MGT 312 Chapter 5 Terms & Learn Smart

Edwin Locke and Gary Latham's Theory of Goal Setting

· Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance than general goals like "Do your best" or "Improve performance." This is why it is essential to set specific, challenging goals. Goal specificity means whether a goal has been quantified. For example, a goal of increasing the score on your next OB test by 10 percent is more specific than the goal of trying to improve your grade on the next test. · Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work. People must have the ability and resources needed to achieve the goal, and they need to be committed to the goal. · Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work. Feedback and participation enhance performance only when they lead employees to set and commit to a specific, difficult goal. Take Jim's Formal Wear, a tuxedo wholesaler in Illinois. "Once a week, employees meet with their teams to discuss their efforts and what changes should be made the next week. Employees frequently suggest ways to improve efficiency or save money, such as reusing shipping boxes and hangers."66 Goals lead to higher performance when you use feedback and participation to stay focused and committed to a specific goal. · Goal achievement leads to job satisfaction, which in turn motivates employees to set and commit to even higher levels of performance. Goal setting puts in motion a positive cycle of upward performance.

Expectancy

"Can I achieve my desired level of performance? An expectancy represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. Expectancies take the form of subjective probabilities. As you may recall from a course in statistics, probabilities range from zero to one. An expectancy of zero indicates that effort has no anticipated impact on performance, while an expectancy of one suggests performance is totally dependent on effort.

Comparison

"How does my ratio of outputs to inputs compare with those of relevant others?" Your feelings of equity come from your evaluation of whether you are receiving adequate rewards to compensate for your collective inputs. In practice people perform these evaluations by comparing the perceived fairness of their output-to-input ratio to that of relevant others They divide outputs by inputs, and the larger the ratio, the greater the expected benefit. This comparative process was found to generalize across personalities and countries.

Valence

"How much do I value the rewards I receive?" Valence describes the positive or negative value people place on outcomes. Valence mirrors our personal preferences. For example, most employees have a positive valence for receiving additional money or recognition. In contrast, being laid off or being ridiculed for making a suggestion would likely be negative valence for most individuals. In Vroom's expectancy model, outcomes are consequences that are contingent on performance, such as pay, promotions, recognition, or celebratory events.

Competence

"I need to feel efficacious." This is the desire to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable to complete an act, task, or goal. Provide resources such as time, coaching, and training to build knowledge Provide tangible resources, rewards, and recognition for learning new skills

Locke and Latham's research on goal setting identified four motivational mechanisms among which are the goals

increase persistence direct attention foster development of plans

Scientific management

is "that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning."

The activities that involve the alteration of specific job activities to improve the quality of employee job experience and motivation are known as

job design

The job design method that puts more variety into a job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty is

job enleargment

job enrichment

modifies a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.

The psychological mechanisms that guide the intensity of one's behavior are know as:

motivation

The key elements of equity theory are

outputs, inputs, and a comparison of the ratio of outputs to inputs

in equity theory inputs can include:

personality traits skills and knowledge education

The question that asks " How much do I value the rewards I will receive?" represents which element of Vroom's expectancy theory?

Valence

Job rotation

calls for moving employees from one specialized job to another.

self-determination theory assumes that three innate needs, _____, autonomy, and relatedness drive our behavior

competence, autonomy, and relatedness

Safety

Consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm

The Elements of Vroom's Expectancy Theory

Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence Motivation, according to Vroom, boils down to deciding how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. This choice is based on a two-stage sequence of expectations—moving from effort to performance and then from performance to outcome

Using Vroom's expectancy theory to predict motivation, it can be said that:

Motivation will be high when all three elements are high

Task Boundaries

Number, scope, and type of job tasks.

Feedback

The extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job.

Theory Y

a modern and positive set of assumptions about people at work: they are self engaged, committed, responsible and creative

Herzberg's theory classifies motivators as related to the work _____ in the job being performed

content

the process theory that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships is

equity theory

Process Theories

explain the process by which internal factors and situational factors influence employee motivation

Expectancy theory

holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes. expectancy theory can predict behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made.

Content Theories

identify internal factors such as needs and satisfaction that energize employee motivation.

Two types of motivation

extrinsic and intrinsic

The use of feedback and participation about progress toward a goal is part of which theory

goal setting theory

Research has shown that setting _____ goals helps motivate individuals, teams, and organizations to achieve success

goals

Needs

-are defined as physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior. -They can be strong or weak and are influenced by environmental factors. -This tells you that human needs vary over time and place.

The theory that proposes that a job satisfaction comes from the motivating factors and dissatisfaction from the absence or weak presence of hygiene factors is basd on research done by:

Fredrick Herzberg

According to expectancy theory, your motivation will be high when all three elements in the model are high.

If any element is near zero, your motivation will be low. Whether you apply this theory to yourself or managers apply it to their employees, the point is to simultaneously consider the status of all three elements.

self-determination theory emphasizes intrinsic motivation because

it is longer lasting and more positive than extrinsic motivators

Need for achievement

the desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others. People motivated by this prefer working on challenging, but not impossible, tasks or projects. They like situations in which good performance relies on effort and ability rather than luck, and they like to be rewarded for their efforts. High achievers also want to receive a fair and balanced amount of positive and negative feedback. This enables them to improve their performance.

Need for power

the desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve. People with a high need for power like to be in charge. They enjoy coaching and helping others develop.

Need for affiliation

the desire to maintain social relationships, be liked, and join groups. People motivated by the need for affiliation like to work in teams and in organizational climates characterized as cooperative and collegial.

Outputs

"What do I perceive that I'm getting out of my job?" Organizations provide a variety of outcomes for our work, including pay/bonuses, medical benefits, challenging assignments, job security, promotions, status symbols, recognition, and participation in important decisions. Outcomes vary widely, depending on the organization and our rank in it.

The National Labor Relations Act supports the right of certain employees to discuss compensation in which of the following situations?

On social media outside work time

Expectancy theory can be used to predict _____ in situations where there is a choice between two or more alternatives.

behavior

Process theories of motivation

describe how various person factors and situation factors in the Organizing Framework affect motivation.

the job characteristics model

is to promote high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics.

Instrinsic Motivation

occurs when an individual is inspired by the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well such as: -positive emotions -satisfaction -self-praise

Distributive Justice

reflects the perceived fairness of the way resources and rewards are distributed or allocated

Acquired Need Theory (McClelland)

states that three needs—for achievement, affiliation, and power—are the key drivers of employee behavior

Knowledge and skill

representing whether or not the person has the knowledge and skills to perform the enriched job

Job crafting

represents employees' attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics

Extrinsic Motivation

results from the potential or actual receipt of extrinsic rewards such as: -recognition -money -promotion

Using Expectancy Theory to Motivate Employees For Managers

· Determine the outcomes employees value. · Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded. · Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels. · Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance. · Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort. · Monitor the reward system for inequities.

The Elements of Justice Theory

Distributive, Procedural, and Interactional Justice Organizational justice reflects the extent to which people perceive they are treated fairly at work. This, in turn, led to the identification of three different components of organizational justice: distributive, procedural, and interactional

Using Expectancy Theory to Motivate Employees For Organization

· Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret. · Design challenging jobs. · Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation. · Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment. · Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires. · Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.

Autonomy

"I need to feel independent to influence my environment." This is the desire to have freedom and discretion in determining what you want to do and how you want to do it. Delegate meaningful assignments and back employee decisions Develop trust in employees using new technology to work off site

Relatedness

"I want to be connected with others." This is the desire to feel part of a group, to belong, and to be connected with others. Create commitment to a common purpose with a corporate vision Create family-type work environment

Inputs

"What do I perceive that I'm putting into my job?" An employee's inputs, for which he or she expects a just return, include education/training, skills, creativity, seniority, age, personality traits, effort expended, experience, and personal appearance.

the elements of equity theory include

- perception of inputs - comparison of the ratio of outputs to inputs - perceptions of outputs

Maslow's Needs Hierarchy: Five levels of Needs

- states that motivation is a function of five basic needs: Physiological Safety Love Esteem Self-actualization

Motivation

Describes the psychological processes "that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought" -Directions pertains to WHAT an individual is attending at a given time -Intensity represents the AMOUNT of effort being invested in the activity -Persistence represents FOR HOW LONG that activity is the focus of one's attention

Self-Actualization

Desire for self-fulfillment -to become the best one capable of becoming.

Content Theories of Motivation

Most content theories of motivation are based on the idea that an employee's needs influence his or her motivation Include: McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y Maslow's need hierarchy theory Acquired needs theory Self-determination theory Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory

Self-Determination Theory Focuses on Intrinsic Motivation

The theory proposes that our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness produce intrinsic motivation, which in turn enhances our task performance. Rese

employees redesign their own jobs, increasing engagement

bottom-up approach

Two Fundamental Perspectives on Motivation

content theories and process theories

Job design terms that individuals ____________ for themselves involving schedule flexibility, career development, or other adjustments are known as idiosyncratic deals

negotiate

Job enlargement

puts more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty.

Growth need strength

representing the desire to grow and develop as an individual

McClelland's Need Theory

the acquired needs theory, states that three needs- for achievement, affiliation, and power- are the key drivers of employee behavior. He believed people were not born with our needs; rather we learn or acquire them as we got about living our lives - AAP

The Outcomes of an Equity Comparison

three different equity relationships resulting from an equity comparison: equity, negative inequity, and positive inequity. Because equity is based on comparing ratios of outcomes to inputs, we will not necessarily perceive inequity just because someone else receives greater rewards.

three process theories of motivation

· Equity/justice theory · Expectancy theory · Goal-setting theory

Locke and Latham's findings about goal setting theory include that

- successful goal achievement reinforces employee satisfaction and leads to setting higher goals - people need the ability to resources to achieve the goal - goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory: Two Ways to Improve Satisfaction

Frederick Herzberg's theory is based on a landmark study in which he interviewed 203 accountants and engineers. These interviews, meant to determine the factors responsible for job satisfaction and dissatisfaction, uncovered separate and distinct clusters of factors associated with each. This pattern led to the motivator-hygiene theory

which of the following paraphrases comparison as used in equity theory?

How does my ratio of inputs to outputs compare with relevant others?

Self-determination theory a

assumes that three innate needs influence our behavior and well-being—the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

Interactional justice

describes the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented."

Theory X

is a pessimistic view of employees: They dislike work, must be monitored, and can be motivated only with rewards and punishment ("carrots and sticks") *McGregor felt this was the typical perspective held by managers To help them break with this negative tradition, McGregor formulated his own Theory Y

· Procedural justice

is the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions.

management changed the activities in jobs to increase motivation

top-down approaches

Moderators

A moderator is a variable that changes the relationship between two other variables. Hackman and Oldham proposed that there are moderators that affect the success of job design

The approach to job design in which individuals make physical and cognitive changes in the task or relational boundaries of their work is known as

Job crafting

the three moderators are

Knowledge and skill Growth need strength Context satisfactions

McClelland's theory directs managers to drive employee motivation by appealing to three basic needs:

Need for achievement Need for affiliation Need for power

Esteem

Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Also includes need for self-confidence and strength

The five characteristics are as follows:

Skills variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback

FORMS OF JOB CRAFTING

Task Boundaries Relational nature Cognitive crafting

Love

The desire to be loved and to love. Includes the needs for affection and belonging

motivator-hygiene theory

proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors—satisfaction comes from motivating factors and dissatisfaction from hygiene factors.

According to the National Labor Relations Act, companies are not allowed to stop which category of employees from discussing compensation?

rank and file workers

Task significance

The extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization.

Autonomy

The extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job.

Skills variety

The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities.

Hygiene factors

What makes employees dissatisfied? Job dissatisfaction was associated primarily with factors in the work context or environment. Herzberg hypothesized that such hygiene factors—including company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions—cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction. He did not believe their removal created an immediate impact on satisfaction or motivation (for that, see motivating factors following). At best, Herzberg proposed that individuals will experience the absence of job dissatisfaction when they have no grievances about hygiene factors.

Job Design (also referred to as job redesign or work design)

refers to any set of activities that alter jobs to improve the quality of employee experience and level of productivity. As you can see from this definition, job design focuses on motivating employees by considering the situation factors within the Organizing Framework.

Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals)

represent "employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development."

Context satisfactions

representing the extent to which employees are satisfied with various aspects of their job, such as pay, coworkers, and supervision)

Task identity

The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. Task identity is high when a person works on a product or project from beginning to end and sees a tangible result.

Applying Expectancy Theory

This activity focuses on a past work- or school-related project that was unsuccessful or that you consider a failure. Identify one such project and answer the following questions. 1. What was your expectancy for successfully completing the failed project? Use a scale from 1 (very low) to 5 (very high). 2. What were the chances you would receive outcomes you valued had you successfully completed the project? Again use a scale from 1 (very low) to 5 (very high). 3. Considering the above two answers, what was your level of motivation? Was it high enough to achieve your performance goals? 4. What does expectancy theory suggest you could have done to improve your chances of successfully completing the project? Provide specific suggestions. 5. How might you use the above steps to motivate yourself in the future?

Motivating factors

What makes employees satisfied? Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with factors in the work content of the task being performed. Herzberg labeled these motivating factors or motivators because each was associated with strong effort and good performance. He hypothesized that such motivating factors, or motivators—including achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement—cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction. Therefore, Herzberg's theory predicts managers can motivate individuals by incorporating motivators into an individual's job.

Using Self-Determination Theory to Motivate Employees

Managers can apply self-determination theory by trying to create work environments that support and encourage the opportunity to experience competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

Physiology

Most basic need. Entails having enough food , air, and water to survive.

Relational nature

Quality and/or amount of interaction with others encountered in a job.

Instrumentality

"What intrinsic and extrinsic rewards will I receive if I achieve my desired level of performance?" Instrumentality is the perceived relationship between performance and outcomes. It reflects a person's belief that a particular outcome is contingent on accomplishing a specific level of performance. Passing exams, for instance, is instrumental in graduating from college, or put another way, graduation is contingent on passing exams.

Cognitive crafting

Perception of or thinking about tasks and relationships in your job.

the form of organizational justice that reflects the perceived fairness of how rewards are allocated

distributive justice

individual employees and managers jointly negotiate the tasks to be completed

idiosyncratic ideals