Mexican History Exam 1

Pre-Columbian Lecture

- Mexican civ has 3 roots- Indian, Spanish, and African -each played a role in creating modern Mex and a national identity -for thousands of years, many languages and cultures -Indian is linguistic- mother tongue native to Americans- today their are 68 indigenous languages for 6% of the pop -Nahuatl- language of the Aztecs is most dominant -Indians typically poor, rural people

Ancient Rome and "Latin America"

-"latin" America- 2 Neo-latin speaking countries (sp and port) established empires so the history is latin american -brought their politics, religion, law, and economics -must look at what happened pre conquest -Iberian peninsula once part of Ancient Rome

Metropolitan Spain and Imperial Reorganization

--Mexicos resources and interests subordinated to imperial strategies- resources that could go to to defense and settlement in N were diverted out of the country -Imperial Sp broke and facing many foreign threats-began charging Mexico via taxation -Jose de Galvez- 1753 monopoly on coinage- 1744 royal control over sales taxes- only focused on increasing revenue -Galvez recommended 1768 est of new authorities at provincial level- "Intendant system"- and supersession of viceregal office- traditionalists against it and the viceroy was kept as a compromise -success of intendant system lay in its tax raising capacity of admin reorganization- failure lay at district level where the new sub delegate was to replace financial and commercial networks of the alcaldes Mayores and curegidores -by 1795- viceroy recovered full control over finance admin -Issue of defense- militia force of 11,000 troops- 3 infantry regularly sent to defend Louisiana- cost about 3 mill pesos -never enough $ to sustain a strong army -crown focused on Caribbean and British -1796- British attack on Mexico became possible- new funds to pay for an emergency force cost about 1.5 mill- lasted only 15 months -merchants and mining provided large amount of subsidies- relied on extraordinary revenue- viceroy must reach accommodations with these privileged groups for continued funds -debt of 37.5 mill in 1815

Intro to Mexico

-13th largest country in world (1,972,550 sq km), 11th by pop (129,000,000) -Capital: Mexico City aka Federal District- old Tenochtitlan -Borders Belize, Guatemala, Gulf of Mexico, US, and Pacfic Ocean -both jungle and desert -Spanish language- various idegenous languages (Maya and Nuhuatl) -largely Roman Catholic -aka United Mexican States (32 states) -fed govt similar to US- states, constitution -3 branches of govt- President, Legislature, and Judiciary (Napoleonic- guilty until proven innocent)

The Consolidation of the Hispanic Private Estate

-15590s-1640s- Hispanic private estate consolidated its position across the central zones- previously dense pop but indian decline explained transition to a new type of land proprietorship -Regularisation aka composicion provided for the issue of legal titles by viceregal govt in return for a fee -hacienda consolidated its base In the countryside -Society and economy in New Spain dominated by market orientation- both private estates and indian pop related as much to towns/cities as to land itself -local production similarly oriented toward mining communities and their heavy demand for labor organization- permanent labor, temporary, and seasonal workers -hacienda dominated as principle Hispanic form of landownership- Indians remained ;age;y peasants -further S, indian communities dominated- Hacienda small estates with frequent changing ownership -livestock estates oriented toward urban markets/mining/woolen sector tended to face better than cereal estates- gradual expansion N

Finance and Economy

-1822 expenditure exceeded revenue by 4 mill pesos -army had doubled in size and took large portion of $- large focus on defense, esp in territories where Spain was nearby and could attempt reconquest or where US was expanding cotton into TX and rest of S -borrowed $ from London creating an international debt that rose alarmingly- began mortgaging future customs revenues in return for loans from merchants in 1828 -this way, could avoid controversial taxation -1830s: suspended public employees salaries and replaced them with bonds- expenditure reached 16 mill- 35-6 the federal system collapsed and the abolition of the senate centralized finance- the centralist regime mortgages state controlled silver mines in 1835 for a loan of 1 mill -TX crisis hostilities- no large force capable of mobilization -French naval blockade of Veracruz in 1838 and ruined possibility of reconquest in N -centralists failed to resolve any of these issues- debt only increased leaving govt largely at mercy of importers with credit to act as creditors -Capitation tax in 1842= rebellions= most widespread insurgency since 1810 -Manuel Payn- 1850 attempt to reorganize national finance while govt tried to renegotiate London debt -1851: short period of debt repayment to British -Santa Anna final return in 1853- expenditure reaches about 17 mill- fall of regime= disillusionment of entrepreneurs who had sustained it

The Spanish Constitutional Experiment

-2 other issues: Mexico city elite struggle to transform colonial absolutism into an autonomous constitutional st- provincial elites aim to reduce power of centralist viceregal govt and enhance position of regional centers of power -Royalist army contained rebellion but were worn down in the process -urban elites sought political advancement through the representative system established by Spanish Constitution of 1812- wanted autonomy but weakness of constitution was that it focused on empire as a monolith -Cortes proposed middle way of unitary constitution- no autonomy- pushed Spanish America further to separatism -1812 Spanish Constitution made municipality the basis of political/social organization- est judicial equality for Indians- abolished colonial republics from constitutional town councils: increased local councils, esp in indian pops- assumed power previously exercised by colonial authorities -Liberalization of municipalities- constitution est classic liberal principle of equality before law- "Indians" ceased to exist and became part of general pop- Indian municipalities open to all socio-con groups that would henceforth gain control of peasant resources- creates struggles for power -absolutism restored by Ferdinand VII in 1814-1820- ended these new developments- by 1820 constitutional system restores -Peninsular objectives subverted American attempts to broaden the structure of the empire and basis of representation- Hispanics divided

Mexicans in the US

-2000 mile border with a wealthy neighbor- historically use immigrants to fill well paying jobs -Mexican pop long been in US as border has moved -US est border control -> crossing still may provide a better life and could increase income by 15 times or more -Hispanics- 2nd largest ethnic group in US (16.7%)- 47/52 million are citizens

Drug trafficking and Money

-3/4 of Cocaine market destined for US markets- Mexican drug cartels main threat to US -Mex/US anti-narcotics strategy proved difficult to implement- DEA operate in Mex -penetration of gangs into politics and security -murder rate escalates allarmingly through 2000s- specifically journalists- mostly from feuding between El Chapo gang and the Beltran Leyva bros- kidnapping and extortion increase -police contracts with organized crime

Columbus Voyages

-4 between 1492 and 1504 -First voyage: 3 ships and 90 men left on Aug 2, 1492 and landed Oct 12 1492 in Hispaniola- believed to have landed in Asia that was ripe for conquest -2nd voyage: 17 ships and 1200 men in 1493- brought animals, seeds, and farming supplies- return to Hispaniola and founded Nueva Isabela (Santa Domingo) -3rd Voyage: revolt by natives- Columbus brothers (3) arrested and brought to Spain- released and found not guilty of poor rule -Columbus lost governorship and passed to newly created council of the Indies and Board of Trade in Seville -4th voyage explore SA coast in 1502

Islamic Iberia

-610: Muhammad began his teachings and islam spread rapidly -711: Islamic Berber armies began conquest of Iberia- control until almost 11th ce -flourishing islamic Iberia culture but less impact then Rome -tolerance of Judaism= flourishing Jewish culture -peasantry largely christian -Muslim culture did lead to some architecture and subordination of women -constant fighting with christians -Reconquista- ended in 1492 with the fall of Grenada- same year of the conquest for America began- expansion of reconquista -war strengthened monarchies of Castile and Aragon- merged to create Spain (Ferdinand and Isabella in 1469) -reconquista solidified a militant church in Iberia

Africa

-Africa 2nd largest and 2nd populous continent -Romans named N Africa "Africa terra" or land of the Afri- Carthage in N Africa was a Roman rival then a province -early human ancestors lived in Africa about 2.5 mill years ago- modern humans about 200,000 years ago- all humans descend from Africa

European Incursion (1519-1620)

-Aztec control in C and S Mex already accustomed pop to subordination and strategies of survival -Indian opponents of Aztec alligned with Spanish -> believed it would restore a world free of Aztec domination but the Spanish ensured they were the true benfeciaries- not a world of vindication, but deepened servitude -Spanish already conquered Muslim kingdom of Grenada and the Caribbean Islands in 1492

Fifth Sun Major Characters by Townsend Part III

-Chimalpahin/ Domingo- helped with the burial of blacks executed in association with a made up plot of revolt- writings about slavery in New Spain via personal journal- Educated ivy christian monks- reported on Spaniard contact in Asia- did research to collect and record the history of the Nahua people- from Chalco -don Fernando de Alva Ixlilxochitl- inherited Domingos writings- his son don Juan and Carlos Siguenza y Gongora introduced works to Spanish world -Tezozomoc: wealthy descendant of the royal line- a bookish man and history keeper- collector of records like geneologies and stories- offered his help to Domingo

Fifth Sun Major Characters by Townsend Part I

-Chimalxochitl- "shield flower": Aztec/Chichimec princess whose people had defended directly from those on the Bering straight and had migrated from the N- stood stoically as she was sacrificed after her father lost in battle -Izcoatl: king of Tenochtitlan- son of a lesser wife- took advantage of political crisis- created the triple alliance to brutally take over the Maxtla- killed all family of Azcapotzalcan to take over Mexica- came up with idea to alter between families of power with each succession to maintain peace -Quecholocohuatl: musician from Chalco to convine Axayacatl to hear out the Chalcans -Axayacatl- king- defeat the Tlatelolco people and ended their royal line- grew empire significantly -Moctezuma- king- increase level of district control to increase harmony- social reorganization -Huexotzincatzin and lady of Tula- price and commoner- executed by king Nezahualpilli for writing songs to one another

Francisco Pizarro

-Columbus dies believing he had found Asia and so did others until Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1510 Panama) saw the Pacific and declared it a "New World" -Alonzo de Ojeda had accompanied Columbus and eventually led his own expeditions- in 1509, on his 3rd voyage he was accompanied by Pizarro -Pizarro was an illegitimate son who never learned to read/write -Sailed with Ojeda in 1509- failure- so he joined Balboa to Panama -When Balboa was beheaded Pizarro attached himself to his successor Pedrarias Davilla- under command, led expeditions for Pedrarias -Pizarro formed a company with Diego de Almagro, a soldier and Hernando de Luque, a priest to conquer S Panama -after meeting with Charles V, travelled to Panama with 250 men

Cristobal Colon

-Columbus- 4 voyages- changed world dramatically -Aristotle had said Earth was spherical- Columbus believed it was just smaller -born in 1451 in Genoese- son of weaver/ wine star owner -worked in Med trade -1483: petitioned King John III of Portugal for 3 caravels for a voyage to China- rebuffed -1486: met with Isabel of Catille in 1486- agreed her support for 90% of profits- Columbus gets 10% and governorship of new land

The Impact of the fall of Tenochtitlan

-Cortes arrived in Hispainola in 1504- est presence on mainland in 1517/18 -alien group exposed the precarious nature on Tenochtitlans hegemony and invented opposition to rally against it- shifted political balance -Cortes did not create an independent empire- remained loyal to Charles V -Malintzin- guilty of handing indian world to Cortes- played a crucial role in dealings with Moctezuma -Aztec politics divided but maintained ability to engage in warfare- Spanish had to conquer slowly, state by state -delicate ecological system destroyed with conquest- Sp based on livestock -fall of Aztecs did not mean Spanish control- still a minority- Indigenous pop decline assisted Hispanisation- 95% reduction in pop

Territorial Advance and Repulse

-N more fluid and mobile than Indian core zones- free ranging and never even pacified by Aztec -Mixoton war- 1541-2- opened N to Spanish- discovery of silver - became new industrial center- settlements and military posts pop up -1560-1585: War of Chichimecas- to pacify subdued Indians -Spanish move into New Mexico and Pueblo Indians- 1598 -emergence of 2 districts in New Spain: traditional zones of Centre-South and "New" territories in the North -N conquest never completed- inability to extend effective Spanish power throughout vast regions

Significant Baroque Figures

-Cristobal de Villaipando: brought style to climax in 1680s/90s- recieved patronage from great Mexican cathedrals- focus on immaculate conception and assumption, trinity, Eucharist, the passion, and lives of saints -Juan Correa (1646-1739): similar themes in cathedrals -Miguel Cabrera (1695-1768): official painter to archdiocese of Mexico- works in the capital, Tepotzotlan, Queretaro, Zucatecas, Taxco, etc- heavily influenced by Seville school of Murillo- Religious themes and portraits- in great demand- est Second Academy of Painting in Mexico City (1755) -Fray Diego Rodriguez (1596-1686): math and astronomy- wanted to intro Galileo and Kepler- argued for study of science to be focused on transformation of physical world, not tech and metaphysics- suspicion of inquisition and heavy censorship -Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora: attacked tradition of Aristotlian thought as impediment to modern science- look to Aztec history not Spanish -Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz: influenced by poets and drama- became principle Baroque poet- she moved to Mexico City to study latin at 14yo and joined viceregal court- attracted moral critics in the church- pressed to become a nun but it ruined her health and she left the convent- publishings known throughout Spanish world- largely intelligent content- connect the mind to the exterior world-1/3 of work for the theatre- religious and secular themes- forced to give up writing and her library/collections, sign confessions, and punish self

New World and Slavery

-Crusades brought Euro in contact with sugar, produced in Palestine- with expulsion of crusaders, sugar moved into the med -prior to Romans, Iberia slavery was a marginal phenomena but Portuguese exploration pushed role of Africans into slavery- in Americas slavery became a dramatic new phenomena -Portugal shipped less than 1000 slaves per year before 1500 but it doubled after -from 15th-19th ce, 10-13 mill Africans shipped to Americas- another 15-20 mill died before arriving- 7 mll in Arab slave trade -each ship carried about 400 slaves who were shackled to one another and packed together -prevalent diseases: smallpox, yellow fever, dysentery -Many jumped/thrown overboard- failed insurrections put to death -mass slavery began with Portuguese in Brazil with sugar plantations in 16/17th ce- extended to Caribbean in 18th as it took over sugar production

Final Overthrow of Colonial State

-Disintegration of viceregal in Mexico City left a power vacuum elite wanted to fill- wanted limited rep and autonomy -colonel Augustin de Iturbide- had been Morelos principle opponent but had been disgraced through allegations of corruption and arbitrary conduct -Mexico City elite now had a military arm -Iturbide closed in on the city from provinces nearby -army made of majority Spanish born commanders who formed career against insurgency and some insurgent leaders -Plan of Iguala- Make Mexico City a district Mexican state within Hispanic monarchy -Army of 3 Guarantees (Independence, Union, and Religion) enter city Sept 21, 1821 -new regime wanted to preserve as much of old as possible- haunt rapid devolution of power to regions and centralized authority back to elite- limited constitution

Mexicos Struggle for a Viable Constitutional Solution

-First constitution in Oct 1824: sought to balance regional institutionalism with central government retention of the coordinating role -elites vs residual central govt following collapse in 1823 -lack of support for elites- enabled govt to impose a compromise on the distribution of sovereignty within the federal structure -regional loyalties and defense of states rights undermined the possibility of national cohesion and consciousness -ongoing strength of Mexican federalism lay in belief that the nation consisted not of imposition on provinces but voluntary unity of the many- excessive centralism= instability -1827-8: armed conflict among factions- 1828 election reversed after armed intervention of defeated party-> first constitutional violation by those who claimed to support it -Region-centre suspicion and socio econ tensions undermined the first serious attempt to est a constitutional system on a lasting basis -this period defined by civilian politicians goals joined with military leaders -1836-46: focused on instability- centralists wanted to bolster their system through support of church and army (church still handling reform and army made of disconnected factions with rival chieftains) -Officers around Santa Anna sought to build a coherent national army in 1840s/50s- stopped by lack of govt finances -centralists identified 2 sources of instability: excessive popular participation and an inadequate national tax base -centralist regime set about restricting participation via income qualifications and curtailment of municipal reps- replaced govt structure with departments of governors appointed by President

Pre-Columbian Era

-Ice Age created a land bridge -fall of megafuna- needed other sources of food- developed ag in Mesoamerica between 5500-3500 BC- later than rest of world -In Mex basin, mixture of sedentary and semi-sedentary people- living on plants and animals around the extensive lakeshore in valley- moderate temp and abundant water- basis for settled life -earliest permanent villages- maize cultivation 2500-1400 BC -900-500 BC pop in central highlands increased rapidly- more villages despite decline in lake level -more villages= more chiefdomes= alliances- expansion of exchange networks and growth of cultivated lands -Classical period (300-900) a great flowering throughout mesoamerica

Indian Institutions and Spanish Encomenderos

-Indian nobility were protected as long as they were christian- preferred instruments of colonial control -conquest is private enterprise- conquerors interest preceded definition of Spanish state -Encomendero Program- given land by crown provisionally- Indians were to be Baptized in return for labor and tribute- imposed by conquerers above existing nobility structure of dependency -encomenderos- powerful challenge to the crown- crown tried to outlaw after attempt to hereditarily pass down -through 1530s- about 30 encomiendas and about 180,000 tributaries -enforcement of royal authority and closer integration of royal dominions -Viceroy and Audiencia (kept viceroy accountable) -1530s and 1550s- est of town/district officials- exercised royal judicial and admin authority- crown needed to directly control revenue- prevent municipal councils in Am from claiming privilege of creating representative bodies or sending reps

Patterns in pre columbian mex

-Indian word and copt is European- Indians had no concept of "Indians" -refers to native dwellers of the new world - no Indians- instead thousands of groups, Langs, and culture- each group has an identity

Hispanic Presence and Indian Survival

-Indians proved to have a remarkable survival capacity -Spanish centers of power in midst of pop concentrations -learned to survive within Spanish structures of New Spain- openings for Indian exploitation -local circumstances determined shape of inter-ethic relations -Pueblos- possession of land and est of Indian municipal institution- hispanic interference was illegal -Initially, very few gave up their native speech and there were very few large cultural changes -Incorporation of Sp spread rapidly in next century -kept what they could for a century but adopted Sp culture for survival

Liberal Reform

-Juarez law of Nov 1855- subordinate ecclesiastical corporate privilege civil law- condemned by archbishop and undermined by rebellion -Lerdo Law: Church and indian land transferred to private ownership: failed to recognize condition of political affairs and scale of opposition that would arise- no provision for prior division of property before sales- problem in peasant communities: implementation was overtaken by a decade of warfare- Liberal loss of power in 1858-61 and 63-67 interrupted the procedure- income from sales proved disappointing -Further series of laws restricted role of catholic church in society: 1856 civil recognition of church vows removed- 1857 Iglesias Law deprived parish clergy of a range of traditional fees- civil registry of birth/death/marriage- number of religious holidays reduced and secular ones added- church bells subject to police reg- clerical dress prohibited in public- religious freedom welcomes protestants -Constitution of 1857 failed to recognize Catholicism as state religion- immediate backlash by clergy as assault on catholicism

Liberalism and The Reform Era (1855-1876)

-Liberal reform movement presented a direct challenge to Catholic inheritance of Mexico -Catholic alarm from reconstitution at state level since 1820s/30s had already stimulated a polemical defense of the Catholic identity and close integration of church and state -Liberal ideology seen as an attack on Catholics -Conservative party took up defense of endangered religion as a principle issue -Liberalism based in Enlightenment= reduced role of church -Reform legislation began 1855 and 1860- struggle to give effect to Mexican 2nd federal constitution Feb 1857 -1861-3: period after 1867 correspond to Liberal victories in 2 civil wars- further attempts for legislation -Liberals divided into moderates and radicals- Moderates (led by Ignacio Comonfort) could bring in Catholics and Conservatives but the alliances were broken by radicals -General Thomas Mejia led the opposition and rallied rebellion in Sierra Gorda- launched a series of campaigns against liberal regimes for 8 years

2nd Mexican Emperor

-Maximillian and Carlota take the throne -Juarez never abandoned national territory- regarded himself as personal embodiment of the Republic-kept imperials from claiming sole representation of a legitimate government -Maximillian govt suffered at outset: ambivalence of policy -brought to power by conservatives but himself was a liberal -alienated ecclesiastical hierarchy -refused to sanction nullification of disamortization laws of 1856 and 59 -financial disarray - excluded conservatives from Fr military whom he needed to succeed -French leave in Feb 1867 from increasing costs, politics in Euro, domestic opposition, and US opposition -Maximillian realigns with conservatives for a last stand -principle liberal commanders captured major cities in final victories in May/June of 1867

Results of French Intervention

-Maximillian, Miramon, and Mejia all executed June 19 1867 -Survival of Mexico as a sovereign state- sent powerful signal to US to attempt no further territory cessation -Conservative party ruined as a political force -long lasting divisions within liberal govt- undermined attempts to est solidly the constitutional provisions of 1857

The Maya- Lecture

-Maya defines a language group- various Mayan languages- written language but few writings survived when Spanish priests burned their books for being the work of the devil -Sophisticated ag tribute paying class society- variety of empires -priestly nobility, commoners- development of writing, math, and calendar and large, ancient ceremonial centers -sometime about year 1000, disaster- sedentary ag villages survived -By time of Spanish in 16th ce there was no large Maya empire

Merchants, Markets, and Industry

-Merchants who handled import trade moved to manufacturing during war time -merchant interest in domestic market expanded with interruption of Euro inputs- importers knew market and could gear production toward demand -use district admin as intermediaries -1800 textiles peak- merchants advance credit to artisans who delivered final products back to them for distribution-benefitted greatly but industry as a whole still behind -1883- Guadalajara- principle cotton textile producer- could count on easy access to raw materials in coastal zone -commercial capital, not tech, increased artisan production -many artisans operated basic looms in their own homes -British textiles hard to beat- esp after independence- major decrease in distributors -fall of Puebla industry in 1805

Soverignty, Territory, and National Settlement

-Mexico extended much further N than the limits of the Aztec, as did their culture- The capital fell in 1521, but rest of empire had to be conquered very slowly -Sp est cities which become centers of expansion for hispanic culture and military expansion -Enlightenment= push to preserve Mexican history -Mexican independence 1810-1821 saw Mexico as heir of both Spain and pre-columbian policies -for Mex nationalists of 19th and 20th ce Axtec inheritance became fundamental to an understanding of nationhood- Mexico existed before Sp- this thinking used to fend off Fr intervention -Fed constitution of 1917 responded to social pressures from peasants and urban workers over land ownership and rights/conditions of labor

The Zapotecs and Mixtecs of the Post-Classic Era

-Mitla- urban center- important religious and civic buildings- suburban residential area- surrounded by ag (1000-1500) -most of these smaller towns grew from earlier sites -ruling caste- concerned with est marriage networks -Mixtec culture scattered- felt influence from both Zapotec and Toltecs -chieftainships were sustained by effective mobilization of ag manpower in terraced maize farming and warfare -Mixtec kings reinforced legitimacy by refrence to Toltec decent -mixtec dom western coastal zone until destroyed by Spanish -last Mexican ruler Tututepec, killed by Cortes and Alvarado -Mixtec arose on basis of subject peasant communication- rulers gave protection to peasant workers who paid tribute, labored, or soldiered

Monte Alban and the Zapotec Cultures of Oaxaca

-Monte Alban culture dominated Oaxaca for a thousand years- first phase 500 to 400 BC- Rosario phase 700-500 BC: poetry, art, architecture, masonry -growth of pop and strain on resources-> concentrated labor force- economic and political reordering -concentrated landownership in valley explained increasing social differentiation and emergence of a ruling elite -Statehood emerged 200 BC-100AD- reached its height: construction, religion, social stratification, and rulership- pop 15,000-30,000- strict caste system -Major religious expression in the form of ancestor worship -significance of the ball game- about 40 courts- significance unclear- appears to determine via divine right- the outcomes of disputes such as land, water usage, etc -growth of provincial centers led to a slacking of authority and increased autonomy

The Intervention (1862-1867)

-On July 17 1861: Juarez admin attempted to assert control over all revenues appropriated by state governors: aim to strengthen fiscal position- involved suspension of debt payment -England, France, and Spain meet at Tripartite Convention of London in Oct 1861- joint occupation of customs houses on main ports to enforce debt payment -Juarez and Congress concession of extraordinary faculties in an attempt to defend national sovereignty against Euro- enact treason laws and capital punishment -Spain and England withdraw when France plans to directly change the regime- plan to nullify Juarez election and superimposition of a system acceptable for French- monarchy under a European prince -French occupation of capital in June 1863- underestimate difficulties- never able to hold down countryside- exposed cotoes changed hands frequently

Conquering the Inca

-Pizarro landed in midst of Inca empire already decimated from disease and torn by Civil War between 2 brothers in a succession struggle -180 Spanish able to defeat 80,000 Inca in 1532 at Cajamarca -took Atahuallpa prisoner- after huge ransom of gold and silver were paid, the leader was executed -defeated remaining forces at Cuzco -Mush of Inca in Andes, well above 10,000 ft and income for Spanish so est a new capital near the coast- Lima -Pizarro confronted a revolt lead by Almagro- Pizarro brother ordered Almagro execution- the family took revenge by assassinating Pizarro in 1541- the emperor then appointed a new governor of Peru which ended the political crisis

Periods of Mexican history

-Pre columbian: first peoples to Columbus- Asian peoples come via Bering straight about 18000 yrs ago and est numerous societies-> Columbus in 1492 and Spanish who est an empire -Colonial Period: Cortes completed conquest in 1521-> Independence -19th ce: Independence in 1821 -> Diaz in 1876 -Revolution 1910-1920 -Reconstruction 1920-1940 -Mexican Miracle 1940-1976 -1976-present has seen a series of crisis

Aristotle on Slavery

-Slave is an instrument and possession -master is only the master of the slave, he doesn't belong to him but slave wholly belongs to master -some, by birth to rule and some by subjugation- for example, men are superior to women -lower sort all slaves by nature- better for them to be inferiors -became the ideology for slavery in Greece, Rome, and Western world -Ideology of slavery came about because of role of slaves- fundamental distinction between labor for self and labor for others -slaves=property- to provide them rights deny the rights of property to their masters -slavery so degrading that slave pops are rarely self reproducing- need for conquest and slave markets- slave economy requires markets to finance the slave trade and an absence of labor

Pre-Columbian pops

-Spanish census 1496- 1 mill Indians in Hispaniola- only counted healthy adults on one portion of the island -Cas Casas estimated 3 million- Borah and Cook estimate 8 mill -Best estimates.... 30 mill in central mexico 30 mill in peru 4-8 mill in the caribbean 90-112 in America total

Religious Crisis and Popular Perceptions

-Spanish metropolitan govt depart from tradition sharpened resentment across the social spectrum -religion polarized opinion and divided loyalties- religious crisis represented a Mexican expression of the general crisis within the Roman Catholic Church under the impact of enlightenment, revolution, and liberalism -Mexican social and cultural factors- large scale popular mobilization -1810 insurrection led by Father Miguel Hidalgo took viceregal by surprise -Insurrection a result of Bourbon regalism and rupture between crown and Holy See- enlightenment entering Mexico- clergy divided between modernizers and traditionalists- explosion of Jesuits in 1767 and the following opposition- bishops attack cults which widens the gap between govt and people- religious discontent and clerical leadership focus popular energies against colonial order- lower clergy lived in poverty

The Toltecs (800-1170)

-Tula located in environment harsher than Teotichuacan and was not prosperous or extensive in controlled area -increase in pop from migration from N -internal conflicts- Topiltzin: founder or last ruler or both -twinning/confusing man and god became a characteristic feature of Toltec and Aztec religion and politics -peak of Quetzalcoatl cult- overthrown by warrior caste -warrior caste followed Tezeatlipoca, god of life and death- prevelance of human sacrifice- climaxed with Aztec -various divine forms associated with gods merged in 900-1000 as one personality -Chichimecas destroyed Tollan- dangerously esposed the nomad frontier around 1170- led to the merging of Toltec and Maya influence in Chichen Itza where cult flourished anew

End of US war

-US enter city- Santa Anna resign Sept 16 and resistance ended next day -exposed failure of Mexican officer corps, obsolete weapons of the army, and the inadequacy of its logistical support -Guadalupe-Hidalgo signed Feb 2 1848 -lost entire N- discussion f transit rights but not formally included in treaty -Why not lose more territory?: political division in US between N and S- heavy loss of US life- territory could be achieved in other ways

Early African groups

-all early human groups were hunters/gatherers -sedentary ag developed about 10,000 years ago in all continents -to about 3400 BC Africa could communicate with Med world when a climate shift created the Sahara, splitting Africa- N became part of Med and S became separated -variety of societies- nomadic hunters to one of the largest empires in history (Egypt) -Africa more econ advanced than pre-columbian Latin America - use of wheel, iron, domesticated animals, etc -Islam origin in Middle East spread rapidly across N Africa and conquered Iberia

General History of Indians

-all human beings originate from Africa and moved to Beringia during first Ice Age -When Beringia sank, the old and new world were isolated -about 18,000 years ago, societies developed to adapt to specific environments

Mexico and US (1846-1848)

-began in 1835 with TX rebellion and really lasted until fall of US Confederacy and 2nd Mexican empire in 1865 and 67 -readjustment of balance of power in NA in favor of US -loss of far N in 1846-53- US continue to pressure for more territory and transit rights to Pacific until 1860 -Mexican Civil War of the Reform (1858-61) = Mclane Ocampo Treaty of 1859

Deepening Crisis at Many Levels

-in Mex most dynamic regions, a deepening sense of vulnerability characterized lower class life in 19th ce -Lake Basin region: pop growth means a shift away from maize which undermined living standards and they became more dependent on the elite- expansion of commercial ag meant wheat threatened villages ability to compete -colonial govt unable to help- people only felt safe and secure on haciendas

Hernan Cortes (1485-1547)

-born 1485 in Medellin Spain- studied law in college but dropped out in 1504 and went to Hispaniola -accompanied Velazquez in Cuban conquest of 1511- chosen to lead expedition to Mexico in 1519 with 11 ships, 508 men, and 16 horses -role of Malinche/Marina -on way to Tenochtitlan founded Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz and chosen as captain general- used this as law to betray Velazquez -marched on capital and arrived in Nov 1519 and met Montezuma II- received as descendants to the god Quetzalcoatl -Cortez took Montezuma hostage and attempted to govern through him -Velazquez sent Panfilo de Navarez to arrest Cortes in 1520- Cortes defeated him on the coast even with half his forces in the capital -Pedro de Alvarado left in charge of capital- fighting broke out and Montezuma was killed and Spanish driven from city -Cortes returns and organizes a siege and on August 13 152 Tenochtitlan fell with about 40,000/500,000 of pop still alive -Aztec empire ended with Cortes killing Cuauhtomoc -In Zultepec/Tecuoque- hundreds of Spanish murdered and sacrificed in revenge for murder of king Cacamalzin of Texcoco -Capital renamed Mexico City and Spanish continue conquest (Guatemala 1525, Yucatan 1527, Nuevo Leon 1579, Nuevo Mex 1579, TX 1718, CA 1767)

Provincial Economies and Commercial Networks

-broad range of textiles- local production in territories responded to home demand -Handicraft and domestic products dominated- concentrated in metropolitan areas -woolens added to indian cotton textiles -Indians continue to weave own clothing- several villager specializing in production of particular types/styles- trade via local markets -Hispanic merchants interposed themselves at all 3 stages of production -enclosed woolen textile workshop- "obraje"- grew with cities as a combo of cheap labor in encomienda and emerging livestock economy- cheap labor= capital to maintain workshops -Interests in range of activities- landowning/commerce/mining -primary obraje in Queretaro -1680s-1730s: Puebla lost market for ag and industry- no longer able to exchange for silver- decline in ag and broadcloth production- materials slowly moved N-> Puebla moved to a focus on cotton in 1740s and regain access to the markets

The Cult of the Virgin

-central devotion in New Spain- expressed via emaculate conception and assumption into heaven -Virgin of Guadalupe development in 17th and 18th ce- associated with miracles -Typhus epidemic in 1737 in Mexico City- turning point- after devotion to Guadalupe increased significantly- became "Queen of Mexico" -other manifestations of the cult of the virgin appeared in different localities across Mexico -Gudalupanism contributes to defeat of Mexican nationalism

Hispanic Land Acquisition

-colonial courts generally defended rights of peasant communities to subsistence landholdings and minimum autonomy -1592- est high court of Indian Justice -helped crown limit elite power -hacienda dominated the countryside- varied in size and importance -pop decline increased the Spanish acquisition of land- demographic collapse also undermined church revenue- considerable decline in $ for the crown

lecture conclusions

-different societies determined their relationship with Euro and their ability to survive -racism equated all societies as same and inferior -acculturation -Mexican indigenous pop and culture permeate society today -diet is still basis of Mexican cuisine

Nomads

-difficult to generalize- so many with no system of writing- history is hidden -no ag, surplus, or class system -Cultures, languages, and philosophies were sophisticated -small groups who survived via hunting and gathering -best suited for conquest- good at fighting and could flee

Euro and Africa

-emergence of nation-state structures and capitalism in 14/15/16th ce Euro led to international trading that would create the modern world market -same process led to increased exploration -early exploration about $ -settlement in Africa difficult: terrain/environment and disease -early exploration led by Portuguese- maritime tradition- looking for gold and slaves- found a pre existing slave trade in subsaharan Africa -discovered uninhabited Sao Tome off coast and built a settlement that became basis of Euro slave trade in Africa -sugar industry developed with help of slaves- sugar= lots of $ in Euro where sugar cane did not grow- required large labor force -while many societies have slaves, very few are slave societies where slaves produce majority of wealth for ruling elites

The Islands

-first stage was the Caribbean- Hispaniola conquered in 1496 -1509: Diego Columbus (son) becomes governor -1625: French settle NW Hispaniola -1697: Treaty of Ryswick- W 1/3 oh Hispaniola (Haiti) given to French -1508: Conquer PR led by Ponce de Leon -1509: Juan de Esquinel conquered 60,000 Taino peoples in Jamaica (Jamaica)- locals mostly dead when island is given to Columbus family in 1540 -1655: Oliver Cromwell dispatched fleet to take Jamaica led by Amiral Penn- ceded to Eng 1670 -1511: expedition by Diego de Velazquez to Cuba- declared self governor after betraying Diego Columbus: sends 3 expeditions to Mexico -1517 Fernandez de Corduba to Yucatan -1518 Juan de Grijalve to Mexican coast -1519 Hernan Cortes- would betray Velazquez as he had Columbus

The Olmecs

-flourished 1200-300 BC in Gulf lowlands- the base for which later cultures would develop -never an empire- political system and religious system, long distance communication, astronomy, and calendar reached sophisticated levels- no polotical culture beyond Gulf base area -first to construct large scale ceremnial sites -Shamoan Kings- elites who interpretted the cosmos, creation, and the cycle of human life -needed large labor force -> chiefdoms exercising control over limited territories -belief system pointed to a cosmos in which all elements and creatures were infused with a spiritual power through discipline, fasting, meditation, and self mutilation (bloodletting) -sought access to animal spirits to transcend human consciousness -provided a legacy for subsequent mesoamerican cultures -economic basis in extreme fertility of basin river area-> large pop

Beginning of Insurrection

-immediate cause of insurrection was the collapse of the viceregal govt legitimacy in Sept 1808 -ongoing question of representation in reaction to Bourbon reform -Viceroy Jose de Hurrigray forced to align with a faction to salvage his position- lends support to elites to decide political future of Mexico -coup in peninsular sector Sept 1808 ruins this plan- overthrows Hurrigray and arrests leaders- undermines legitimacy of govt and prevents Mexico City council from taking lead in opposition- initiative instead fell to provinces and lower clergy- plunged Mexico into revolution from 1808-1810 -popular mobilization- hatred for Spanish, religious ideology, against peninsular role, and social upheaval/morality

The Exposed North and Far North

-in NW, Yaqui resistance delayed Hispanic advance for 100 years after 1530s -Jesuit priests in 1610s led to Pacific compromise to est 50 mission pueblos in Sonora river valley -began moving into Apache territory- encountered Apache in 1590s after breaking through Chichimeca frontier -In N, indian response was both violent and pacific -peace necessary for hispanic settlers to control indian labor but tried to impose peace with violent means -conflict was savage on both sides -Series of Tarahumara risings pushed back hispanic advance and destroyed many jesuit missions -1680 Pueblo uprising killed about 380 hispanic settlers and 21 missionaries- insurrection result of labor distribution, ill treatment, and corrupt officials -Franciscan attack on indian ritual and culture -clear rejection of Sp presence- formed opposition alliances -by 1690s- Hispanic frontier society buckled under impact of marauding indian bands- delayed settlement in TX until 1716 -early in 18th ce, nomad raids worsened across the N- comanches moved down from Rockies and were pushing Apaches in NM -1740- Yaqui nation rose with Mayos to expel hispanic settlers- from govt attempts to alter land holdings and tribute rates and mistreatment of laborers- demanded right to sell their land freely, carry their own weapons, and go freely to work in the mines-> destroyed credibility of NM missions

The Persistence of Social Unrest

-insurgency of 1810 resolved none of New Spains social conflicts- resurfaced at repeated intervals during 50 years after independence -elite divisions at the center accompanied rivalries between culture and regions and between capitals and localities -1840s/50s popular rebellions reached max since 1810- made worse by war -conflict over land assumed great importance in royal protest- during colonial times had been focused on tax and admin -Peasantry resilience seen in defense of community traditions and autonomy -cross class alliances- broadened perspective and covered a broad range of issues -armed conflict in 1847- S Isthmus over landownership and salt deposits -1847-1849: large scale uprising in Tula- rebellion spread through multiple zones- 3000 men sent to contain the rebellion -no national level leadership until Revolution of Ayutla (1854-5) -Elite conflict left room for such movement to have impact -Major sources of conflict: control of local got-implications of citizenship and participation- relationship between centre and regions: all fueled Revolution of Ayutla -Santa Anna forced out in Aug 1855

The Imposition of Christianity

-intended for Catholicism to be exclusive religion in new dominions -Indian response differed- many aspects of christianity accorded with own vision of the cosmos -slowly shift Paganism to Christianity- early adaptations to existing indigenous devotions -Euro scholars initial concepts of late Renaissance into the American world -replace cyclical concepts of time with a linear one -religion offered physical protection from conquerers -Many local/small groups made efforts to preserve their culture and religion -3 ecclesiastical councils met during course of 16th ce to organize newly est Church of New Spain -Indigenous life gradually more expressed in Christian terms -Indians confraternities- way for indigenous culture to be maintained within christianity

The Mayas

-knowledge of maya civ largely disappeared after Sp conquest- returned thanks to John Lloyd Stephens (1839-42) and Frederick Catherwood- travelled through Mayan territory- findings stimulated awareness -first attempts at translation began 1864-1882- key to understanding appeared lost -breakthrough in decipherment came after 1973- realized glyphs represent a spoken language with a fixed word order- lost history recovered -1500 BC-200 AD- Mayas develop ag and built villages- swamp beds and river banks of lowlands fertile material for high crop yield- access to sea by canoe -900-300 BC- emergence of kingship- sharper division of wealth sustained a kingly office- noble caste developed -thriving network of long distance trade connected Maya lowlands to Guatemalan highlands and SE Mex -rituals designed to harness second energies- bloodletting- limited human sacrifice -kingship collapsed after 8th ce alongside urban life and high civilization- reversion of peasant life on forrest strips - general abandonment of literacy -civilization rekindled in 9th ce

Continuing Problems of the North and Far North

-lack of resources, fiscal stringency and political division frustrated a new departure in reorganization of N -commandancy General of the North provinces -Marques de Rubi: appalled at lack of coordinated defense structure and exploitation of settlers (presidio)- advocated presidios be concentrated into 15 positions to est a defensive line -Navajo and Comanche kept frontier unstable through 1770s- unable to dislodge strongholds -Galvez- proposed radical reorganization of admin in N- approved by crown 1769- est of commandancy General who was directly responsible to king- implemented in 1776 -Galvez named minister of the Indies- Commandance general went to nephew Teodoro de Croix -jurisdiction divided- largely beyond viceregal control -Croix attempt to make an effective defense force but crown focused on Spanish entry to Am war of independence -Croix successor- Jacobo Ugarte y Loyola- struggled with Apaches- sought alliances with Navajo and Comanche (enemies of Apache)- peace strategy with other Indian nations -problem made worse by Sp- maintained only a weak political organization and kept commercial life independent -Viceroy Florez- 1787- divided N into 2 jurisdictions in central Mex- however caused resources to be removed from N

Social and Economic Contrasts in Late Colonial New Spain

-late colonial Mexico prosperous society increasingly undermined by sharp divisions of wealth and characterized by regional disparities -entrepreneurial influence clashed with traditional popular perceptions of how social relations should be managed -exacerbated by ethnic tensions and racialist disdain -elite vs peasants -deteriorating living conditions -small circle of businessmen dominate in 18th century economy -Andalusian, Pedro Romero de Terreros- silver mining fortune- removed workers traditional entitlements-> major strike- conflict of 2 value system- continued to cut costs- labor relations in mining zones remained volatile for the remainder of the colonial period -Basque immigrants- critical to the rehabilitation of the Zacatecas mines during 1780s/90s- Faguaga brothers invested large amounts of capital in 1780s- in 1792 received temporary relief from Roman 5th tax-> each brother made millions and built a dynasty -Sanchez Navarro Family- controlled 671,438 acres of land for sheep raising- admined directly -ag remained subject to abrupt sustenance crisis- weather fluctuations and inadequate supplies- failed infrastructure= effect on entire econ

Spain and the Empire: Merchants, Finances, and Markets

-later scholars focus on internal market within territories while using routes of communication- distribution centers operated to supply colonial demands -New Sp 17th ce- ambiguous social structure- several leading figures originated from lower social backgrounds- lead by merchant financiers who had accumulated capital -Matrimony and personal ties solidified business interests- formed broad networks of interest over a wide area -Consulado of Mexico est 1592- expressed mercantile power in Sp- dominated life in new Sp- made up of merchants, audiencia, and viceregal govt -Consualdo, audiencia, and ecclesiastical hierarchy enabled colonial system to function during metro weakness in 1640s-1760s- these connections held the territory together -Crown continually pressed the Consualdo for loans and donations to maintain Sp position in Euro- ability to resist pressures demonstrated weakness of imperial state -absence of effective fiscal bureaucracy- crown leased Mexico City's sales tax collection to the Consualdo as a tax farm for a part of 17th and 18th ce -process of tax-farming cont until 1753 -contraction of sp power emphasized growing importance of internal market and inter colonial trade- Mexico spanned both Atlantic and Pacific worlds -colonies restricted from trading directly with other empires/countries

Aztecs- lecture

-latest of fully sedentary peoples to occupy central mexico -spoke Nuhuatl- considered Mexica -Tenochca was the dominant group- located in Tenochtitlan -originally nomads from N- conquered local sedentariness to become tribute-receiving ruling group -ag in villages- worked on communal lands- multiple villages created a city state -3 kingdoms- Texcoco, Tlacopan, Azcapotozako -Moctezuma II (1466-1520) -last Aztec ruler was Guatimozin -Spainish rule until independence in 1821 -Aztec society classes- priestly nobility on top (pili)- commoners (macehualles) on bottom- small social mobility based on skill/bravery in war -gender stratified society- women subordinate to men- required to behave with chastity and high moral standards- 95% married between age 10-16- women known for their hard work- government closed off to women -diet was rich and diverse- domesticated Maize, squash, beans, peppers, fruits, potato, chocolate, vanilla- meat mostly turkey -grew tobacco and ate mushrooms on ceremonial occasions

Ancient Rome

-latins moved to Italy in about 900-800 BC, est a settlement, Latium, S of the Tiber river- Latins divided into independent units (populi) with a district -borrowed lit, religion, and architecture from Greeks (also slavery) -Roman republic consolidated power at home and abroad- created one of the few governments of ancient world that was not a monarchy -System of rule by the wealthy- citizens had certain rights and influence- patricians (nobility) and plebeians (peasants)- slaves bottom of society -Laws were a function of various popular assemblies (direct democracy) -development of the Pope and papacy -Slave economy- $ came from slave labor -slavery allowed for a pro army- peasantry free to be soldiers whose main purpose was conquest- Rome increasingly a military state -Rome became master of Med and developed into an empire -Constantine and Constantinople- ended persecution of Christians- and council of Nicea bore modern christianity

Rise of Benito Juarez

-leading advocate of civil power -Juarez admin recognized by US 1859- conservatives viewed this as a "sell out" to an enemy that would result in territory loss and complete subordination -McLane-Ocampo Treaty (1859)- no territory but did concede transit rights to both Pacific ports- never came into effect because of US civil war -conservative military defeat in 1860- Liberals recover capital control -Juarez officially elected President in 1861 -Instabilities continue to spread- congress pitted against executive and govt against central power- weakened the new govt -Increasing debt

Insurgency of 1810

-long duration and deep local entrenchment- widespread social and economic dislocation in its wake -Indifference in central Mexico (no competition from haciendas)- caused loss of confidence for insurgents and following defeats -Parish priests legitimized rebellion and provided leadership- 1/12 participated -Viceregal did not collapse and maintained a control of army- insurrection incapable of becoming political -Hidalgo replaced by Father Jose Maria Morelos to create a more effective force out of the existing bands- unable to dislodge govt forces in central valleys-adopted political strategy of alternative govt which also failed -local realities conflicted with social vision of insurgency: wanted no Spanish and no caste- wanted a representative constitution system defined by equality before the law -fragmented into local groups and lost initiative -many labor leaders would use this insurgency and Morelos as a guide

Living with the US

-loss of Tx in 1836 followed by defeat in War and loss of nearly 1/2 claimed territory -Mexicans N of redrawn border become 2nd class citizens of a foreign power -1960 Chicano mvt -loss of far N confirmed shift in power in N America -Mexican-US relationship focused on disparities of power and wealth- Mexico is symbollically an island -War still fresh in mind because of its connection to 1858-61 Civil War -19th ce allies as far as Mex concerned but US cont to misunderstand Mexican people/policy -Mexico join NAFTA in 1993- criticized by left for exposing Mexican ag to US competition -border problem- status/condition of migrants- US see border as security issue- border control est in 1924 and fence in 1994 -US bracero programs 1942-64- Mexicans substitute for absent ag workers during war

Post-classic Maya

-lowland maya phase (750-1100)- focus on Chichen Itza, the core of the imperial system (not a city state)- followed collapse of classic cultures -Chichen Itza became dominant power in N Yucatan from 1000-1050 -developed high degree of astronomy, a circular observatory, and a complex understanding of the cosmos and the position of humans in it -greater religious and commercial contact with outside cultures -Cenotes -political failures of earlier cultures led to renewed attempts to define the basis of social organization and rulership -Chichen Itza dependent on a structure of alliances which anticipated the Aztec style of expansion during the 15th ce -even with Aztec threat, Maya culture still remained a unity

The Time of Troubles (750-950)

-main political units all gone- competition for resources- food shortages -decline of Teotihuacan 700-750 removed rival center of power- authority dispersed -Central Mex- armed bands- lesser states rose in significance -abandonment of urban centers

Slave Trade in Mexico

-minimal in comparison to South America and Caribbean -16th ce- 1:1 Spaniard to African -Sedentary lifestyle of Indians led to dramatic decline of importing Africans -300 years of colonial control about 200,000 African slaves -Slavery abolished by President Vicente Guerrero in 1829

Semi-Sedentaries

-most semi sedentary people were endogamous groups of several 100 or few 1000 occupying a district territory -commoners worked land giving tribute to a captain- later Spanish created encomienda system -productivity disappeared after Euro diseases

The Aztecs

-most valley states adopted tlatoani or "principle noble figure"- Aztecs adopted system from 1370s- in 1426 fell under one dynastys rule -divine right/ hereditary role provided political meand for expansion -Huitzilopochtli- god of war -educated elite nobles (pipltin) were gaurdians of knowledge and historical tradition -oral tradition remained powerful means of transmitting knowledge -merchants formed a significant part of the Tenochtitlan hedgemony -Tenochtitlan founded in 1325- peak pop of 200,000- dependent on effective transportation by canoe or feet -political practice reliant on dominant influence, not territory- army to focus on expansion- political structures left in place in city its conquered -tribute required from all that were conquered, if not war -early Aztec power rested in triple alliance between Tenochtitlan, Tlateloco, and Thacopon formed in 1428- dominate valley -Aztec expansion reliant on intricate market system- pursuit of economic sustenance by political/military means -Tenochtitlan became dominate manufacturing and distribution center -avoid war via intemedation or low intnsity conflict- domonstrations of power to induce voluntary submission -weak link in system- unpacified powers- maintainsed buffer states- never full controlled Oaxaca -Aztec aggression led to a series of alliances between Mixtec and Zapotec- reaced accord to be allowed through valley -alliances made Spanish conquest possible -Spanish brought cultural traditions, christianity, disease- all had drastic effects on mesoamericans

Other Expeditions following Pizarro and Cortes

-nothing as extraordinary as Pizarro and Cortes -1535: Diego de Almagro conquest of Chile -1539: Hernando De Soto in Fl and discovered Mississippi -1540: Francisco Vasquez de Coronado to AZ, NM, OK, and TX

Sedentary Indigenous Peoples

-occupied lands through sedentary ag- required an understanding of irrigation and the seasons- high production= increase in pop -also became class societies- ruling class and common people -part of production given to nobility as tribute -may be slaves/conquered people -On top was a king -nucleation in large cities but private property unknown

Which Way Home Documentary

-people frequently trying to cross into US drown -Mexican freight trains used by migrants trying to reach US- 5% are children traveling alone -Guatemalan/Mexican border first step for many central American children traveling to US -many children migrants get detained in Mexico and deported -each year, border patrol apprehends 100,000 children traveling to US who are often abandoned by smugglers -BETA and refugee homes offer supports to sick, injured, and exhausted migrants

Central Mexico

-people moving from N (limate change?) layed basis for city state system - remained intact throughout Aztec period and survived the Spanish Conquest- derived legitimacy from toltec decent -after 1250, military rivalry increased- remained small groups who relied on more powerful states -accelerated urbanization reqquired complex ag system to sustain pop-irrigation and terraces increased production -dozenish cities in the late 15th ce had pops over 10,000 -shifting alliances and rivalries helped the Spanish

Mexican Poverty

-per capita GDP is just over 15% of US GDP- poor country with mostly poor people -economy is mostly underdeveloped- not enough jobs and low wages- min wage is 6.50 per day -not enough jobs in formal sector (w/ contract)- people often work in the unregulated informal sector (60%)

An Expanding Economy or Distorted Development?

-pop recovery and econ growth in 18th ce- mining boom -growth of mining sector responded to government policies to international demand -rise of royal revenue- exported about 600 mill pesos -by end of century, mining industry depend heavily on govt support ad on diverting resources elsewhere in the economy -ag base remained weak- no resources- abrupt meteorological changes -contradiction in econ= deepening crisis during last decades of century

Teotihuacan

-predominated historical influence in central Mex- urban and religious centre with pop of over 100,000 from 150 BC- 650AD -greatly influences Toltecs and Aztecs -functioning city constructed on a grid plan -"place of the Gods" -little writings= little knowledge on govt- may have been an oligarchy -first major state in central Mex -exercised tight control over the Mex basin -major religious theme of water and life -downfall from internal conflict and collapse of govt (?)- temples burned- left to decay in early 8th ce

New Spains Baroque Culture

-predominatly in central and S Euro in late 16th ce- early 18th ce- climaxed in Spanish and Portuguese America several decades later -Important buildings in Baroque style still built after mid 18th ce- deep and lasting influence in new spain -Synthesis of opposite conditions and experiences- all about balance -grew in religious context with catholic reformation -acceptance of official marginalization/punishment -> inquisition and public burnings -most churches built in Baroque style and frequently involved indigenous craftsmen in external decoration -Baroque painting in New Spain absorbed a wide range of Euro influences- dominated by religious themes- also distinct Hispanic American emphasis emerged -attempts to reform edu to follow contemporary Euro- snuffed in 1650s by the inquisition

New Spain (1620-1770)

-principle producers of silver- in short supply and high demand in Euro -Spains position declined after 1640s and Am left to own devices - still reliant on Sp- no incentive to separate

The Mining Sector

-prospered in the 1620s- overall downturn had already begun- depression 1630-1660 -focused in Zacatecas and Parral- problems in state of mines rather than shortage of men -Atlantic trade in decline- demand for Spanish goods decline as local products increase -Increased cost of defense- viceregal admin retained increasing silver revenue within New Sp- contraband exports and direct access to markets -Labor systems-> market adapted as indian pop decreased- by mid 17th ce mining predominantly free, salaried labor -recovery late in 17th ce- Max mining production rose by 30% from 1671-1700- became chief supplier of silver -Chihuahua mines central to economic growth- focus on expansion to new mines- spread interests across activities like ag/finance/industry

Aztecs of Present Day

-rejection of hispanic tradition led to glorification of Aztecs after Revolution of 1910 -neo-Aztecism filtered through American Enlightenment into independence

Destabilization and Fragmentation (1770-1867)

-relatively prosperous society organized as viceroyalty became weak and divided Mexican republic -until 1821, New Spain formed part of a wider Sp imperial entity- Metropolitan gave priority to the interests of the empire as a whole rather than any specific part -Sp did not have sufficient resources to sustain the imperial system with rising competition and pressure of warfares -Spain demanded more and more of Mexican subsidies -Independence represent a break in political terms but much continuity existed between Bourbon reform (1760-95) and the Liberal reform movement (1855-67) -New Spain dominated NA subcontinent before 1800- between 1836-1853 was stripped of half the territory inherited by the viceroy by the US- subject to armed intervention of France (1862-1867) -"decline of Mexico"- relative to rise of US -viceroyalty on New Spain collapsed 1795-1821- 1821-1867 Mexico largely successful at working out durable alternative structures -1867: signaled end of foreign threats and signaled to outside world the survival of an independent, Mexican state

The North

-sedentary life began in Durango in about 500 BC in response to pop growth -100s of mining sites from 500-900- significant part of economic life -broad commercial network developed -Chalchihuites culture climax in Zacatecas from 500-800 - construction of civic and religious builldings -collapse of Teotihuacan may have cut zone off from the center and left exposed to nomadic tribes -after 12th ce, nomads (chichimecas) dominated the territory

Higher Profile of the Catholic

-serious conflicts between church and state from 1873-6 and 1926-9 -constituition of 1917 forbade the formation of clerical political parties and confined church to a limited role in edu only -Restoration led by Pope John Paul II- 1992 new shrine created for martyrs of the revolution -Mex church cont to press for religious edu, criticize secular schools, denounce liberal sexual practices, and inveigh against controversial media -2002 Pope visits Mex again -2004- Mexican Primate Cardinal- abortion and birth control worse than drig trafficking- following outcry to anti clericalism- blamed ills of Mexico on homosexuals, feminists, and other minorites -2010- Same sex civil legitimsation center of debate- ruled as a right in 2015 by Supreme Court- Cardinam Rivera took this to be an attack on Christain doctrine and led a campaign against same sex

A Perspective on the PResent

-tendency to view Mex in isolation-unnecessary distortion- post conquest Mex has always been integrated into the wider world in varying degrees -Mex largely an exception to trends in S Am, wary of Chinese competition in the US market -2016- decline in oil $- deepening uncertainty about US relations= currency instability and investor reticense

Indian Communities

-territorial advance in N beyond limits of old politics -local Indians learned to live with hacienda- mutual dependence -private estates depended on labor from villages and villagers need extra income to cover tribute costs -Indians also producers and consumers in econ- frequently trading -worked as artisans and in the fields -struggles to control indian produce to allow monopolies elsewhere

Autonomy, Empire, and Separatism

-treaty of Coridoba- August 1821- guaranteed autonomy for New Spain within the Spanish empire and under the Bourbon monarchy -renamed Mexican empire- invite European royals to rule in Mexico as emperor- Mexico City becomes center of Hispanic dominion -A regency exercise executive power in the absence of a monarch -Iturbide named emperor Augustin I in May 1822- combined a centralist empire with a constitutional system -Representation according to pop with indirect election on the Cadiz model -Congress opened in 1822- attributed sovereignty to itself- this reduced role of Iturbide but also frustrated the desire of the provinces for a stronger constitutional status through participation in sovereignty

Roman Iberia

-under roman control 200 BC-400 AD -before Romans, 100s of groups, lang, and cultures in Iberia -Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians founded trading colonies -hundreds of years of war in Iberia -under roman control was divided into 3 sections -empire weakened= barbarian groups slowly take parts of peninsula -711: Islamic armies from Africa gain control -under Romans, Iberia abandoned tribal cultures and became the most roman colony -lang of modern Iberia simply evolved latin -under rome, dominated by urban centers- Latin American law is Roman law -200 yr invasion and 400 year occupation thoroughly Romanized the peninsula and it never turned back

Spanish patterns of discovery

-very clear -virtually all ventures were private enterprises led by a wealthy leader -$ was primary goals- abandoned places that had no value- anything with values they would stay and conquer -2 advantages for Spain- no united Indian opposition and tech (horses and iron) -Conquest of Caribbean confirms old patterns but also brought new ones: normally led by private/powerful leader- all share wealth- immediate goals was to capture indian chief so can take over- divide up local labor- and establish a city -New to Caribbean: disappearance of indigenous peoples

Political Violence in Mexico

-violence is not a single phenomenon but a set of different behaviors -this violence is at the top, violence related to the state -in underdeveloped econ, majority of pop do not identify with the state- makes st more unstable -extraordinary state-related violence

War with US

-war origin from decree of US congress annexing TX in June 1845 -Herrera admin order Paredes y Arrillaga to advance with 7000 troops but the order is ignored as Arillaga waits to invade Mexico City instead -Mariano Arista vs Zachary Taylot on Rio Bravo- led to loss of Department of Tamaulipas territory -US declare war May 11 1846 -Mexican forces had been reduced to 2600 -war between N and S CA- remainder of far N lost and exposed rest of nation to invasion -Centralists representative terminated and federal system restores- further destabilized Mexico -Santa Anna takes over- taking 21,000 men to drive out US forces- army reduced to 4000 after marching conditions and desertion- lost 1/2 of remaining to Tyler -cont to Sept 1847 with final Mexican defeat -13,768 Americans dead- becomes center of US political debate- explains why more territory wasn't taken -Mexican refusal for peace= opening of second front at Veracruz designed to end war by occupation of capital -Veracruz surrendered March 1847- US second front quickly found Mexican army could not hold them off and war reached the valley -first defeats on city perimeter in mid-August in spite of strong offensive position and numerically superior forces- opened the prospect of final collapse -peace for 6 days- US peace rejected and hostilities cont- 2 defeats follow

The Political Process

-weakening of Sp metropolitan power exposed changing nature of relations between state and society -Royal bureaucracy increasingly subordinate to colonial interests -political control temporarily lost through disputers -metro attempt to assert dominance in 1640s led to far reaching tensions -Bishop of Puebla Juan de Palafox y Mendoza: increased financial pressure in Sp and provoked opposition- secularized parishes in Puebla and exposed indian pop to outside influences and facilitated voluntary labor- criticized clergy for monopolizing richest parishes while secular clergy remained without secure positions- questioned existence of Jesuit society- destabilization of New Spain (recalled in 1649) -Spanish colonial system legitimized the position of dominant interest of groups in New Spain- complex series of linkages and dependancies -Viceregal govt- 1733: took over direct admin of Royal Mint to centralize gold/silver production- began long process of terminating private/corporate leases of royal functions/revenues- Bourbon policies altered the relationships between Spanish and Indies and American dominions

Pre-Columbian world been brought back to life to serve a political purpose in the present day

1- Creation of Spanish colonial, political, and economic systems imposed on existing cultures 2- Mexican national state constructed from New Spain

Fifth Sun Major Characters by Townsend Part II

Marina/ Malintzin/ Malinche- Chontal tribute to Cortes- became his translator -Tecuichpotzin/ Isabel- daughter of Moctezuma and wife of Cuauhtomoc- taken captive by Cortes on multiple occasions -Alonso de Castaneda/ Chimalpopoca- chief of Amozoc- losing veteran of war with Tlaxcalans- "smoking Shield"- faced a series of crisis regarding Spanish control in his village -Don Martin Cortes- Cortes first son- son of Malintzin- sent to Mexico to entertain King Phillip- sailed to Mexico with 2 of his half-brothers- faced inquisition for treason -don Luis de Santa Maria Cipactzin: selected to lead the indigenous council in Mexico City after Huanitzin and Cristobal Cecetzin- fought against Phillip's policy to make capital pay tribute- sued that he could not rule- arrested with rest of council - forced to collect tribute- the last tlatoani -Viceroy Luis de Velasco- supported people but signed tribute into law- crushed opposition -Inspector Valderrama- enforced Phillips tribute- shocked when Indians fought back -Francisco Ceynos- took over after Velasco- cold man- effort to cause dissension within Indians- pitted populace against nobility- caused social unrest and increased poverty-discussion to return encomienda to crown angered landholders