucutre of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place.

long bone major features

cylindrical shafts (diaphyses) which swell at each end to form metaphyses and terminate in epiphyses

location of pentose phosphate pathway

cytoplasm

Pyrimidines

cytosine, thymine, uracil Contain one six-membered ring

compound that rotates plane-polarized light to the right/clockwise

d or + (can be determined experimentally, doesn't correlate to molecular structure)

composition of pus

dead neutrophils, mostly

inborn errors of metabolism

defects in genes required for metabolism. These can be dangerous if not caught early, as some metabolites can't be digested, causing damage Ex: PKU, in which phenylalanine hydrolase is defective, so phenylalanine can't be metabolized, causing many issues. phenylalanine must be taken out of the diet

Equation for the work of nonconservative forces

delta (E) or delta K + delta U

Blood pressure difference equation

deltaP = CO x TPR deltaP is pressure difference across circulation CO is cardiac output TPR is total peripheral (vascular) resistance

Avery-McCarty-Macleod Experiment

demonstrated that DNA, not protein, was responsible for the transfer of genetic material because degradation of DNA led to no transformation occuring. Verified the findings from Griffith's transformation experiment.

Hill's criteria

describe the components of an observed relationship that increase the likelihood of causality in the relationship. These help understand factors leading to causality, but aren't definite indicators.

Gastrulation

developmental process in which three distinct cell layers form in an embryo: the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm

morally relevant differences

diff b/w indv considered an appropriate reason to treat them differently ex) age, pop size -- not race, ethnicity, etc.

structural isomers

differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms. Same molecular formula

alimentary canal

digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus

vicinal diols

diols with hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons

geminal diols

diols with hydroxyl groups on the same carbon -aka hydrates -Not commonly seen, because they spontaneously dehydrate to produce carbonyls

small intestine proteases

dipeptidase, aminopeptidase

primary oocyte

diploid cell in prophase 1 of meiosis that can be hormonally triggered to develop into an ovum. DNA replication has already occurred for all eggs when a female is born.

average velocity

displacement/time (vector quantity)

lever arm

distance between the applied force and the fulcrum

Nonmalificence

do no harm, avoid treatments where the potential risks outweigh the benefits

aerotolerant anaerobes

do not utilize oxygen but can survive and grow in its presence

Catecholamines

dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine. Amino acid derivative hormones

Prolactin inhibiting factor (PIF)

dopamine, released by the hypothalamus and causes a decrease in prolactin secretion by the anterior pituitary. Prolactin promotes lactation.

on what side do sensory neurons enter the spinal cord?

dorsal

ketone naming

drop e add one

NSAIDs

drugs which inhibit prostaglandins to decrease pain and inflammation

small intestine segments/function

duodenum - most of the chemical digestion in the small intestine, minor involvement in absorption jejunum, ileum - most of the absorption in the SI

Efficiency of a Simple Machine

efficiency = Wout/Win = (load)(load distance)/(effort)(effort distance)

oxidant

electron acceptor (oxidizing agent)

reductant

electron donor (reducing agent)

antrum of stomach

end of the stomach next to the duodenum, contains mostly pyloric glands

standard free energy change (ΔG°)

energy change that occurs at standard concentrations of 1M, pressure 1 atm, and temperature 25 C/298K

acromegaly

enlargement of the extremities caused by excessive secretion of growth hormone after puberty

primary thermodynamic factor responsible for passive transport?

entropy

Third Law of Thermodynamics

entropy of a perfectly organized crystal at absolute zero is zero

feed-forward regulation

enzyme regulated by intermediate that precedes the enzyme in the pathway

carbonic anhydrase

enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid

thrombin

enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin during coagulation

Apoenzyme

enzyme without its cofactor

Langerhans cells

epidermal macrophages that help activate the immune system

Skin layers (outer to inner)

epidermis, dermis, hypodermis

Four tissue types

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Three types of blood cells

erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), platelets

parenchyma

essential, distinguishing tissue of any organ or system. Ex. nephrons in the kidneys. Most of the time, these are epithelial cells

What is the speed of air at the alveoli?

essentially zero

saponification

ester hydrolysis of triglycerides using a strong base (lye) basic cleavage of a fatty acid - leaving the sodium salt of the fatty acid and glycerol fatty acid salt is what we know as soap

acetaldehyde IUPAC name

ethanal

ethylene diol IUPAC name

ethane-1,2-diol

oxalic acid

ethanedioic acid (2 carbons both in carboxylic acid groups)

acetic acid IUPAC name

ethanoic acid

ethyl alcohol iupac name

ethanol

Ribosome E site

exit site, where the uncharged tRNA moves to and diffuses form

acinar cells

exocrine pancreas cells that produce enzyme-rich juice for digestion

In mirrors, what are these variables? f r C o i

f - focal length r - radius of curvature C - center of curvature o - distance between the object and the mirror i - distance between the image and the mirror

possible frequencies of a standing wave in a string/open pipe

f = (nv)/(2L) v is wave speed n is any positive integer L is length of string

Doppler effect equation

f' = f (V +/- Vd)/ (V -/+ Vs) where V = speed of sound in the medium Vd = speed of the detector Vs = speed of the source Top sign: toward (if source or detector is moving toward other) Bottom sign: away (if they moving away from other object)

kinetic friction equation

f(k)= u(k)N where f(k)=kinetic friction u(k)=coefficient of kinetic friction N= magnitude of the normal force

type 2 error

failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative)

hyperopia

farsightedness -- needs converging lenses

Periosteum

fibrous sheath surrounding the long bone for protection and as a sight for muscle attachment. Some periosteal cells can differentiate into bone-forming cells

Flagella components

filament, hook, basal body

red marrow

filled with hematopoietic stem cells

bone marrow

fills the cavities between trabeculae. Can be red or yellow

Microvilli

fingerlike projections that extend from each villus, increasing its surface area

cecum

first part of the large intestine where appendix is attached

proximal convoluted tubule

first section of the renal tubule (in the cortex) that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, glucose, and all organic nutrients

primary response

first time the immune system combats a particular foreign substance. Takes 7-10 days. Involves activation of B-cells to produce memory B cells and plasma cells

Isotypes

five different types of antibodies which are used at different times in the immune response, for different pathogens, and in different locations

filtrate

fluid that passes from the blood through the capillary walls of the glomeruli of the kidney, eventually will become urine

rugae

folds in the lining of the stomach

menstrual cycle phases

follicular phase, ovulation, luteal phase, menstruation

shear force, and what kind of materials can withstand them?

force directed parallel to a surface--solids can withstand them, fluids cannot

Calluses

form from excessive keratin deposition in areas of repeated strain due to friction; provide protection to avoid damage in the future

disruptive selection

form of natural selection in which a single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle

Centrioles

found in the centrosome, they are the organizing centers for microtubules. During mitosis, they migrate to opposite poles of the dividing cell, organizing the mitotic spindle

MHC class I

found on all nucleated cells of the body, it will present a non-self protein if infected. Part of the endogenous pathway (because it binds antigens from inside the cell). These infected cells can then be killed by cytotoxic T-cells

nephron

functional unit of the kidney - each has ~ 1 million

connexin

gap junction protein

deposition

gas to solid

creatine phosphate

generated by adding a phosphate group to creatine during times of rest. This can then be reversed when energy is needed, acting as an energy source outside of oxidative phosphorylation

midpiece of sperm

generates ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria

transpoons

genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome

transpoons

genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome. Can cause mutations which disrupt genes

Gametocytes

germ cells which give rise to gametes

myeloid stem cells

give rise to all other blood cells except lymphocytes

prostate gland

gives the seminal fluid alkaline properties to counter the acidity of the female reproductive track

flow of filtrate through nephron

glomerulus, bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, collecting duct, renal pelvis

Glucose-6-phosphatase

glucose 6-phosphate to glucose reverse of hexokinase Found only in the endoplasmic reticulum of liver cells, meaning only liver cells can release glucose into the bloodstream that was made in gluconeogenesis

GLUT 4

glucose transporter in adipose tissue and muscle release onto cell surfaces is caused by insulin Km is close to normal blood glucose levels Saturated at normal blood sugar levels, so the only way to increase transport is adding more GLUT 4

Rate-limiting enzyme in PPP?

glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

cadherins

glycoproteins that mediate calcium-dependent cell adhesion - hold similar cell types together -diff. cells have type-specific cadherins (epithelial cells have E-cadherins & nerve cells have N-cadherin)

white and grey matter in the brain

grey matter on the outside, white matter inside

replisome

group of proteins needed for DNA synthesis

Piloerection

hairs of the skin stand on end, as controlled by arrector pili muscles. This is done in cold conditions to trap a layer of heated air near the skin

fetal hemoglobin

has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin

Good Oxidizing Agents

have a high affinity for electrons or have a very high oxidation state. Examples O2, O3, Cl2, MnO4-, CrO4-, CrO2-7. and pyridinium chlorochromate. These contain a metal and a large number of oxygen atoms.

atrial natriuretic peptide

heart produced hormone that aids in the loss of salt in the nephron, acting as a diuretic

myoglobin

heme-containing protein that is a muscular oxygen reserve

stratum granulosum

here, keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei

contrast hexokinase and glucokinase (location, kinetics, inhibition)

hexokinase throughout the body, -GK in liver + pancreas hexokinase has a low Km (reaches max velocity at low glucose conc, glucokinase has a high Km (rate proportional to glucose conc) Hexokinase is inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate, glucokinase is inhibited by insulin

Ribosome A site

holds the tRNA that carries the next amino acid to be added to the chain

nuclear pores

holes in the nuclear envelope that allow selective exchange of materials in and out of the nucleus

disjunction

homologous pairs separate and pull to opposite poles of cell

Thrombopoietin

hormone from liver and kidney, stimulates platelet formation

Progesterone

hormone produced by the corpus luteum--the remains of the ovarian follicle after ovulation. Involved in development and maintenance of the endometrium. Initial thickening of endometrium is done by estrogen. Produced by the placenta after the first trimester of pregnancy.

growth hormone

hormone secreted by anterior pituitary gland that stimulates growth of bones and muscles. Prevents glucose uptake by non-growing tissues, stimulates breakdown of fatty acids

Somatostatin

hormone that inhibits release of glucagon and insulin in response to high blood sugar and amino acid concentrations. Also released by the hypothalamus to inhibit GH secretion

What causes the mobilization of lipids from adipocytes?

hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL)

Thyroid hormones

hormones produced by the thyroid gland primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism Levels are kept more or less constant T3 and T4 increase metabolic rate T4 acts slowly, T3 acts more rapidly but lasts less long Affect lipid and carbohydrate metabolism primarily

Catecholamines

hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla epinephrine, norepinephrine Increase activity of liver and muscle glycogen phosphorylase, encouraging glycogenolysis, increasing glucose output from the liver Increase lipase activity in adipose tissue Increases basal metabolic rate

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus in response to ghrelin or hypoglycemia. Also increases alertness

How are beta-pleated sheets stabilized?

hydrogen bonds between carbonyl oxygens in one chain and amide hydrogens in the adjacent chain

which crystals form the majority of bone inorganic matter?

hydroxyapatite crystals

ammonia plus ketone makes what, and what kind of reaction is it?

imine, condensation reaction

sutures

immovable joints (found primarily in the skull)

Axial and Equatorial Positions

in chair conformation of cyclohexane, axial points up and down, equatorial points points outwards. axial-equitorial positions alternate as you move around the ring

equipoise

in studies comparing two potential treatment options, one cannot approach the research with the knowledge that one treatment is superior to the other, and if it becomes evident that one is, you must give all patients the best treatment

ductus venosus

in the fetus, connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava, bypassing the liver

Plasminogen

inactive form of plasmin

oxidation state

indicator of the hypothetical charge that an atom would have if all bonds were completely ionic

Prions

infectious proteins that cause misfolding of proteins, often converting an a-helix to a B-sheet. This causes decreased solubility, and the formation of protein aggregates

histamine

inflammatory mediator resulting in vasodilation, increased leakiness of blood vessels, allowing leukocytes to enter tissues

Infrasonic vs Ultrasonic

infrasonic: frequencies below 20 Hz, ultrasonic: frequencies above 20,000 Hz

Mendel's second law of independent assortment

inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes

Mendel's second law of independent assortment

inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes. This is due to recombination. This is not entirely true due to gene linking

uncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor binds only to enzyme-substrate complex locks substrate in enzyme preventing its release (increasing affinity b/w enzyme and substrate so it lowers Km) Lower Km and vmax

vesicle-coating proteins

initiate and carry out invagination during endocytosis. Ex. clathrin

stages of translation

initiation, elongation, termination

Tail sheath of bacteriophage

injects the genetic material into a bacterium

sphygmomanometer

instrument to measure blood pressure (gauge pressure)

Transformation

integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome, often from other bacteria that has lysed

keratins

intermediate filament proteins found in epithelial cells; contribute to the mechanical integrity of the cell and also function as regulatory proteins; the primary protein that makes up hair and nails

internal vs external anal sphincter

internal is under autonomic control, external sphincter is under somatic control

internal vs external urinary sphincter

internal is under involuntary control, external is voluntary control

what happens if a disaccharidase isn't present?

intestinal bacteria will hydrolyze the disaccharide, producing methane gas. Undigested disaccharides can have an osmotic effect, pulling in water and causing diarrhea

DNA topoisomerase

introduce negative supercoils, nick one or both strands and allow relaxation of torsional pressure to counteract supercoiling caused by helicase

Basophils

involved in allergic reactions, least common leukocyte, under normal conditions

allantois

involved in early fluid exchange between the embryo and the yolk sac forms the umbilical cord, with the yolk sac

UV spectroscopy

involves passing uv light through a chemical sample and plotting absorbance v wavelength. Absorbance is caused by electronic transitions between orbitals. We can get the wavelength of maximum absorbance, which tells us about conjugation, the more conjugated, the lower the energy of transition and the greater the wavelength

What is the rate-limiting step of the TCA cycle?

isocitrate dehydrogenase ICD = iced -- because this is rate-limiting it makes the process icy and cold and slow

hybridization (DNA)

joining of complementary base pair sequences

Ketone + diol

ketal

SI unit for density

kg/m^3

Renal tubular acidosis type 1

kidney is unable to excrete acid effectively, this leads to acidosis, meaning more CO2 will be produced. Increasing breathing rate helps return the equilibrium to normal

urine excretory pathway

kidneys -> renal pelvis -> ureter -> bladder -> urethra

Metaphase

kinetochore fibers interact with fibers from centrioles to line up chromosomes at center of the cell (metaphase plate)

compound that rotates plane-polarized light to the left/counterclockwise

l or - (can be determined experimentally, doesn't correlate to molecular structure)

Smooth ER

lacks ribosomes, synthesizes lipids, detoxifies drugs and poisons, transports proteins from the rough ER to the golgi apparatus

Stages of bacterial growth

lag, exponential, stationary, death

secondary response

later interactions with the same foreign substance; faster and more effective due to memory B cells

inner mitochondrial membrane

less permeable than the outer mitochondrial membrane has cristae to increase surface area encloses the matrix no cholesterol, high cadiolipin

Larynx

lies below the pharynx, is only a passageway for air to the lungs. Contains two vocal cords.

corona radiata

lies outside the zona pellucida and is a layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation

What causes the mobilization of lipids from lipoproteins?

lipoprotein lipase

Canaliculi

little channels that connect lacunae and allow for exchange of waste/nutrients between osteocytes and the Haversian and Volkmann's channels

Three major target tissues for insulin

liver, muscle, adipose tissue In the liver and muscles, it stimulates glycogen production The liver converts excess glucose to triacylglycerols and fatty acids In adipose tissue, triacylglycerol synthesis occurs In the muscle, protein synthesis is promoted Glucose entry into muscle and adipose cells is encouraged

RNA Polymerase I

located in the nucleolus and synthesizes rRNA

RNA polymerase III

located in the nucleus and synthesizes tRNA and some rRNA

log(A*B)

log a + log b

approximation between natural log and common log

log x = lnx /2.3

sphingosine

long chain amino alcohol that makes the backbone for sphingolipids

Fatty acids

long chain carboxylic acids

parent chain

longest carbon chain containing the highest-order functional group (most oxidized carbon)

Haversian canal

longitudinal channel (axis parallel to the bone), carrying blood vessels, nerves, lymph channels

GLUT 2

low affinity glucose transporter found on *hepatocytes and pancreatic cells* -liver cells and in the Beta Islet Cells captures the excess glucose primarily for storage It has a high Km, so it will only take in glucose when blood glucose levels are high, like after a meal this transporter and glucokinase serves as the glucose sensor for insulin RELEASE in the Beta Islet cells of the pancreas

Surfactant

lowers the surface tension at the surface of a liquid, serving as a detergent or emulsifier

chyle

lymphatic fluid

Magnification equation and explanation

m = -i/o negative value means real image which is INVERTED Pos. value means virtual image which is UPRIGHT

how to calculate magnification of lenses not in contact

m = m1*m2*...

log(nx10^m) approximation

m+0.n

osteoclasts

macrophages in bone

Immune protection in the lungs

macrophages, IgA antibodies, mast cells

body of stomach

main central region of stomach, contains mostly gastric glands

colon

mainly absorbs water and salt, concentrates waste into feces

MHC class II

mainly displayed by professional antigen presenting cells like macrophages, B-cells, dendritic cells Forms the exogenous pathway, because antigens come from outside the presenting cell

primase

makes short RNA primers in the 5'-3' direction. Needs to make many in the lagging strand but just one in the leading strand

Blastocyst

mammalian blastula with the trophoblast and the inner cell mass

opsonized

marked with an antibody - from a B cell neutrophils can detect this

mitochondrial matrix vs intermembrane space

matrix is inside the inner membrane, intermembrane space is between the inner and outer membranes

Osteocytes

mature bone cells found in lacunae

Positive selection of T cells

maturing only cells that can respond to the presentation of antigen on MHC (others undergo apoptosis)

Infrared Spectroscopy

measures molecular vibrations of characteristic functional groups (bonds stretching and bending)

Hemoglobin measurement

measures the quantity of hemoglobin in blood in g/dL (normal levels are 13-17 for males and 12-16 for females)

countercurrent multiplier system

mechanism associated with loops of Henle that creates a region having high interstitial fluid osmolarity in renal medulla by the vasa recta and loop of henle going in opposite directions, allowing for maximal water reabsorption

Lysosomes

membrane-bound organelle filled with hydrolytic enzymes that can break down many substances

steroids

metabolic derivatives of terpenes four cycloalkane rings fused: 3 cyclohexanes and 1 cyclopentane

formaldehyde IUPAC name

methanal

Formic acid IUPAC name

methanoic acid

Three components of the cytoskeleton

microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules (in order of increasing size)

Where does beta oxidation occur?

mitochondrial matrix

Where does the TCA cycle take place?

mitochondrial matrix

sarcoplasm

modified cytoplasm outside of the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Glucocorticoids

modified versions of cortisol which have immunosuppressive qualities. Often used to treat autoimmune diseases

order of the digestive tract

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

simple diffusion

movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across the cell membrane without need for a transporter or channel

paracellular transport

movement of materials through junctions between adjacent cells, such as water going both transcellularly and paracellularly during absorption in the intestine

What creates a magnetic field?

moving electric charges and permanent magnets

follicles

multilayered sacs that contain, nourish, protect immature ova (eggs)

tetanus

muscular contractions become so frequent that the muscle cannot relax at all (occurs in the disease tetanus, but also other times when one isn't sick)

detrusor muscle

muscular wall of the urinary bladder. Under parasympathetic control. Contraction causes the internal urinary sphincter to relax

Snell's Law of Refraction

n=c/v, c is speed of light in a vacuum v is speed of light in the medium n is the index of refraction n₁sinθ₁=n₂sinθ₂, where n is index of refraction

pylorus of stomach

narrowed bottom part of stomach, contains mainly pyloric glands

parts of the pharynx

nasopharynx (behind the nasal cavity), oropharynx (back of the mouth), laryngopharynx (above the vocal cords)

Polymorphism

naturally occurring differences in form between members of a population

myopia

nearsightedness -- needs diverging lenses

mixed nerves

nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers

where does muscle contraction start?

neuromuscular junction

Adiabatic

no heat transfer, so any change in energy in a system is due to work

Albumin

non-specific carrier protein

Enantiomers

nonidentical non-superimposable images of each other

tonus

normal, partially steady state of muscle contraction. Seen in smooth muscles which are used for sustained, autonomic functions

Vibrissae

nose hairs

Astrocytes

nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier, which controls the transmission of solutes from the bloodstream into nervous tissue

Sertoli cells

nourish sperm

Gamma decay

nuclear decay that involves the release of gamma rays, high energy photons. Atom number and mass number both do not change--energy is all that is lost.

alpha- and beta-state NMR

nuclei may be in either alpha = lower energy beta = higher energy radiofrequency pulses push nucleus form alpha to beta state these frequencies can be measured

possible frequencies of a standing wave in a closed pipe

nv/4L

second law of thermodynamics

objects in thermal contact but not in thermal equilibrium will exchange heat energy such that the hotter object will transfer heat until the two objects are at thermal equilibrium at the same temperature

Beneficence

obligation to act in the patient's best interest

specific rotation equation

observed rotation / [solution](g/mL) x tube length (dm)

translocation mutation

occur when a segment of DNA is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome

incomplete dominance

occurs when a heterozygote expresses a phenotype that is an intermediate between the two homozygous genotypes ex. red flower + white flower = pink flower

insertion mutation

occurs when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another

filial generation

offspring generation(s) of a genetic cross; abbreviated F1, F2, and so on

Resistivity unit

ohm meter

amide naming

oic name of parent acid is replaced with amide. Substituents attached to the nitrogen are labeled with a capital N they use the prefix amido- or carbamoyl-

pattern recognition receptors (PRR)

on macrophages + dendritic cells recognize category of invader (bacteria, virus, etc) release appropriate cytokines to recruit right immune cells ex. toll-like receptors

chair flip

one chair conformation is converted to the other briefly passes through the half chain conformation all axial groups become equatorial all equatorial groups become axial dashed lines remain dashed wedges remain wedges conversion is slowed if there is bulky groups attached bulkiest group will favor the equatorial position

foramen ovale

one way valve that connects the right atrium to the left atrium. Used to reroute blood from the lungs.

ascending limb of loop of henle

only permeable to salts and impermeable to water

Fully saturated fatty acids

only single bonds, no pi bonds

glottis

opening to the larynx

nares

openings through the nose carrying air into the nasal cavities (nostrils)

major and minor duodenal papillae

openings to ducts from liver and pancreas to the duodenum

hybrid orbitals

orbitals of equal energy produced by the combination of two or more orbitals on the same atom. sp3 orbitals, for instance, form a tetrahedral shape with four equal energy orbitals

test cross

organism of an unknown genotype is crossed with homozygous recessive. Also called a back cross

thick filaments

organized bundles of myosin

aromatic ring substituent naming (para, ortho, meta)

ortho- adjacent meta - separated by a carbon para - opposite

papillary layer

outer layer of the dermis, directly beneath the epidermis. Consists of loose connective tissue

Ectoderm

outermost germ layer; gives rise to integument: epidermis, hair, nails, epithelia of the nose, mouth, and anus, lens of the eye, nervous system, inner ear

stratum corneum

outermost layer of the epidermis, which consists of flattened keratinocytes

menopause

ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH, causing them to atrophy. Due to lower estrogen and progesterone, endometrium atrophies and menstruation stops. Negative feedback on FSH and LH stops, so these rise

intracellular digestion

oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy. Occurs inside cells

aldonic acids

oxidized aldoses

what prefix is used for ketones as substituents? How about aldehydes?

oxo- for ketones and aldehydes keto- is sometimes used for ketones

Hardy-Weinberg equation

p + q = 1 p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 p^2 is frequency of homozygous dominant 2pq is frequency of heterozygotes q^2 is frequency of homozygous recessive

dipole moment equation

p=qd p is dipole moment d is distance between dipoles

primary end product of fatty acid synthesis

palmitic acid

Any charge moving ______ to a magnetic field will not feel its effects

parallel or antiparallel

parasympathetic effect on digestion

parasympathetic nervous system stimulates digestion through exocrine release and peristalsis

Enzyme-linked receptors

participate in cell signaling through extracellular ligand binding and initiation of second messenger cascades ex. Receptor tyrosine kinases

apoptotic blebs

parts of the cell that is going through the apoptosis pathway they are self contained these are then digested by other cells

SI unit of viscosity

pascal-second (N*s)/m^2

stomach protease

pepsin

What kind of bond formation does peptidyl transferase catalyze?

peptide bond

glucagon (type, location, target)

peptide hormone secreted by alpha cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans Primarily acts on the hepatocytes of the liver

Calcitonin

peptide hormone released by parafollicular cells of the thyroid in response to high blood calcium, promotes bone formation, lowering blood calcium levels

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

peptide hormone synthesized by the hypothalamus, released by posterior pituitary in response to high blood osmolarity. Directly alters permeability of the collective duct, making it more leaky, increasing water reabsorption

secretin

peptide hormone that causes pancreatic enzymes to be released into the duodenum, regulates pH of the digestive tract by decreasing HCl release from parietal cells and increasing bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas. A type of enterogastrone

Hematocrit

percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells (normal is 41%-53% for males, 36%-46% for females)

Interphase

period of the cell cycle between cell divisions (G1, S, G2)

difference in nerve layout of somatic and autonomic nervous system

peripheral component of the autonomic nervous system has two nerves, a motor neuron from the somatic nervous system is just one

Microglia

phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in the CNS

Monocytes

phagocytize bacteria and foreign materials. Once they leave the blood and enter an organ, they're called macrophages

Macrophages

phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells

Glycerophospholipids

phospholipids that contain a glycerol backbone. Backbone is bonded to two fatty acids with ester linkages and a polar head group by phosphodiester linkage

serum

plasma without clotting factors

Episomes

plasmids that can integrate into the genome

osteoclasts

polynucleated macrophages of bone, which absorb it

positive sense vs negative sense RNA viruses

positive sense viruses have genomes that can be directly translated by the host ribosomes, negative sense viruses must first synthesize a complementary strand, which can be used as a template for synthesis

positive vs negative controls

positive- ensure that a change in dependent variable occurs when expected vs. negative- ensure that no change in dependent variable occurs when none expected

What are the units of chemical shift in NMR?

ppm

prezygotic mechanisms

prevent formation of the zygote completely

How are free fatty acids transported in the blood?

primarily bound to albumin and other carrier proteins. A little bit may remain free

germinal centers

primary locations in the lymph nodes where B cells reproduce and proliferate

myosin

primary motor protein that interacts with actin. It's the thick filament in myofibril and is involved in cellular transport. Each unit has a head and neck

Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority rules

priority is given by looking at the atoms connected to the chiral carbon or double-bonded carbons - whichever has the highest atomic number gets higher priority - if there is a tie, one moves outward from the chiral carbon or double bond until the tie is broken

Differentiation

process in which cells become specialized in structure, function, and biochemistry

Hemoatopoiesis

process of blood cell formation

necrosis

process of cell death in which a cell dies as a result of injury. internal cellular substances can be leaked, causing irritation to surrounding cells and an immune response

follicular cells of thyroid

produce T3 and T4

bulbourethral glands

produce a clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal

mucous cells

produce bicarbonate-rich mucus to protect the stomach

Calcitonin

produced by parafollicular cells (C cells) of thyroid gland; lowers blood calcium levels by increased calcium excretion from kidneys, decreasing calcium absorption from the gut, stimulating calcium uptake by bones

propionaldehyde IUPAC name

propanal

malonic acid

propanedioic acid (3 carbons with carboxylic acid groups at the ends)

propionic acid IUPAC name

propanoic acid

acetone

propanone

hormones involved in giving birth

prostaglandins and oxytocin

albumin

protein in blood; maintains the proper amount of water in the blood and is a carrier for many drugs and hormones

catabolite activator protein (CAP)

protein that complexes with cAMP to bind to the promoter sequences of operons that control sugar processing when glucose is not available. (increasing transcription of proteins like lactase).

actin

protein that makes up microfilaments and thin filaments in myofibrils. They have a positive and negative side, allowing motor proteins to travel unidirectionally along them

tubulin

protein that makes up microtubules. Has polarity

complement system (classical vs alternative pathway)

proteins in the blood that help with nonspecific defense against bacteria by punching holes in their walls can be activated by the classical pathway (with antibodies) or alternative pathway (without antibodies)

Nucleoproteins

proteins that associate with DNA ex. histones

integral proteins

proteins which associate with the interior of the plasma membrane. Includes both embedded proteins and transmembrane proteins. Usually have hydrophobic domains.

conjugated proteins

proteins with covalently attached molecules (prosthetic group). These can be used to direct delivery to the cell membrane or to organelles, or they can provide activity for the protein

Bronsted-Lowry acid

proton donor

nucleons

protons and neutrons

inner cell mass of blastocyst

protrudes into the blastocoel and gives rise to the organism itself

Order of nephron parts after Bowman's capsule/glomerulus

proximal convoluted tubule, descending/ascending loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct

what reaction does pyruvate dehydrogenase catalyze?

pyruvate is oxidized, yielding CO2. The remaining 2C molecule is found to thiamine pyrophosphate (vitamin B1, TPP). Mg 2+ is required

equation to relate heat gained or lost by an object during a phase change

q = m*L q = heat m = mass L = heat of transformation

equation to relate heat gained or lost by an object and its temperature

q=mcΔT q = heat m = mass c = specific heat

biometric techniques

quantitative approaches to biological data

alpha decay

radioactive decay by emission of an alpha particle (a Helium-4 nucleus with 2 protons, 2 neutrons, and no electrons). The daughter isotope will have a mass that is 4 fewer and have 2 fewer protons.

beta decay

radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus that is accompanied by the emission of a beta particle, which is an electron or positron. Atomic number will change, based on whether it's β- or β+ decay

Carnitine acyltransferase I

rate limiting enzyme of fatty acid oxidation transports long chain fatty acids (14-20C) into the mitochondria

Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

ratio of CO2 produced to O2 consumed. generally around 0.8, lower means more lipids are consumed, higher means more carbs are consumed

role of the appendix

re-colonize the intestine with bacteria after diarrhea

Autoimmunity

reaction of immune response to one's own tissues

left ventricle

receives blood from the left atrium and pumps the blood into the aorta for transport to the body

right side of heart

receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs

right atrium

receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the vena cava and pumps it into the right ventricle which then sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated.

thoracic duct

receives lymph from the rest of the body

Left side of the heart

receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body

left atrium

receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle

autoreceptors

receptors that respond to the released transmitter by inhibiting further synthesis and release

Glutathione

reducing agent that can help reverse radical formation before damage is done to the cell (antioxidant)

ketolysis

regenerates acetyl-CoA for use as an energy source in peripheral tissues (liver doesn't have the necessary enzyme, thiophorase)

H-zone

region containing thick filaments only

I-band

region containing thin filaments only

Cyclins and CDKs

regulatory proteins involved in cell cycle control. Cyclin levels change throughout the cell cycle, and bind to cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) this triggers signal cascades with transcription factors

Type 1 error

rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true (false positive)

oligopeptide

relatively small peptides from two to about 20 residues. A single amino acid is not an oligopeptide

micturition reflex

relaxation of the internal urinary sphincter in response to increased pressure in the bladder through contraction of the detrusor muscle

quiescent integrin molecules

released when platelets attach to a cut, causes fibrinogen to make nets of platelets

Order of vessels in the renal pathway

renal artery, afferent arteriole, glomerulus, efferent arteriole, vasa recta, renal vein

aldehyde naming

replace -e with -al

Carboxylic Acid naming

replace -e with -oic acid

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration

Meissner's corpuscles

respond to light touch

free nerve endings

respond to pain and temperature

gastric glands

respond to signals from the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system, activated with the sight, smell, or taste of food. Three cell types: mucous, chief, parietal

Ruffini endings

respond to stretch

vagus nerve

responsible for the parasympathetic innervation of the thoracic and abdominal cavity

determinate cleavage

results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type

indeterminate cleavage

results in cells that can still develop into complete organisms. This type of cleavage occurs in monozygotic twins

mixed inhibition

results when an inhibitor can bind to either the enzyme or the E-S complex, but has different affinity for each; if it has same affinity = noncompetitive inhibitor; binds to allosteric; alters Km depending on affinity; decreased Vmax

angle strain (cyclic compounds)

results when bond angles deviate from their ideal values by being stretched or compressed

torsional strain (cyclic compounds)

results when cyclic molecules must assume conformations that have eclipsed interactions

pyloric sphincter

ring of muscle that guards the opening between the stomach and the duodenum

M-line

runs down the center of the sarcomere, through the middle of the myosin filaments

Lipase

salivary and pancreatic enzyme that breaks down lipids

accessory organs of the digestive system

salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

alpha cells

secrete glucagon

parietal cells

secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor, which is a glycoprotein needed for vitamin B12 absorption

beta cells

secrete insulin

chief cells

secrete pepsinogen, which is cleaved to pepsin by hydrochloric acid

delta cells

secrete somatostatin

Interstitial cells of Leydig

secrete testosterone and androgens

Endocrine

secreted hormones travel through the blood to a distant cell

zymogens

secreted in an inactive form and are activated by cleavage of their regulatory domain. These are dangerous if activated in the wrong location. Ex. trypsinogen, which becomes trypsin

pineal gland

secretes melatonin, regulates circadian rhythms, receives projections from the retina

Merkel cells

sensory receptors at the dermis-epidermis junction. Responsible for deep pressure and texture sensation

Meiosis I

separates homologous chromosomes; each daughter cell is haploid; each chromosome still has two sister chromatids. There are no centromeres on the metaphase plate

separatory funnel

separates immiscible liquids based on density, important in extraction. Denser solvents drain first

vacuum distillation

separates liquids when boiling points are GREATER than 150C (decreased pressure = decreased boiling point)

Young's double slit experiment

shows the constructive and destructive interference of waves that occur as light passes through parallel slits, resulting in minima (dark fringes) and maxima (bright fringes) of intensity (there's an equation but are you really gunna learn that??)

Juxtacrine

signals act through direct stimulation of the adjacent cells

memory T cells

similar to memory B cells, lie in wait for future exposures to the same antigen. When activated, they carry out a more robust and rapid response

simple vs stratified vs pseudostratified epithelial cells

simple: one layer of cells stratified: multiple layers pseudostratified: appear to have multiple layers due to differences in cell height, but are really one layer

glyceraldehyde

simplest aldose - 3 carbons, one has an aldehyde, the others have alcohols

Single Blind vs. Double Blind

single= participants don't know which group they are assigned to double= researchers nor participants know

Meiosis II

sister chromatids separate, similar to mitosis, but results in haploid cells

Chiasma

site of crossing over

chiasma

site of crossing over

stratum spinosum

site where keratinocytes become connected. Site of Langerhans cells

AV node

sits at the junction between the atria and ventricles. Signal is delayed to allow ventricles to fill before they contract

axial skeleton

skull, vertebral column, rib cage, hyoid bone. Basic central framework of the body

Viroids

small circular RNA molecules that infect plants and disrupt their growth by silencing genes in the plant genome. There are a few human viroids, such as Hep D

Where does the bulk of protein digestion occur?

small intestine

What is the spliceosome made up of?

small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and small nuclear ribonuclearproteins (snRNPs)

Lacunae

small spaces between the lamellae which contain osteocytes

Venules

small vessels that gather blood from the capillaries into the veins

Arterioles

small vessels that receive blood from the arteries

Bronchioles

smallest branches of the bronchi in the lungs

Sublimation

solid to gas

intercalated discs

specialized connections between myocardial cells containing gap junctions

intercalated discs

specialized connections between myocardial cells containing gap junctions, allowing for coordinated ventricular contractions

humoral immunity

specific immunity produced by B cells that produce antibodies that circulate in body fluids

acrosomal apparatus

sperm forms this tubelike structure when first sperm direct contact w/ secondary oocyte's cell membrane extends and penetrates the membrane

Spermatogenesis steps

spermatogonia (S)-> primary spermatocyte (m1)--> 2 secondary spermatocyte (m2)--> 4 spermatids (maturation)--> 4 spermatozoa

cocci

spherical bacteria

Telophase

spindle disappears, nuclear membrane reforms, chromosomes uncoil

Spirilli

spiral shaped bacteria

citrate lyase

splits citrate back into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate in the cytosol. Oxaloacetate can go back to the mitochondria and acetyl-CoA can be used in fatty acid synthesis when energetic needs of the cell are met

Dipeptidase

splits dipeptides into amino acids

Diffraction

spreading out of light as it passes through a narrow opening or around an obstacle

Shapes of epithelial cells

squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube-like), columnar (long, thin)

Golgi apparatus

stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages cellular materials from the endoplasmic reticulum

similarities between archaea and eukarya

start translation with methionine contain similar RNA polymerases associate DNA with histones

Case-control study

starts with the disease and attempts to determine the chain of events leading to it. Looks backwards for, say, lung cancer patients and healthy people to see how much of each group had smoked

Mendel's first law of segregation

states that an organism has two alleles for each gene, which segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes carrying only one allele for a trait

cell determination

stem cells become committed to develop into only one type of cell

Enantiomers

stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other. They have opposite configurations at every chiral center. They have the same physical and chemical properties except the rotation of plane-polarized light, and their interactions in chiral environments

Diastereomers

stereoisomers that are not mirror images (not enantiomers)

Glucocorticoids

steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). Includes cortisol and cortisone. Raise blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis.

Mineralcorticoids

steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex. Used in salt and water homeostasis. Most notable is aldosterone, which increases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron. Water follows the calcium into the bloodstream, increasing blood volume and pressure without changing blood osmolarity. Also decreases reabsorption of potassium and hydrogen ions in the nephron, promoting their excretion in urine.

Spleen

stores blood and activates B-cells into plasma cells to produce antibodies

Strata of Epidermis (deep to superficial)

stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum BSGLC : bad skin gets love & cream

Osteons (Haversian systems)

structural units of bony matrix contains concentric circles of lamellae surrounding a central channel

Doppler ultrasound

study that uses high-frequency sound waves for detection of blood flow within the vessels

What is UV spectroscopy most useful for?

studying compounds containing double bonds and/or heteroatoms with lone pairs that create conjugated systems

selection bias

subjects used for the study are not representative of the target population

How is succinyl-CoA converted to Succinate?

succinyl-CoA synthetase hydrolyzes the thioester bond and releases S-CoA, forming succinate, while also creating GTP from GDP

Lorentz force

sum of electrostatic and magnetic forces

anhydride naming

symmetrical: substitute "anhydride" for "acid" asymmetrical: alphabetically name the two chains and follow w/ "anhydride"

sympathetic nervous system effect on saliva

sympathetic response increases the viscosity of saliva, which is why dry mouth happens during fight or flight

HDL

synthesized in the liver and intestines, released as dense, protein-rich particles in the blood Has apolipoproteins used for cholesterol recovery--cleaning up excess cholesterol from blood vessels Delivers cholesterol to steroidergic tissues and transfers apolipoproteins to other lipoproteins

penicillin

targets an enzyme that causes cross-linking of peptidoglycan. This causes gram-positive bacteria to lose an effective cell wall, causing lysis

mass spectrometry

technique based of the detection of vaporized molecules and their ionized (charged) fragments; detection and display of the spectra are based on the mass-to-mass charge ratios of the ions; method is specific for qualitative analysis and useful for quantitative analysis

What strand is used for transcription?

template/antisense(3-5)

carontenoids

tetraterpenes like B-carotene

ester naming

the R group attached to the O is named first (methyl, ethyl, etc), then the chain the is connected to the carbonyl carbon is the second part with -oate at the end, instead of oic acid as it would be for a carboxylic acid when in a substituent, they use the prefix alcoxycarbonyl-

D-glucose

the aldohexose where there is only one left-facing hydroxyl group in the Fischer projection (the 3 carbon)

How is alpha ketoglutarate converted to succinyl-CoA

the alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (similar to PDH complex) facilitates a decarboxylation and adds a S-CoA group in that group's place. This is coupled with the reduction of NAD+ to NADH

law of reflection

the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection Angle is measured from a perpendicular line to the surface

Observation Bias (Hawthorne Effect)

the behavior of study participants is altered simply because they recognize that they are being studied

placental barrier

the boundary provided by placental tissue between the fetal and maternal circulations; small substances, excluding blood cells, may cross this barrier. This makes maternal and fetal blood supplies separate, giving the baby immunity from many diseases. (mother can pass antibodies)

vasa recta

the capillary system in the kidney that serves the loop of Henle. It returns solutes from the interstitium to the bloodstream

first law of thermodynamics

the change in the total internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy transferred as heat to the system minus the amount of energy transferred as work from system ∆U=Q-W Q is heat flowing into system, W is work done by system

Chylomicrons

the class of lipoproteins that transport lipids from the intestinal cells to the rest of the body

chylomicrons

the class of lipoproteins that transport lipids from the intestinal cells to the rest of the body

axon hillock

the cone-shaped area on the cell body from which the axon originates

Glycosylation

the covalent attachment of sugar groups; can tag an enzyme for transport within the cell or can modify protein activity and selectivity

stratum basale

the deepest layer of the epidermis consisting of stem cells. Responsible for proliferation of keratinocytes, predominant cells of the skin that produce keratin

molecular clock model

the degree of difference in the genome between two species is related to the amount of time since the two species broke off from a common ancestor

Gauge Pressure definition and equation

the difference between the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure P gauge = P - Patm = (P0 + ρgz) - Patm

mass defect

the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atoms are slightly less heavy than we'd expect. Explained by some matter being converted to energy according to E=mc^2

focal length

the distance from the center of a lens to the focal point

preganglionic neuron

the efferent neuron of the autonomic nervous system whose cell body is located in the CNS and whose terminal buttons synapse upon postganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia

decidua

the endometrium of the uterus during pregnancy

calorie definition

the energy needed to raise the temp of one gram of liquid water by one degree celsius

Acetylcholinesterase

the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft

Temporality (Hill's Criteria)

the exposure (independent variable) must occur before the outcome (dependent variable). This must be true for a causal relationship, the only of Hill's Criteria which are required (although not sufficient on its own)

S1

the first heart sound, heard when the atrioventricular (mitral and tricuspid) valves close to prevent backflow into the atria

first vs second messenger

the first messenger is the peptide hormone, the second messenger is the signal response within the cell when the peptide binds the receptor

menarche

the first occurrence of menstruation

motor end plate

the flattened end of a motor neuron that transmits neural impulses to a muscle

genetic leakage

the flow of genes between species (often forming hybrids)

bastocoel

the fluid-filled central cavity of the blastula

Fischer esterification

the formation of an ester from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in acidic conditions

How do you add vectors?

the head of one arrow meets the tail of the second, the line drawn from the tail of the first and the head of the second is your added vector

lumen

the hollow inside of an organ or tube

Endoderm

the inner germ layer that develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems, pancreas, thyroid, bladder, distal urinary tracts, parts of the liver

recombination frequency

the likelihood that two genes will be separated from one another during crossing over, roughly equal to their distance on the chromosome. Tightly linked genes are close to 0%, weakly linked genes are close to 50%

fundamental frequency

the lowest frequency of vibration of a standing wave at a given length of string (first harmonic)

outer mitochondrial membrane

the membrane that separates the contents of the mitochondrion from the rest of the cell, creating a cellular compartment with the ideal conditions for aerobic respiration. Highly permeable due to large pores which let in small proteins and ions.

upper esophageal sphincter

the muscular ring located at the top of the esophagus in the oropharynx that keeps backflow out of the mouth

anomeric carbon

the new chiral center formed in ring closure; it was the carbon containing the carbonyl in the straight-chain form

Palmitate

the only fatty acid that humans can synthesize de novo 16:0 saturated fatty acid Requires 8 acetyl-CoA to make

synovial capsule

the outermost layer of strong fibrous tissue that resembles a sleeve as it surrounds the joint

isoelectric point

the pH where the population has no net charge and the maximum number of species are zwitterions -calculated by averaging the pKas of the relevant groups which predict when the zwitterionic form will predominate

synapsis

the pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, held together by the synaptonemal complex

Loop of Henle

the part of a kidney tubule that forms a long loop in the medulla of the kidney, from which water and salts are resorbed into the blood, minimizing urine volume

site of oxygenation in utero

the placenta

strong nuclear force

the powerful attractive force that binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus. The strongest fundamental force, but it only acts over a very small distance.

dynamic pressure

the pressure associated with the movement of a fluid, represented by 1/2*ρ*v^2

osmotic pressure (definition)

the pressure that would have to be applied to a pure solvent to prevent it from passing into a given solution by osmosis, often used to express the concentration of the solution. Colligative property, meaning identity of solute particles doesn't matter

Achimedes' Principle

the principle that states that the buoyant force on an object in a fluid is an upward force equal to the weight of the volume of fluid that the object displaces F buoy = density of fluid * V fluid displaced * g

adaptive radiation

the rapid evolution of many diverse species from ancestral species into distinct niches

Power

the rate at which work is done or energy is transfered P = W/t = delta E/T

Centromere

the region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during cell division--high heterochromatin content

simple twitch

the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above the threshold stimulus and consists of a latent period, a contraction period, and a relaxation period

S2

the second heart sound, heard when the semilunar (aortic and pulmonic) valves close at the end of systole to prevent backflow

passive immunity

the short-term immunity that results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal. This happens when antibodies are transferred from mother to fetus, or in the case of a rabies or tetanus, when antibodies are injected to stop the spread of infection

Autolysis

the spontaneous breakdown of cells as they self-digest. When lysosomes release digestive enzymes, apoptosis results

In DNA, where is the sugar-phosphate backbone and where are the bases?

the sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside, the bases are on the inside

resultant

the sum of two or more vectors

latent period

the time between reaching threshold and the onset of contraction

extraction

the transfer of a dissolved compound from a starting solvent into a solvent in which the product is more soluble

VLDL (very low density lipoprotein)

the type of lipoprotein made primarily by liver cells to transport lipids to various tissues in the body; composed primarily of triacylglycerol.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

the volume of air in the lungs after a maximal inhalation

renal pelvis

the widest part of the ureter, spans the renal hilum

cofactors and coenzymes in the PDH complex

thiamine pyrophosphate, lipoic acid, CoA, FAD, NAD+

Gram-positive cell walls

thick layer of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid

Diaphragm

thin, muscular partition separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Helps generate the negative pressure necessary for lung expansion. Under somatic (not autonomic) control

wobble position

third position of the codon two bases are usually the same - the third base in the codon is usually variable this is an evolutionary development used to protect against mutations in the coding regions of DNA mutations in this position tend to be *silent or degenerate* - there is no effect on the expression of the amino acid and therefore no adverse effects on the polypeptide sequence

Conservation Forces

those that are path independent and that do not dissipate energy (ex. gravity and electrostatic). Conservative forces mean that a round trip path has zero change in energy, and energy is equal regardless of pathing

salivary glands

three pairs of exocrine glands in the mouth that secrete saliva innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system Salivation is triggered by food in the mouth or signals that food is near, like sight and smell three pairs: parotid, submandibular, sublingual

Pharynx

throat; passageway for food to the esophagus and air to the larynx

prosthetic group

tightly bound cofactors or coenzymes that are necessary for enzyme function

Fractional distillation

to separate two liquids with similar boiling points (less than 25 degrees apart) Surface area of the column is increased, causing more spots for condensation, and only the desired product reaching the top of the column

fondus of stomach

top of the stomach, below the diaphragm, contains mostly gastric glands

Torque equation

torque = r x F = rFsinѲ r=length of the lever arm F=magnitude of the force Ѳ= angel between the lever arm and force vectors

average speed

total distance/total time (scalar quantity)

repressable operon

transcription is usually on but it can be inhibited. Regulator is inactive until bound by a corepressor

cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance

transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus (occurs in mitochondria)

digestive absorption

transport of products of digestion from the digestive tract into the circulatory system for distribution to the body's tissues

endosomes

transport, package, and sort cell material traveling to and from the membrane (also called vesicles)

Volkmann's canals

transverse channel (axis perpendicular to the bone), carrying blood vessels, nerves, lymph channels

Ultrasound machines calculate distance based upon:

travel time of the reflected sound

meiosis II in eggs

triggered when sperm breaches the corona radiata and zona pellucida, produces a mature ovum and polar body

pancreatic proteases

trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase A and B

pancreatic peptidases

trypsinogen chymotrypsinogen carboxypeptidases A and B

Monoamnionic Twins

twins which share the same amnion, they are always also monochorionic

Napthalene

two fused benzene rings

Antibody structure

two heavy chains disulfide bonded to two light chains they have a constant region, a variable region, and an antigen-binding region (at the tip of the variable region)

extracellular digestion

type of digestion in which food is broken down outside the cells in a digestive system and then absorbed. Done in the lumen of the alimentary canal, technically "outside" the body

Th2 cells

type of helper T cell that activates B cells, largely in parasitic infections

Th1 cells

type of helper T cell that secrete interferon gamma, which activates macrophages

dideoxynucleotide

type of nucleotide used during DNA sequencing to terminate synthesis. The 3 carbon has a hydrogen instead of its OH

gauss (unit)

unit for magnetic field 1 tesla = 10,000 gauss

slug (measurement)

unit of mass in the imperial system

polyuria and polydipsia

urinating in large amounts/drinking in large amounts. Common symptoms of diabetes

urination musclulature

urination is facilitated by contraction of the abdominal muscles, which increase pressure in the abdominal cavity

How much splitting occurs in NMR?

use the n+1 rule --the number of peaks is the number of hydrogens on adjacent carbons plus 1

F1 subunit of ATP synthase

utilizes the energy from proton flow to catalyze the creation of ATP

Michaelis Menten equation using kcat

v = (kcat*[E]*[S])/(Km + [S])

Michaelis-Menten equation

v = (vmax [S])/(Km + [S])

Migration velocity in electrophoresis (equation)

v = Ez/f E = electric field strength z = net charge f = frictional coefficient (depends on the mass and shape)

propagation speed of a wave equation

v = λ*f (wavelength * frequency)

speed of sound equation

v=sqrt(B/density) B=resistance to compression (lowest for gas and highest for solid), p density of medium. Solids with low density are the fastest and gas with high density are the slowest.

Kinematics (no time)

v^2= v(o)^2 + 2ax

mitral valve

valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle; bicuspid valve

tricuspid valve

valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle

pulmonary valve

valve positioned between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery

non bonded strain

van der waals repulsion results when *nonadjacent atoms *or groups compete for the same space causes flagpole interactions in cyclohexane boat conformation

dot product

vector multiply vector results in scalar quantity = a b cos(angle)

cross product

vector multiply vector results in vector quantity = a b sin(angle) use right hand rule for direction

on what side do motor neurons exit the spinal cord?

ventral

Diastole

ventricles are relaxed, semilunar valves are closed, blood from the atria fills the ventricles

QRS complex

ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization, occurs before ventricles contract

T wave

ventricular repolarization, after ventricular contraction

What kind of images do plane mirrors make?

virtual images behind the mirror

productive cycle (virus)

virus leaves cell by fusing with plasma membrane (extrusion). The infected cell stays alive and will continue making viruses

Tidal Volume (TV)

volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath

cardiac output

volume of blood pumped by one ventricle per minute Heart rate*stroke volume

emesis

vomiting, reverse peristalsis.

what do the gomerular pore filter?

water and small ions and amino acids can go through, but larger proteins and RBCs cannot pass through

rectilinear propagation

waves will travel in straight lines or paths in a uniform medium

BMI calculation

weight (kg) / height (m^2)

postprandial state

well fed/absorptive state --> insulin secretion is high and anabolic metabolism prevails

log-log graph

when both axes use a constant ratio from point to point on the axis

inbreeding depression

when individuals with similar genotypes - typically relatives - breed with each other and produce offspring that have an impaired ability to survive and reproduce

isolation (evolution)

when members of one population are separated for a significant period of time, their genetics will change enough over that period, that if reunited they cannot successfully mate and will now be new species

complete dominance

when only one dominant and one recessive allele exist for a given gene; dominant with mask any recessive allele

When is ATP used in muscle contraction?

when recocking the myosin head

critical angle (refraction)

when the refracted angle is 90 degrees critical angle = sin^-1(n2/n1) When the angle is greater than this, there's total internal reflection

Principle of Superposition

when waves interact with each other, the displacement of the resultant wave at any point is the sum of the displacements of the two interacting waves

Binding energy of a nucleus

work that must be done to separate a nucleus into its constituent neutrons and protons E = mass defect *c^2

Kinematics (no final velocity)

x= v(o)t + 1/2(at^2)

Kinematics (no acceleration)

x=vt

inviscid

zero viscosity, ideal fluid

zygote vs embryo

zygotes are unicellular, once the first cleavage takes place, it becomes an embryo

Relationship between ΔG and ΔG°

ΔG = ΔG° + RT lnQ ΔG° is standard free energy change Q is the reaction quotient

Gibbs free energy equation

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

Wnet=

ΔKE

Thermal expansion equation

ΔL=αLΔT ΔL is change in length α is coefficient of linear expansion L is original length ΔT is change in temperature

change in entropy equation

ΔS = Q/T Q = heat that is gained/lost in REVERSIBLE process T = temp (K) entropy units: J/(mol*K)

enones

α,β-unsaturated carbonyls