Module 2: Chapter 5: Groups, Organizations, and Bureaucracies

An ideal typical bureaucracy is characterized by:

1. Written rules and regulations; 2. Specialized offices and tasks; 3. A hierarchy of authority; 4. Impersonal, unbiased record keeping; and 5. A technically competent administrative staff.

Technically competent administrative staff:

A bureaucracy generally seeks to employ a qualified professional staff. Anyone who by training and expertise is able to perform the duties of a particular position in an office of the organization is deemed eligible to fill the position. Work in the bureaucracy is a full-time job, ideally providing a career path for the bureaucrat, who must demonstrate the training and expertise necessary to fill each successive position. In its ideal form, the system is a meritocracy—that is, positions are filled on the basis of merit or qualifications, typically demonstrated by performance on competitive exams, rather than on applicants' knowing the "right" people. In practice, however—as is true of the other characteristics listed previously—an actual bureaucracy is unlikely to meet this standard fully. In fact, getting hired into the organization and advancing in it are likely to be influenced not strictly by objective criteria such as education and experience but also by such social variables as age, gender, race, and social connections.

Hierarchy

A bureaucracy is organized according to the vertical principle of hierarchy, so that each office has authority over one or more lower-level offices, and each in turn is responsible to a higher-level office. At the top, the leader of the organization stands alone; in the well-known words of then-U.S. president Harry S. Truman, "The buck stops here." The organizational chart of a bureaucracy therefore generally looks similar to a pyramid. Again, efficiency is achieved through the knowable hierarchy of power that governs the organization.

Transactional Leader

A routine leadership. Concerned with accomplishing the group's tasks, getting group members to do their jobs, and making certain the group achieves its goals.

Which of the following is an example of a transformational leader? -Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president) -Brad Pitt (actor) -Chief Justice John Roberts (Supreme Court justice) -Beyoncé Knowles (music artist)

Abraham Lincoln (U.S. president)

The importance of social groups in our lives is one of the salient features of the modern world. Social groups are collections of people who share a sense of common identity and regularly interact with one another based on shared expectations. There are many conceptual ways to distinguish social groups sociologically in order to better understand them.

Among the most important characteristics of a group is whether or not it serves as a reference group—that is, a group that provides standards by which we judge ourselves in terms of how we think we appear to others, what sociologist Charles Horton Cooley termed the looking-glass self.

Important aspects of groups are the networks that are formed between groups and among the people in them. Networks constitute broad sources of relationships, direct and indirect, including connections that may be extremely important in business and politics. Women, people of color, and people with lower incomes typically have less access to the most influential economic and political networks than do upper-class white males in U.S. society.

As a consequence of unequal access to powerful social networks, there is an unequal division of social capital in society. Social capital is the knowledge and connections that enable people to cooperate with one another for mutual benefit and to extend their influence. Some social scientists have argued that social capital has declined in the United States during the last quarter century—a process they worry indicates a decline in Americans' commitment to civic engagement.

Waste and incompetence:

As long as administrators appear to be doing their jobs—filing forms, keeping records, responding to memos, and otherwise keeping busy—nobody really wants to question whether the organization as a whole is performing effectively or efficiently. Secure in their positions, bureaucrats may become inefficient, incompetent, and often indifferent to the clients they are supposed to serve.

Goal displacement:

Bureaucracies may lose sight of the original goals they were created to accomplish. Large corporations such as General Motors and government organizations such as the Department of Homeland Security employ thousands of middle-level employees whose job it is to handle the paperwork required in manufacturing automobiles or computers or in protecting the country. Perhaps understandably, such people may, over time, become preoccupied with getting their own jobs done and, driven by the need to ensure the continuation of particular practices or programs linked to their positions, eventually lose touch with the larger goals of the organization. This shift in focus adds to costs, lowers efficiency, and may prove detrimental to corporations that compete in a global economy and governments seeking to accomplish goals and stay within tight budgets.

Economic, cultural, and social capital confer benefits on individuals, at least in part, through membership in particular social groups. Characteristics such as class, race, ethnicity, and gender, among others, can have effects on the capital one has. Membership in organizations such as fraternities, exclusive golf clubs, or college alumni associations can offer important network access. These are some examples of the kinds of organizations that shape our lives and society, sometimes to our benefit, sometimes to our disadvantage.

Economic, cultural, and social capital confer benefits on individuals, at least in part, through membership in particular social groups. Characteristics such as class, race, ethnicity, and gender, among others, can have effects on the capital one has. Membership in organizations such as fraternities, exclusive golf clubs, or college alumni associations can offer important network access. These are some examples of the kinds of organizations that shape our lives and society, sometimes to our benefit, sometimes to our disadvantage.

Across the globe, people prefer small informal organizations to complete their goals. -True -False

False (prefer formal organizations because they tend to be the most efficient at getting tasks completed. Informal organizations may not have strict goals, which can make projects less efficient).

Secondary groups are of significance because they have a long-lasting influence on the development of our social selves. -True -False

False (typically serve adaptive needs).

Émile Durkheim was the first sociologist to examine the characteristics of bureaucracy in detail. -True -False

False (max weber).

Family

For most of us, the ____ is the reference group with the greatest impact in shaping our early view of ourselves.

Group size is another variable that is an important factor in group dynamics. Although their intensity may diminish, larger groups tend to be more stable than smaller groups of two (dyads) or three (triads) people. While even small groups can develop a formal group structure, larger groups develop a formal structure.

Formal structures include some people in leadership roles—that is, those group members who are able to influence the behavior of the other members. The most common form of leadership is transactional—that is, routine leadership concerned with getting the job done. Less common is transformational leadership, which is concerned with changing the very nature of the group itself.

Transformational Leader

Goes beyond the merely routine. Instilling in group members a sense of mission or higher purpose and thereby changing (transforming) the nature of the group itself.

Leadership roles imply that the role occupant is accorded some power, the ability to mobilize resources and get things done despite resistance. Power derives from two principal sources: the personality of the leader (personal power) and the position that the leader occupies (positional power). Max Weber highlighted the importance of charisma as a source of leadership as well as leadership deriving from traditional authority (a queen inherits a throne, for example).

In general, people are highly susceptible to group pressure. Many people will conform to group norms or obey orders from an authority figure, even when there are potentially negative consequences for others or even for themselves.

Personal Power

It depends on the ability to persuade rather than the ability to command.

Alliance (or coalition)

May form between two members of a triad, enabling them to "gang up" on the third member, thereby destabilizing the group.

Rational Bureaucracies

Organized based on knowable rules and regulations that laid out a particular path to a goal rather than on general or abstract principles or ideologies.

Specialized Offices

Positions in a bureaucracy are organized into "offices" that create a division of labor within the organization. The duties of each office, such as bookkeeping or paying invoices, are described in the organizational manual. Each office specializes in one particular bureaucratic function to the exclusion of all others. Such specialization is one of the reasons why bureaucratic organization is said to be efficient; bureaucratic officials are supposed to become experts at their particular tasks, efficient cogs in a vast machine. The efficiency is, ideally, beneficial for the organization and its clients. If you are seeking to clear up a problem with your tuition bill, you will not visit the admissions office because you know the expert advice you seek is to be found in the student accounts office.

Positional Power

Power depends on the leader's role in the group.

Legitimate Authority

Power exercised over those who recognize it as deserved or earned, captures the second

Formal Organization

Rationally designed to achieve particular objectives, often by means of explicit rules, regulations, and procedures.

Formal organizations are organizations that are rationally designed to achieve their objectives by means of rules, regulations, and procedures. They may be utilitarian, coercive, or normative, depending on the reasons for joining. One of the most common types of formal organizations in modern society is the bureaucracy. Bureaucracies are characterized by written rules and regulations, specialized offices, a hierarchical structure, impersonality in record keeping, and professional administrative staff.

The iron law of oligarchy holds that large-scale organizations tend to concentrate power in the hands of a few people. As a result, even supposedly democratic organizations tend to become undemocratic when they become large.

Oligarchy

The rule of a small group over many people.

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between economic, cultural, and social capital? -The three are basically just one form of capital. -Each of the three is distinct and must be pursued individually. -All three are only accessible by the upper classes. -The three are interconnected, with each providing potential access to the other two.

The three are interconnected, with each providing potential access to the other two.

Coercive Organization

Those in which members are forced to give unquestioned obedience to authority.

Normative Organization (or voluntary associations)

Those that people join of their own will to pursue morally worthwhile goals without expectation of material reward. May offer prestige or moral or personal satisfaction.

Utilitarian Organization

Those that people join primarily because of some material benefit they expect to receive in return for membership.

Groupthink

To describe what happens when members of a group ignore ways of thinking and plans of action that go against the group consensus.

Triads are more stable than dyads because the presence of a third person relieves some of the pressure on the other two members. -True -False

True

The authority structure of most contemporary organizations is bureaucratic. -True -False

True "red tape"

The different forms of capital described by Bourdieu are essential in the reproduction of the class system. -True -False

True (EC can lead to SC and CC).

An organization can be a small primary group, but it is more likely to be a larger, secondary one. -True -False

True (bigger us easier)

In 1919, following World War I, the League of Nations was formed in an effort to put an end to war. -True -False

True (correct goal).

Economic capital can lead to cultural and social capital. -True -False

True (cultural capital through socialization, and to social capital through social contacts).

Charles Horton Cooley argued that people belong to primary groups because these groups satisfy personal needs of belonging and fulfillment. -True -False

True (humans want to feel belonged).

Achim plays on his high school football team. After his sophomore year, he begins to socialize with his teammates outside of school. For Achim, his team is a primary group. -True -False

True (secondary groups evolve into primary groups).

A number of organizational alternatives to bureaucracies exist. These include collectives, which emphasize cooperation, consensus, and humanistic relations. Networked organizations, which increase flexibility by reducing hierarchy, are similar to collectives in their organization.

Two important forms of global organizations are international governmental organizations (IGOs) and international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs). Both kinds of organizations play increasingly important roles in the world today, and IGOs—particularly the United Nations—may become key organizational actors as the pace of globalization increases.

An organization can be a small primary group, but it is more likely to be a larger, secondary one:

Universities, churches, armies, and business corporations

Trained incapacity:

We have all seen bureaucrats who "go by the book," even when a situation clearly calls for fresh thinking. Thorstein Veblen (1899), a U.S. sociologist and contemporary of Weber's, termed this tendency trained incapacity, a learned inability to exercise independent thought. However intelligent they may otherwise be, such bureaucrats make poor judgments when it comes to decisions not covered by the rule book. They become so obsessed with following the rules and regulations that they lose the ability and flexibility to respond to new situations.

Impersonality in record keeping:

Within a bureaucracy, communications are likely to be formal and impersonal. Written forms—paperwork or the electronic equivalent—substitute for more personalized human contact, because bureaucracies must maintain written records or databases of all important actions. Modern computer technology has vastly increased the ability of organizations to maintain and access records. In some ways, this is an advantage—for example, when it allows you to register for classes via smartphone instead of standing in line for hours waiting to fill out forms. On the other hand, you may regret the loss of human contact and the inflexibility of the process, however efficient it may be. This impersonality also, ideally, has the effect of ensuring that all clients are treated equally and efficiently rather than capriciously; in reality, however, people with substantial economic, social, or cultural capital often have the easiest time navigating bureaucracies.

Cultural Capital

Your interpersonal skills, habits, manners, linguistic styles, tastes, and lifestyles.

Alliances

____ are most likely to form when no member is clearly dominant and all three are competing for the same thing—for example, when three friends are given a pair of tickets to a concert and have to decide which two will go. Larger groups share some of the characteristics of triads.

According to Simmel, which of the following is the most unstable group size? -a tetrad -a pentad -a triad -a dyad

a dyad

Kendra works for the United States Postal Service (USPS). What type of organization is the USPS? -a formal organization -an informal organization -a tertiary organization -a primary organization

a formal organization

Organization

a group with an identifiable membership that engages in concerted collective actions to achieve a common purpose.

Iron Law of Oligarchy

an inevitable tendency for a large-scale bureaucratic organization to become ruled undemocratically by a handful of people.

is associated with legitimate leadership. -transactional leader -authority -transformational leader -positional power

authority

Which of the following contributes to groupthink? -avoiding conflict -questioning every decision -rejecting authority -seeking outside influence

avoiding conflict

What type of organization runs on rules, procedure, and a clear chain of command? -bureaucracy -triad -oligarchy -dyad

bureaucracy

Primary Groups

characterized by intense emotional ties, intimacy, and identification with membership in the group.

In which type of organization are members forced to give unquestioned obedience to authority? -voluntary -utilitarian -normative -coercive

coercive

People join to fulfill a duty or mandatory requirement. -utilitarian organization -normative organization -coercive organization

coercive organization

Dyad

consists of two persons. the simplest group.

As group size increases, the intensity of relationships within the group...

decreases while overall group stability increases.

Which type of group has only two members? -pentad -dyad -tetrad -triad

dyad

International Nongovernmental Organization (INGO)

established by agreements between the individuals or private organizations making up the membership and existing to fulfill an explicit mission.

International Governmental Organization (IGO)

established by treaties between governments to facilitate and regulate trade between the member countries, promote national security (both the League of Nations and the United Nations were created after highly destructive world wars), protect social welfare or human rights, or ensure environmental protection.

What types of organizations are formed to complete goals through the use of rules, regulations, and procedures? -secondary -informal -primary -formal

formal

Triad

group consisting of three people. more stable.

Which of the following is a characteristic of a bureaucracy? -hierarchy -personalized record keeping -equality of pay -informality in relations

hierarchy

The goal of a(n) ______ is to focus on the work that needs to be done, instead of the people who do it. -holacracy -oligarchy -democracy -corporatocracy

holacracy

What organizations are established by treaties between governments to facilitate and regulate trade between the member countries, promote national security? -international governmental organizations -coercive organizations -international nongovernmental organizations -informal organizations

international governmental organizations

What concept did Weber use to describe large-scale bureaucratic organizations ruled by a handful of people? -hierarchical principles -iron law of oligarchy -goal displacement -collectives

iron law of oligarchy

Secondary Groups

large, impersonal groups with minimal emotional and intimate ties.

People join to fulfill their personal and moral goals. -utilitarian organization -normative organization -coercive organization

normative organization

What did the Milgram experiment measure when the subjects shocked the "learner"? -cooperation -conformity to peers -obedience to authority -empathy

obedience to authority

Which of the following are forms of authority or power identified by sociologists? -legitimate authority, personal power, and opportunistic authority -personal power, positional power, and legitimate authority -situational power, opportunistic authority, and personal power -positional power, legitimate authority, and opportunistic authority

personal power, positional power, and legitimate authority

is associated with relational entitlement. -transactional leader -authority -transformational leader -positional power

positional power

close friends. -primary group -secondary group

primary group

intimate -secondary group -primary group

primary group

What types of groups or organizations are characterized by intense emotional ties, intimacy, and identification with membership? -coercive organizations -primary groups -utilitarian organizations -secondary groups

primary groups

Bureaucracies are...

rational, not always reasonable.

coworkers in a corporation who socialize infrequently. -primary group -secondary group

secondary group

goal-oriented -secondary group -primary group

secondary group

larger groups tend to be more ____ than smaller ones.

smaller because the withdrawal of some members does not threaten the survival of the entire group.

Which type of capital is found in someone's network of connections with people? -economic -cultural -social -functional

social

A reference group provides a...

standard for judging our own attitudes or behaviors.

The idea that an overarching framework exists within which culture and other aspects of society must be understood is known as ______. -structuralism -conflict theory -symbolic interactionism -functionalism

structuralism

Social Closure

the ability of a group to strategically and consciously exclude outsiders or those deemed "undesirable" from participating in the group or enjoying the group's resources

Which of the following are considered coercive organizations? -prison, university, and the military -drug treatment center, prison, and university -the military, drug treatment center, and prison -college, the military, and university

the military, drug treatment center, and prison

Economic Capital

the most basic form, consists of money and material that can be used to access valued goods and services.

Social Capital

the personal connections and networks that enable people to accomplish their goals and extend their influence.

Focuses on accomplishing tasks. -transactional leader -authority -transformational leader -positional power

transactional leader

instills a sense of mission or higher purpose in group members. -transactional leader -authority -transformational leader -positional power

transformational leader

Which of the following is an example of social capital? -knowing multiple languages -becoming a medical doctor -being born into a rich family -using a mentor's network to get a job

using a mentor's network to get a job

People join the cause and expect to benefit. -utilitarian organization -normative organization -coercive organization

utilitarian organization

Types of formal organizations:

utilitarian, coercive, and normative