Mex. Rev. Key Terms (Unit 1)
1917 Constitution
*Who: Carranza and other delegates *What: -Article 3: Stripped Catholic church of political power and mandated free public secular education. -Article 27: Radical land reform, nationalizing all land, water, and natural resources. -Article 123: Radical labor reform. Right to strike and organize, minimum wage, 8-hour workday, employer liability for work accidents, limited overtime, at least 1 day of rest a week, paid in legal currency, worker share in profits, 3-months severance pay for laying off someone, equal pay for equal work, maternity leave, physical labor limits for pregnant women, child labor laws, social security, etc. -Article 130: Stripped Catholic Church of economic power. Obligated state registration of churches/religious institutions. Ministers can't hold public office or endorse publicly a candidate. Can only inherit from close-blood relatives. Can't wear clerical garb in public. Religious institutions have to pay taxes. *When: Congress held from Nov 20, 1916 to Jan 31, 1917, published on Feb. *Where: Queretaro *Why: Many delegates were radical and took the congress to measures beyond what Carranza imagined. *How: Carranza called for a Constitutional Congress because he felt like the old Constitution was insufficient. *So what: Article 27 paved the ground for PEMEX, article 123 was one of the trademarks of Cardenas' regime, article 3, though not enforced, was important in a country where 85% of the people were illiterate, and article 130 played a role in pitting Catholic peasants against the anti-Catholic officials, leading to the Cristero war.
Villa
-Who: A bandit who was the leader of one of the Mexican Revolution's factions. -What: A general who originally supported Madero and after his death, fought against Huerta, Carranza, and Obregon. -When: 1910 to 1923 (when he was assassinated) -Where: As he was from Chihuahua, this is where most of his fighting was centered. However, Villa also lead rates into the US, including one on Columbus, New Mexico, that lead President Wilson sending a punitive expedition led by General Pershing to hunt down Villa. -Why: Villa believed in a weak central government, less of a gap between social classes, and free medical care, schooling, and food at the haciendas. This is what he fought for during the Mexican Revolution, though as the years pass, he became more about fighting for the joy fighting and being severely anti-foreigners -How: He used artillery and military tactics to win major battles such as that of Ciudad Juarez -So what: Villa is a very controversial figure, but perhaps the best-known out of those fighting in the revolution. He also influenced American involvement in Mexico due to his attacks on foreigners.
War Paint (Underdogs)
-Who: A character from the Underdogs -What: She's an armed female soldier. -When: During the Mexican Revolution within the book -Where: Throughout Mexico -Why: It's to provide insight into females being involved in the actual revolution rather than just being taken advantage of upon sight when men are storming their village. -How: She was a camp follower and a female thug who joined. -So what: She is an example of how female soldiers were treated during the revolution.
Demtrio Macias (Underdogs)
-Who: A character in The Underdogs -What: A indian who leads a group of men against Huerta during the Mexican Revolution. -When: The Underdogs was published in 1915. It takes place during the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) -Where: Mexico -Why: Macias becomes the enemy of an important person in his town and must flee to avoid the federal -So what: Macias begins fighting to help his country. But, after years of fighting he begins to fight for no particular reason. He is also unaware of the politics of the revolution. Something that leads us to believe that he is fighting for personal gain. These are all realities of men who fought in the revolution. AFter a certain point there was nothing else to do. Macias and his men are completely savage, they loot, kill, and rape. At the end of the book Macias is hopeless for a Mexico that he envisioned. Overall, Macias is a honest, raw, representation of a Mexican revolutionary.
Obregon/Calles
-Who: Alvaro Obregon & Plutarco Calles -What: revolutionary presidents; Obregon became president after Carranza; Obregon had literacy campaigns in rural indigenous schools; Obregon killed Villa in 1923; Calles created a banking system that gave poor people loans; Calles was an atheist and so he enforced Article 130; Cristero War (1926-1929) -When: Obregon president from 1920-1924; Calles president from 1924-1928; Obregon killed in 1928 after winning re-election for presidency -Where: Mexico -Why: Obregon had a relatively stable presidency; Obregon was still influential under Calles; Calles was hand selected by Obregon; Article 130 introduced strong anticlerical policies that drastically reduced the power of the Catholic Church -How: Calles tried to maintain powerful/ incontrol through puppet governments but failed; Obregon's implementation of Article 130 -So what: Mexican identity and pride became to increase after 1920; five percent of the Mexican population left to the United States as a result of the implementation of Article 130 and the Cristero War which followed
Carranza
-Who: Venustiano Carranza aka "Primer Jefe" -What: head of state; president of Mexico; leader of victorious Constitutionalist Army; supported Madero; disliked Diaz; opposed Huerta; conservative; issues plan de Guadalupe -When:1913-1914 (head of state); 1917-1920 (president) -Where: Coahuila; Puerta; Mexico -Why: won recognition from U.S. -How: appointed governor position by Madero and gained status from there -So what: called for a convention to create a new constitution; Constitution of 1917 became a model for democracy calling for labour reform, returning land to peasants, and restricting foreign access to Mexico' natural resources
Cristero War
-Who: Calles, the Catholic Church, and fighters on behalf of the Church (Cristero fighters) -What: Widespread struggle in many central-western Mexican states against the secularist, anti-Catholic, and anticlerical policies of the Mexican government. -When: 1926-1929 -Where: Central-Western Mexico -Why: The rebellion was set off by enactment under President Plutarco Elías Calles of a statute to enforce the anticlerical articles of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 (also known as the Calles Law). Calles sought to eliminate the power of the Catholic Church and organizations affiliated with it as an institution, and also suppress popular religious celebration in local communities -How: Federal troops opened gunfire on armed Catholics who locked themselves in a church. From then on Cristero rebellion troops hid in mountain camps. Cristero fighters would stop trains transporting goods to federal troops and either burn or take the goods for themselves. Members of the Feminine Brigade of St. Joan of Arc would smuggle ammunition for the Cristero cause under their dresses inconspicuously. -So What: The Cristero War showed the Mexican people's true devotion to the Catholic church and their willingness to fight for their right of religious freedom. It also showed how even though the Mexican Revolution was meant to spur progression and new ideas, the majority of Mexico were adamant that their historic religion not be taken from them.
Zapata
-Who: Emiliano Zapata -What: Zapata was a leader in the Mexican Revolution who inspired the agrarian movement, led the peasant revolt, fought against Díaz and for Madero, and allied with Villa. -When: 1879-1919 -Where: Mexico -Why: Zapata was a man of the people and sincerely just wanted them to have the land reform they desired even if that meant putting up with Villa's crazy tactics. He would basically just chill in a hotel somewhere while Villa was fighting a bloody battle. -How: He issued the Plan de Ayala that explained how to restore land to the peasants of Mexico by confiscanding land from hacienda owners. -So what: He is the iconic hero of the Mexican Revolution because of his idealized view of social justice.
Battle of Ciudad Juarez
-Who: Forces loyal to President Porfirio Díaz against Madero rebel forces. -What: Orozco and Villa commanded Madero's army, after 2 days they took control of the town. Díaz was convinced that he could not defeat the rebels and agreed to the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, resigned, and was exiled to France. -When: April and May 1911 -Where: Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua -Why: Díaz was a tyrant of a president. He wanted all Mexican tradition to simply be replaced with that of Europe's tradition. He imprisons any of his political adversaries. Madero had enough of it and with his famous Plan de San Luis Potosí, he armed an uprising against the Porfiriato which succeeded at the Battle of Ciudad Juarez. -How: There was a battle and Orozco and Villa were better than Díaz. -So what: It was the end of Díaz's long reign and the conflict between Madero and Díaz ending the first phase of the Mexican Revolution. It created the treaty that stated Díaz and his VP Corral were to step down and be replaced by interim president Barra until the next election would be held. Interestingly, Madero did not put anything about land reform in the treaty like he promised.
Madero
-Who: Francisco Madero -What: He was a reformist who removed Porfirio Diaz from office and became president whereupon he got assassinated. He also wrote the Plan de San Luis Potosi inspiring people to join his cause and kick Díaz out of office. He studied at UC Berkeley and came from a long line of wealthy land owners -When: 1837-1913 -Where: Mexico -Why: He believed that Mexico should not be run by a dictator who was bent on removing Mexico's national identity and was an overall tyrant -How: When Madero ran against Díaz for president after Díaz stated in an interview that he was not opposed to democracy, Díaz threw him into jail, Madero escaped, wrote Plan de San Luis Potosi, declared previous election null, galvanized forces, exiled Díaz. -So what: Madero is seen as a hero who kickstarted the Mexican Revolution when he galvanized forces against the dictator Díaz.
Veracruz
-Who: Huerta, Woody Wilson, etc. -What: April 9, 1914, 9 U.S. sailors were mistakenly arrested by Huerta's soldiers while the sailors stopped in Tampico to purchase fuel. The soldiers were released, but the U.S. demanded a 21 gun salute. Woodrow Wilson got pissed that Huerta refused to do the salute, so he asked Congress for authorization to occupy the port of Veracruz. Meanwhile, Wilson was notified that Huerta was awaiting arms delivered by a German ship on April 21. (Of course, the weapons turned out to have been sourced by an American and a Russian, not a German.) [Also notable about Veracruz: This was the port that Huerta took Porfirio Diaz to before he left for France. This is also one of Carranza's go-to places as he got kicked out of Mexico City by Villa and Zapata after Aguascalientes] -When: US Occupation from April 1914 - November 23, 1914 -Where: Veracruz. -Why: Pride, etc. The Tampico thing was also because the Huerta soldiers were already on edge from Constitutionalist attacks in the past two days. -How: The defense of the port was hindered by lack of central organization and supplies. -So what: The U.S. refused to recognize Huerta, embargoed arms to Mexico, and supported Carranza. Strong anti-American sentiments brewed in Mexico. Seriously damaged U.S.-Mexico relations, and also was one of the reasons why Mexico stayed neutral during WWI instead of helping the U.S. in Europe.
The Punitive Expedition
-Who: Involved John J. Pershing, Pancho Villa, The U.S. and Mexican governments -What: This was a military operation carried out by the the United States to fight against the troops of Pancho Villa, and to capture Pancho Villa. The government run by Carranza allowed U.S. forces to enter the country to pursue Villa. -When: The expedition lasted about a year from 1916-1917. -Where: The expedition went through several parts of Mexico. -Why: The expedition was launched to capture Pancho Villa because of his raid of U.S. town, Columbus, where he looted and killed U.S. citizens, which angered the U.S. -How: The expedition was carried out by U.S. forces that scoured Mexico looking for Pancho Villa. They were allowed to do this by Venustiano Carranza. -So what: This expedition was very unpopular among the Mexican people because Pancho Villa was a very popular figure, and Americans were not very popular in Mexico So, this hurt Carranza's image because it was an unpopular decision to allow the U.S. to enter. So, it hurt the public opinion of the Carranza regime.
The Cardenas Regime
-Who: Lazaro Cardenas -What: Nationalized railroads in 1937 and the oil industry in 1938. He distributed almost 45 million acres of land and furthered indigenismo policies to try to assimilate Indians into Mexican culture through land grants, broader education, art, etc. He improved the conditions of workers and peasants as mentioned by Articles 27 and 123. In December 1937, he dissolved the PNR and formed the PRM, where peasants and workers had their own official sector, as did the military and the middle class. He also advocated for secularism. -When: 1934-1940 -Where: All over Mexico. He campaigned across 16000 miles of Mexican countryside, visiting remote villages. -Why: He wanted to build a national support base for land reform and the nationalization of railroads and oil. He wanted a better, fairer Mexico. -How: A supporter of Calles since 16, Cardenas earned the appreciation of Calles and the progressive forces of the PNR. Under pressure from the most left-wing elements within his coalition, Calles decided in 1934 to select Cardenas for the presidency, expecting to manipulate him. However, by 1936 the two had publicly broken as Cardenas refused to suppress the strikes spreading across the country. In 1936, Cardenas expelled Calles from Mexico. -So what: Cardenas was extremely progressive and helped ameliorate the lives of millions of Mexicans as well as carved the legacy for Pemex today. However, his popular representation format of a political party became disastrous for the peasants after conservatives took over and exploited the system to gain bargaining power.
La Decenca Trajica
-Who: Madero, Felix Diaz, and Huerta -What: A series of events that took place in Mexico City between February 9 and February 19, 1913, during the Mexican Revolution. There was brutal fighting in the city for 10 straight days. The fighting started after rebels became impatient with Madero's slow-paced reform. -Where: Mexico City -When: February 9th to February 19th, 1913 -Why: A revolt, led by Felix Diaz, nephew of former dictator Porfirio Diaz, tried to bring down the government of President Francisco Madero. Madero was betrayed by his chief general, Victoriano Huerta, who switched sides and fought for the rebels. -How: Mexican rebels and federal troops littered the streets with dead bodies after constant gunfire between both sides. -So What: These ten tragic days represent the true unrest all over Mexico. During these ten days there was both literal and figurative back-stabbing between government officials and rebels. These days resulted in a coup d'etat and the assassination of both former President Madero and Vice president Suarez.
Vasconcelos
-Who: Minister of Education under Obregon 1921-1924 -What: Broke off from Obregon in 1924 and ran for president in 1924. He was a philosopher, essayist, and politician. He fought against Díaz and Huerta. He was Pro Madero. Known for the "Cosmic Race". His achievements include rural schools and more murals. -When: The 1920s -Where: Mexico -Why: As a politician he would organize movements against Huerta, which resulted in his exile, and returned after Huerta was ousted from power. He was also at the Convention of Aguascalientes and as the Minister of Education he created massive amounts of education reform because he believed it to be something beneficial to the people of Mexico. -How: He became the Minister of Education appointed under Obregon. -So what: He contributed to the arts and education giving people the ability to paint walls of public buildings in Mexico. Greatly contributed to Mexico regaining its national identity.
Convention of Aguascalientes (Underdogs)
-Who: Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, Venustiano Carranza, and Alvaro Obregón -What: A convention that was supposed to establish one overall power and settle any disputes between the big four -When: October 10 to November 9, 1914 -Where: They met in Aguascalientes because it was on the railroad line in midway between the Villa and Carranza forces. -Why: The convention was intended to settle differences between the "big four" warlords who played the biggest roles in overthrowing Huerta: Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, Venustiano Carranza, and Alvaro Obregón. From the onset, however, the convention was dominated by the Villistas, who impose their points of view on the other delegates. -How: All met together and discussed the matter; they set up a pacification commission. -So what: Carranza rejected this plan, saying that these matters to be decided by civilians.
Corridos
-Who: Poets, Artists, Musicians, Peasants -What: A corrido is a popular narrative song and poetry form, a ballad.The best known Revolutionary corrido is, of course, La cucaracha, an old song that was rephrased to celebrate the exploits of Pancho Villa's army and poke fun at his nemesis Venustiano Carranza. -When: 20th century -Where: Mexico, Central America -Why: The songs are often about oppression, history, daily life for peasants, and other socially relevant topics. -How: Corridos affected Mexicans as a form of art. The art movement was emerging towards the end of the revolution and the corridos are some of the last primary sources entailing events and people from the Mexican Revolution. -So What: Corridos were one way that news about the Mexican Revolution travelled across Mexico, but in the form of song. They told the tales of the lower-class in Mexico and would sometimes be gentle and entertaining in a time of such political, social, and economic unrest.
The Porfiriato
-Who: Porfirio Diaz -What: The period during which Diaz ruled. During this time, the GDP of Mexico increased 500 times, 15000 miles of railroads were laid down, but 85% of the people were illiterate and 95% of the land was owned by foreigners. The focus on an export economy focusing on cotton, sugar, and henequen forced many squatte peasants into debt peonage. Gave away lots of indigenous land and consolidated power in Mexico. -When: Ruled 1876-1910, exiled in 1911 -Where: Mexico City -Why: He wanted to turn Mexico into little Europe, hoping that foreign investment will industrialize and modernize Mexico and then once the Europeans leave, Mexico will bel left with all these factories, infrastructure, etc. -How: Repressed dissenters with rurales and federales and often forced people to become a federale. Followed positivism as demonstrated by cientificos, believing that order came before all else, and that moral questions should not define the limits of any law/action. Integrated European art and architecture into Mexico. -So what: His actions pissed off so many people that the Mexican Revolution began because people united under Madero to fight this one common enemy.
Men of The Sierra (Underdogs)
-Who: The men under Macias including Quail, Lard, the Indian, Pancracio,Venancio, and Anastasio Montanes -What: The men in Macias army who fought with him again Huerta -When: around 1910 to 1914 -Where: Northern Mexico, specifically to Sierras -Why: Like Macias, these men fought because their homes are destroyed by the Federales and things like that. This turn into fighting just for the joy of it -How: They used guerrilla tactics to attack and win against the Federales -So what: These men showed the kind of people who fall under Villa in the North Mexico and how the rest of the country felt towards them.
Battle of Celaya (Underdogs)
-Who: Villa vs. Obregon -What: A fierce battle between Villa and Obregon -When: April 6-15, 1915 -Where: Celaya -Why: Villa's best general, Felipe Angeles, begged Villa to not meet Obregon at Celaya and instead at another place where Villa's cavalry would not be at such a disadvantage to Obregon's machine guns and trenches as well as Obregon's close line of supplies, especially since Villa's strategy by that point was very predictable: frontal assault. However, Villa didn't want his men to think he was a coward, so he ignored Angeles and went to Celaya anyway. -How: Villa sent in wave after wave of cavalry, and despite a brief respite between the two battles of Celaya, he did not learn from his mistakes. The guns and wire cut the horses, and the ground littered with bodies and blood made it difficult for Villa's troops to advance. Also, Villa had asked Zapata--in Mexico City at the time--to intercept supply trains leaving Veracruz for Obregon, but Zapata failed to do so. -So what: Turning point in the Mexican Revolution, marking the downfall of Villa (he lost 2000-3000 men). Also, innovative usage of World War I tactics (trenches, machine guns, barbed wire) by Obregon while Villa continued using cavalry.
Luis Cervantes (Underdogs)
-Who: character in the novel The Underdogs; he was the newest member of Demetrio's band of rebels. He is a medical student and journalist -What: He was conscripted to fight in the Federale army but deserted when he was offended. Towards the end of the novel he flees to the United States -When: throughout the Mexican Revolution -Where: Mexico; the U.S. -Why: His story is similar to the author's (Mariano Azuela) and he truly represents the struggles that people faced throughout the Mexican Revolution
Murals
Who: The Murals initiative began under Obregon -What: Obregon aimed to unify Mexico under a singular message of pride and art, in order to depict Mexican identity. -When: Obregon began it in his presidency of 1920-24, but it continued long after, as a legacy of his presidency for Mexican nationalism. -Where: Mexican museums and, later, throughout streets and public venues of Mexico -Why: Murals told the story of Mexico, from ejidos, indigenous peoples, to revolution, through picture. This initiative was aimed towards the large percentage of Mexico's population that was illiterate. This initiative also aimed towards creating a nationalized ideal of Mexican identity through art. Murals can be seen to affect Mexican pride through art. -How: Obregon commissioned artists, such as Diego Rivera, to paint larger than life murals across Mexico in museums celebrating Mexico's long-fought history. Each mural depicting different facets of Mexico's history, mostly from the peasants' perspective, due to the peasants being mostly illiterate. -So What: Obregon's mural initiative allowed Mexico's illiterate to understand Mexico's history through art. His mural initiative therefore stitched together both upper and lower class through different initiatives in order to uphold one unified national idea of Mexico.