Memory (Neuroscience)
What is the illusion of truth effect?
That subjects are more likely to rate statements that they have already heard as true, regardless of their veracity.
How is the semantic way of encoding information in the long term memory demonstrated?
after 20 minutes test subjects had the least difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings
What is sensitization?
an example of non-associative learning in which involves the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus
What is imprinting?
any kind of phase sensitive learning that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior
What type of memory is episodic memory generally viewed as being equivalent to or being an umbrella for?
autobiographical memory
During memory encoding information may be processed about space, time and frequency throughout what 2 processes?
automatic processing or effortful processing
What is a further major way to distinguish different memory functions?
by either the content to be remembered is in the past or future.../retrospective or prospective
What is procedural memory based on?
implicit learning
Which type of memory is associated with illusion-of-truth effect?
implicit memory
Under what umbrella does phase sensitive learning fall under?
imprinting
What is one of the primary functions of sleep?
improving consolidated information as it can be shown that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test
When is play generally seen in ___________ which suggests a link with learning? (think stage of life)
in younger animals
What is event-based memory in prospective memories?
intentions trigged by cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue)
Because sensory and short term memories have a strictly limited capacity and duration, this means that information____________
is only available for a certain period of time but is not retained indefinitely
Why is declarative memory sometimes called explicit memory?
it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved
Shaniqua was asked to remember a list of words/ pictures and then asked to identify the previously presented words/pictures from a list of alternatives that are not presented in the original list. This is an example of what?
memory task recognition
what other meanings may be employed to make the best use of memory?
metacognitive strategies, priming and measures of retention
What maintains the long term memory?
more stable and permanent changes in neural connection widely spread throughout the brain
What does recollections often require to assist the ind in retrieving the information sought?
prompting (as in stimulus or clues)
Using sticky notes, lists and/or handkerchiefs are all examples of cues that are produced by people as a strategy to enhance what type of memory?
prospective memory
Which type of memory process is associated with tip-of-tongue effect?
recall/retrieval
What does encoding or registration entail?
receiving, processing and combining of received information
Define retrieval:
recollection or recall of memory
Metacognition refers to a level of thinking that involves:
--Active control over the process of thinking that is used in learning situations -- Planning the way to approach a learning task -- Monitoring comprehension -- Evaluating the progress towards the completion of a task -- maintaining motivation to see a task to completion -- The ability to become aware of distracting stimuli both internal and external
Define encoding:
the processing of physical sensory input into one's memory
What triggers time based prospective memories?
they are triggered by a time cue, such as going to he doctor (action) at 4PM (cue)
How will most infants tune into their surrounding culture?
through copying the demonstrators goals, actions and environmental outcomes
Short-term memory is supported by what type of neuronal communication pattern?
transient
True or False: procedural memory is based on the conscious recall of information?
False- Procedural memory or implicit memory IS NOT based on the conscious recall of information but on implicit learning
True or False: Learning only occurs when we are conscious.
False: Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness.
True or False: In procedural memory, new explicit memories are also being formed?
False: No new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences.
Ture or false: Short-term memory allows one to recall something from several seconds to as long as a minute with rehearsal.
False: Short-term memory allows one to recall something from several sec. to as long as a min. WITHOUT rehearsal.
True or False: The hippocampus also seems to store information and itself is essential to the consolidation of info from the short term and long term memories?
False: The hippocampus DOES NOT STORE INFORMATION ITSELF
True or false: Sensory memory can be prolonged via rehearsal?
False: This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.
When was imprinting first used?
First used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.
What are 2 examples of simple non-associative learning?
Habituation and sensitization
True or False: an unconditioned stimulus unfailingly evokes a particular response
true
What is operative learning?
use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior
What are the 4 types of encoding?
visual encoding, acoustic encoding, semantic encoding and tactile encoding
Define serial recall:
when items are recalled in a particular order
Define free recall:
when no clues are given to assist retrieval
When is procedural memory revealed?
when one does better in a given task due only to repetition
What is paired associate learning?
when one learns to associate one specific word with another like stop is associated with the color red
Define cued recall:
when some clues are given to assist retrieval
What is phase sensitive learning?
Learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage
Students who demonstrate a (an) ______________ of metacognitive skills perform better on exams and complete work more efficiently.
wide range
Define priming:
A finding in which exposure to a stimulus at time 1 influences responding to a related stimulus at time 2
How does short term memory encode information?
acoustically
What is the ideal size for chucking letter and numbers meaningful or not?
3
Habituation has been observed as early as how many weeks into gestation?
32
The short term memory capacity is also limited on the order of how many items?
4-5 items
What is semantic encoding?
processing of meaning, particularly the meaning of words
What is learning?
Acquiring new knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, preferences or understanding, and may involve synthesizing different types of information.
Define Memory:
An organism's mental ability to store, retain and recall information
Long term memory is divided into?
Declarative (explicit; conscious recall) and procedural (implicit) memories
What are 2 types of multimedia learning?
E-learning and M-learning
What is E-learning?
Electronic learning is a general term used to refer to internet-based networked computer-enhaced learning
By seeing habituation as early as 32 weeks into gestation, this indicates what?
Indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.
What is the typical paradigm for classical conditioning?
Involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus with another previously neutral stimulus
In which type of memory does storage have a strictly limited capacity and duration?
Sensory memory and short-term memory
What are the different types of learning?
Simple non-associatinve learning, associative learning, imprinting, observational learning, play, multimedia learning, rote learning, informational learning, formal learning and non-formal learning
True or False: Cues that trigger event and time based prospective remembering DO NOT need to be related to the action
True
True or False: Operant conditioning deals with modification of VOLUNTARY behavior
True
Ture or False: Long-term memory can store much large quantities of information for an unlimited duration even a whole life span?
True
True or False: Play involves a significant cost to animals?
True: Increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and possibly infection
True or False: Visual memory can result in priming?
True: Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon.
True or False: Without the hippocampus, we will have a very short attention span?
True: Without the hippocampus new memories are unable to be stored into long term memory and there will e a very short attention span
What type of behavior does play describe?
a behavior which has no particular end in itself, but improves performances in similar situations in the future
The number of successive trials a learner takes to reach a specified level of proficiency may be compared with the number of trials needed later to attain the same level. What does this yield?
a measure of retention
What is mobile learning?
a more specific and always more diffused e-learning which uses different mobile telecommunication equipments, such as cellular phones
What is memory chunking?
a process by which memory capacity can be increased
Priming also refers to an experimental technique where:
a stimulus is used to sensitize the subject to a later presentation of the same or similar stimulus
What is the tip-of-tongue phenomenon?
a temporary failure to retrieve information from memory
What is implicit memory?
a type of memory in which previous experiences aid in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences
What is topographic memory?
a type of procedural (implicit) memory with the ability to orient oneself in space, ability to recognize and follow an itinerary or ability to recognize familiar places
Following conditioning, the response occurs to what?
both to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus which is now referred to as the conditioned stimulus
Recognition is usually superior to the what?
ability to recall it
Encoding for short-term storage (STS) in the brain relies primarily on what type of encoding rather than semantic encoding?
acoustic encoding
What does retrieval or recall entail?
calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity
What brain structures does procedural memory involved in motor learning depend on?
cerebellum and basal ganglia
What is known to increase memory capacity?
chunking
What is semantic memory?
concerns facts taken independent of context, which allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world.
What does episodic memory concern?
concerns information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place
What is the response to the conditioned stimulus termed?
conditioned response
Declarative memory requires what?
conscious recall
What does memory storage entail?
creation of a permeant record of the encoded information
Failure of topographic memory is often reported among what group of people?
elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia
What are the three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory
encoding, storage and retrieval/recall
Which type of memory is used for more personal memories such as the sensations, emotions and personal association of a particular time or place?
episodic memory
Prospective memory can be further broken down into what?
event and time based prospective remembering
How else can priming be demonstrated?
example with the sketch
What is an example of semantic memory?
facts taken independent of context allowing encoding of abstract knowledge about the world like knowing that Paris is the capitol of France
What are the 3 types of recall?
free recall, serial recall and cued recall
Transient patterns of neuronal communication that support short term memory is dependent on what region of the brain?
frontal lobe especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the parietal lobe
In contract to retrospective memory, prospective memory is memory for what?
future intensions or remembering to remember
What is an example of a failure of topographic memory?
getting lost when traveling alone since a topographic memory is THE ABILITY TO ORIENT ONESELF IN SPACE, TO RECOGNIZE AND FOLLOW AN ITINERARY, OR TO RECOGNIZE FAMILIAR PLACES.
There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally in which what has been observed?
habituation
What is the form of integration in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus
habituation (a type of non-associative learning)
Learning may occur as a result of what 3 things?
habituations, classical conditioning or more complex activities such as playing
What brain structure allows memories to be stores into long term memory?
hippocampus
What other part of the brain is also essential to the consolidation of information from short term to long term memory?
hippocampus
Who possess the ability to learn?
humans, animals and some machines
What is an example of paired associate learning?
if a person is given the word safe one must learn to say another word such as green--this is considered a stimulus and a response
What is the most common human learning process?
imitation
What is acoustic encoding?
processing of sound, particularly the sound of words
What are examples of recognition (the ability to recognize what is known which is usually superior to the ability to recall it)?
knowing someones face but having a hard time remembering the name or easier to answer multiple choice questions than essay questions
What is metacognition?
knowledge we have about our own cognitive process and the efficient use of this self-awareness to self-regulate them
What is an example of non-formal learning?
learning by coming together with people with similar interest and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in youth organizations, workshops etc.
What is informal learning?
learning from life-- can be from playing, exploring or a meal at a table with family
When is procedural memory primarily employed?
learning motor skills
What is formal learning?
learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship
What is multimedia learning?
learning where learner uses multimedia learning environment
If you remember a phone number for many years through repetition, which type of memory is it stored in?
long-term memory
Play is sen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans but is mostly limited to what two species?
mammals and birds
What is autobiographical memory?
memories for particular events within one's own life
Bobby is asked to study a list of words and then sometime later he is asked to recall or write down as many words as he can remember. This is an example of what?
memory task of free recall
What can cause a failure of topographic memory?
multiple impairments including difficulties with perception, orientation and memory
The hippocampus may also be involved in changing what after the initial learning?
neural connections for a period of 3 months or more after the initial learning
How does informational learning occur?
occurs through the experiences of day-to-day situations
What is a type of associative learning?
operant conditioning
What is non-formal learning?
organized learning outside the formal learning system
What are examples of memory tasks?
paired associate learning, free recall and recognition
What is visual memory?
part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience
What do we have to distinguish operate continuing from?
pavlovian conditioning
Where do we find evidence for implicit memory?
priming
What type of memory should be considered a subset of implicit memory?
procedural memory
In daily life people rely on implicit memory everyday in the form of what type of memory?
procedural memory (type of memory that allows people to remember how to tie their shoes or ride a bike without consciously thinking about the activities.)
What is the definition of storage?
process of retaining information
What is tactile encoding?
processing of how something feels, normally through touch
What is visual encoding?
processing of images
What is another means of remembering other than recognition?
relearning
What may be the most effective way of remembering information?
relearning
What is an everyday example of sensitization?
repeated tonic stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if person rubs her arms continuously eventually causing arm to get hot and painful due to the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that the stimulation is harmful
What is the major practice involved in rote learning?
repetition
What does the hippocampus do while your asleep?
replays activities from the current day while sleeping
What is an example of formal learning?
school system
Students who demonstrate metacognitive skills are what type of learners?
self-regulated learners who utilize the right tool for the job
Declarative memory can be further sub divided into?
semantic memory and episodic memory
retrospective memory includes what types of memory?
semantic memory and episodic/ autobiographical memory
How does long term memory encode information?
semantically
Storage is the process of retaining information in one of which 3 possible types of memory?
sensory memory, short term memory or the more permanent long term memory
Short term memory allows ones to recall something from how long to how long?
several seconds to as long as a minute
In what 3 ways can information be processed during memory encoding?
space, time and frequency
What is rote learning?
technique which avoids understanding the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard
What is an example of sensory memory?
the ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a second of observation or memorization
what type of information can humans copy simultaneously?
the demonstrators goals, actions and environmental outcomes
Sensory memory corresponds approximately to what?
the initial 200-500 milliseconds after an item is perceived.
