module 8 early adulthood

Hair and Skin

-Age 20: Changes in Skin -Age 30: Gray hair, baldness, less skin elasticity Less skin elasticity and some visible wrinkles around the eyes and forehead Connective tissue begins to thin 1% every year Sun does most damage to skin

Developmental Impact of Attending College

-Fosters exploration of alternative values, behaviors, and beliefs. -Fosters the development of postformal reasoning. -Fosters the development of advanced moral reasoning. In 2013, about 66% of high school graduates in the U.S. enrolled in two- or four-year colleges. Peer interaction in academic and social contexts benefits students. Students who live in residence halls have more opportunities to interact with peers and become involved in the academic and social aspects of campus life—and show the greatest cognitive gains in the college years. Education that challenges students and encourages them to consider perspectives other than their own; solve ambiguous, messy problems; and apply coursework to real-world problems and activities with the guidance of supportive faculty promotes cognitive-affective complexity, which underlies adaptive functioning in college as well as all the contexts in which young adults are embedded.

Age-Related Physical Changes

-Hair and Skin -Muscle Development -Reproductive Capacity

Muscle Development

-Increases throughout 20s and peaks about age 30 -Bursts of strength (e.g., sprinting) peak in early 20s -Endurance (e.g., long distance running) peaks in early 30s

Dualistic thinking

-Knowledge viewed as either right or wrong -Exhibited in beginning college students Dualistic thinking is polar reasoning in which a person views learning as a matter of acquiring and assessing facts. Beginning college students tend to have difficulty grasping that several contradictory arguments can each have supporting evidence. They have a tendency to get stuck on trying to figure out: "Which theory is right?"

Health and Wellness

-Overweight and Obesity -Stress -Substance use -Tobacco -Marijuana -Binge and Heavy Drinking

Reflective Judgment

-The most mature type of reasoning. -Reasoning that synthesizes contradictions among perspectives. -Few adults demonstrate Reflective judgment recognizes that options and opinion can be evaluated based on evidence and discerned as most beneficial and/or appropriate. Reflective judgment allows a person to carefully consider the opinions of others and determine which opinion is most sound based on the evidence provided.

Heredity

-Under this theory parents' life spans predict those of their children -Some research shows that identical twins share more similar life spans than do fraternal twins However, Context and Behaviors play a larger role Kin relations for markers of biological age, such as strength, respiratory capacity, blood pressure, and bone density are relatively small as health is influenced not just by genetics but by context and lifestyle. Life spans among family members often vary with context and behaviors. Aging therefore reflects the interaction of epigenetic factors. It may be that it is not life span that we inherit but a set of genetic factors that may predict life span. Ultimately, it is the contextual factors such as the availability of health care and lifestyle factors such as health-related behaviors that matter in predicting life span.

Theories of Aging

-Wear and Tear Theory of Aging -Heredity -Caloric restriction -Immune system -Cellular mutation

Binge and Heavy Drinking

1 in 6 US adults binge 4x a month, approx. 7 drinks per binge Binge drinking: 4 (women) or 5 (men) drinks in one sitting (2 hours) Heavy drinking: Men = 15 drinks or more per week Women = 8 drinks or more per week Alcohol is the drug of choice for most people throughout adulthood; however, 18 to 29 year-olds show highest rates of alcohol abuse. Most people out grow binge drinking and heavy drinking but can lead to alcohol dependence.

5 Features of Emerging Adults

1. Age of identity exploration 2. Age of instability 3. Age of self-focus 4. Age of feeling in between 5. Age of possibilities

The Forgotten Third

1/3 of H.S. graduates do not attend college Reasons for not attending college: Economic barriers Desire to work Disinterest in academics Many high schools have resources to engage students for college readiness; however, not all students are able to or have a desire to attend college. Those students are considered "forgotten" because relatively few resources are directed toward learning about and assisting them to enter into a vocational field after high school. Additionally, there are fewer work opportunities for those who enter the workforce right after graduating high school than previous generations.

Nontraditional College Students

27% are between ages 25 and 39 Strengths Readiness to learn and a problem-centered orientation Seeking meaning and applying what they learn Nontraditional students are less likely than traditional students to earn a degree within five years. Returning to college often revolves around career reasons Characteristics of nontraditional college students: Attend college part-time Work full-time Be financially independent Have dependents More complex knowledge base from which to draw

Never-Married Single Parent

4 in 10 infants in the U.S. are raised by a single parent Recent years have shown an increase in single parents by choice, professional women in 30s

Senescence

A pattern of gradual age-related declines in physical functioning begins in early adulthood. The measurable age-related changes become more visible about age 30. -example, wrinkles are a very normal part of getting older, as is worsening eyesight and hearing. These are a part of the normal senescence that is happening in a person's body.

Isolation

A sense of loneliness and self-absorption Many do not enter truly intimate relationships until after emerging adulthood Isolation may occur as a person focuses solely on their career and/or social advancement. It is not uncommon for young adults feel a sense of isolation until they get established in their career. When they are established, young adults typically are better equipped to focus on developing a truly intimate relationship.

Piaget: Postformal Reasoning

Ability to recognize that: Most problems have multiple causes and solutions. All problems involve uncertainty. Thinking and problem solving are restructured in adulthood to integrate abstract reasoning with practical considerations.

Singlehood

About one third of 25- to 39-year old adults have never married Most adults in the US will spend a large part of their adult lives as single with about 8% of the population who remain single throughout life. Other young adults describe themselves as single because of circumstances that they cannot control. One study of never-married women found that some attributed singlehood to focusing more on career goals than marriage, others pointed to disappointing romantic relationships, and some reported never meeting the right person. When young adults perceive themselves as single by choice, they tend to report enjoying singlehood and the freedom to take risks and experiment with lifestyle changes. They also tend to associate singlehood with independence, self-fulfillment, and autonomy throughout their life course, including in old age.

Factors Related to Intimate Partner Violence

Abusers: Higher rates of depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem Often display possessive, jealous, and controlling behavior Blame partner for causing situations that lead to violence Have been exposed to abuse as a child

Romantic Relationships

According to Erik Erikson, the developmental task of early adulthood is to form long-term intimate relationships that will endure throughout adulthood. Note: Consent is everything, especially in romantic relationships.

The Social Clock

Age-related expectations for major life events Graduating high school at 18 Graduating college at 22 Getting a job and married by 25 to 28 and starting a family The degree to which people value and meet their culture's social clock influences their self-esteem and psychological functioning. Since the mid-20th century the acceptable age range for norms have widened. Consider parenthood, it is becoming more common to be a first time parent at age 40. Although Western culture's expectations for their timing have become less age conscious and rigid, many young adults experience distress and poor self-esteem when they are off-time relative to their peers. It is important to recognize that each of us are all on our own timeline and our experiences are timed differently than others. It is okay to be "behind" your peers.

Work-Family Balance

As young adults gain traction in their career and begin a family, many often report feeling conflict between obligations. Women are more likely to suffer from role overload than men. Women who manage multiple responsibilities while avoiding role overload tend to devote less time to maintaining the household. Role overload is more common in low-status occupations where workers have little control over their schedule or work, occupations that women are more likely to have than men. Demand overload influences one's sense of personal control, which in turn influences health. Role overload is associated with poor health, higher rates of depression, less effective parenting, and marital conflict in women. Control over work time predicts satisfaction with work-life balance and lower levels of work-life conflict. When hours increase, women who perceive control over their schedule show greater work-family satisfaction than do those who perceive little control. Perceived physical and emotional support are associated with better role overload management.

Relativistic Thinking

Beliefs are subjective and dependent on the situation and thinker With experience in college and/or exposure to multiple viewpoints within their environment, it is common for the young adult to experience a shift in thinking. Their dualistic thinking becomes more relativistic as they begin to recognize that beliefs are subjective, that there are multiple perspectives on a given issue, and that all perspectives are defensible. With this shift, thinking becomes more flexible and often students become frustrated with relativism. One conclusion from this frustration is that most topics are simply a matter of opinion and perspective as all views are valid; however, a more mature thinker may acknowledge the multiple options yet carefully evaluate them to choose the most adequate solution.

Stress

Can motivate behavior or debilitate, impairing functioning. Stress levels tend to peak between the ages of 18 to 35 Experiencing an overload of daily hassles, negative life events, and unfavorable social conditions is associated with high levels of stress and poor health.

Intimacy

Characterized by making a life-long permanent commitment Those who have an identity status of identity achievement are better equipped to form intimate relationships As young adults form intimate relationships, they must reshape their identity to include their role as partner and the goals, plans, and interests shared with their partner. Thus, they must resolve identity and intimacy demands that may conflict. Establishing a relationship that is mutual and satisfying is a challenge for those who continue to struggle with their own identity issues and are just gaining social and financial independence. The formation of intimate relationships is associated with well-being in young adults. Identity achievement predicts readiness for relationships and the capacity to actively seek and establish them. Many emerging adults who are just forming their identities are ill-prepared for the task of developing and maintaining a life-long commitment.

Marital Success

Chronological age In general, people who marry young are less likely to have a life-long marriage than those who marry later in life - especially after developing an identity achieved status. Psychosocial maturity A secure sense of identity is needed before intimate relationships can be forged. Those who have not attained identity achievement are more likely to refer to passion in defining love over intimacy and commitment. Degree of similarity between both members of the couple Generally, the more similar two people are then there is a greater likelihood the marriage will last. On average, men typically report being happier with their marriages than women.

Mate Selection

Concerning mate selection, you generally see the following differences based on gender regardless of sexual orientation: Men: Tend to prefer a younger Value physical attractiveness and domestic skills Women tend to assign greater importance to: Earning potential Intelligence Height Moral character Same age or slightly older Although opposites might attract, contrary to popular belief, opposites do not make for more satisfying romantic partnerships. Differences among romantic partners may enhance their compatibility if the different traits complement one another—for example, one partner being more shy and the other outgoing. However, generally speaking, opposites might attract, but it is similarity that enhances relationship satisfaction.

The Major Predictor of Divorce:

Couple's communication and problem-solving style. Couples are more likely to divorce if they have not developed healthy styles of communication.

Reproductive Capacity

Declines with age Risk increase for women in mid- to late 30s Reasons for Infertility Females: Chromosomal anomalies accumulate as egg cells age Failure to ovulate. Ovarian cancer and ovarian cysts Dwindling reserves of ova. Males: Most males are fertile into older adulthood. Sperm production declines in middle adulthood

Workplace Policies

Effective workplace policies such as flexible policies and onsite childcare can reduce role overload and improve employee morale and productivity. Flexible policies that permit employees to balance home and work responsibilities, such as flexible starting and stopping times, opportunities to work from home, and time off to care for sick children, are associated with better attendance, commitment to the organization, and work performance, and with fewer distress symptoms. Workplaces with onsite childcare show lower rates of employee absenteeism and higher productivity on the job. When adults are better able to balance work and family, they experience benefits in all of their roles. They are more productive and happy workers, more satisfied spouses, better parents; they experience greater well-being at home and work as well.

Age of self-focus

Freed of parental and society-directed routine of school, young people try to decide what they want to do, where they want to of, and who they want to be with - before those choices get limited by the constraints of marriage, children, and/or a career.

Factors Associated with Limited Emerging Adulthood

High school dropout Early parenthood Begin work immediately out of high school Low socioeconomic household and community Some theorists argue that emerging adulthood is not a life stage - it does not exist everywhere and for everyone. It may simply be an indicator of medium to high socioeconomic status and the educational and career opportunities that accompany such status. Several factors (see list above) may lead to limited experience with emerging adulthood or no experience with it at all; therefore, it may be more beneficial to define adulthood by making independent decisions versus reaching certain milestones at particular ages.

Overweight and Obesity

In early adulthood, 34% are overweight; 35% are obese The absence of parental controls, access to an abundance of food, and busy lives make it difficult for young adults to eat healthily. Young adult women show higher rates of weight gain than women in other age groups, perhaps because of differences in contraception, dietary behavior, physical activity, and stresses associated with life transitions. Regular moderate exercise enhances immunity and is related to: Stress reduction. Cardiovascular health. Cancer prevention. Mental health benefits. Guidelines recommend engaging in at least 150 minutes of moderate activity each week or 75 minutes of vigorous activity, plus muscle strengthening exercises on at least two days each week.

Physical Development

In early adulthood, all of the organs and body systems peak including the digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and reproductive systems.

Divorce

In the U.S., the divorce rate increased during the 1970s, peaked in 1980 (5.2 divorces per 1,000 people), and has declined since to 3.4 divorces per 1,000 people in 2012

Cognitive-Affective Complexity

Integrate positive and negative feelings about an issue. Regulate intense emotions to make logical decisions Reasoning in everyday situations is fused with emotion; therefore, we experience an increased capacity to be aware of our emotions as well as the emotions of others. With gains in cognitive-affective complexity, young adults better understand others, including their perspectives, feelings, and motivations, which helps them to participate in social interactions, become more tolerant of other viewpoints, and to solve day-to-day problems. The use of pragmatic thought allows us to integrate and regulate our emotions when making decisions.

Transition to Work

Jobs frequently do not match interests and education of young adults who graduate from college. Some report they simply fell into a job and 20% report working in a field that actually represents their greatest interest. It is common to undergo as many as 6 job changes by age 27 as young adults manage expectations in light of reality. Young adults often resign and seek alternative jobs/careers. In 2012, the median length of time at on job for 25 to 35 year-olds was just over 3 years. Jobs may encourage mentoring relationships to aid in the transition to employment. On-the-job mentor programs create more opportunities for full-time employment, receive more advice, and become more attached to the labor force than those without mentors.

Disadvantages of Parenthood

Loss of sense of freedom High cost of raising a child Sudden declines in marital satisfaction Mothers tend to report more stress and a higher workload. A new parent will spend about $245,340 over the course of raising a child from birth to age 18.

Age of feeling in between

Many emerging adults say they are taking responsibility for themselves, but still do not completely feel like an adult.

Becoming a Stepparent

May experience difficulty providing discipline without the warm attachment bond Stepparenting poses challenges for new marriages. Remarried parents tend to report high levels of tension and conflict about parenting as compared with first-married parents. How well adults adjust to the role of stepparent is influenced by the support of the biological parent as well as the children's perception of their relationship with the stepparent and willingness to accept the adult into the family. Positive child communication and a high-quality marriage, as well as social support, predicts positive coping on the part of stepmothers. Stepmothers who perceive a lack of control over parenting practices during visitations are more likely to feel powerlessness, anger, and resentment, which may be manifested in depression.

Marriage

Median age of marriage in the U.S. is 27 for women and 29 for men Marriage remains an important adult milestone. About 90% of North Americans marry at least once in their lifetimes. In generally, studies have indicated that married people around the world are happier, physically healthier, less distressed, and wealthier than nonmarried people. Benefits? Economic, physical, and psychological benefits Egalitarian relationships lead to marital harmony and increased satisfaction

Marijuana

Most commonly used after alcohol and nicotine Most people use marijuana sporadically and limited in duration

Transition to Marriage

Most report a drop in satisfaction over the first year of marriage Newlyweds experience multiple changes during their first years of marriage: Decision-making on various life choices Negotiating conflict Relationships with family and friends Family traditions

Why is adulthood delayed and emerging adulthood extended?

One contributing factor to emerging adulthood is that there are more students entering college than ever before which extends the age at which we meet the traditional markers of completing education, entering a career, establishing a residence, marrying and forming a family. These are delayed relative to prior generations. Increasingly young people have extended educational experiences that delay career commitment and financial independence which can delay marriages and later family formation.

Age of possibilities

Optimism reigns. Most emerging adults believe they have good chances of living "better than their parents did," and even if their parents divorced, they believe they'll find a lifelong soul mate.

Substance use

Peak in the early 20s and decline into the 30s. Pressures in early adulthood coupled with easy access to drugs and alcohol increase the risk of using and abusing.

Predictors of Divorce include:

Poor education Economic disadvantages Role overload Experiencing multiple life stressors

Tobacco

Risk of initiating smoking plateaus at about age 22 Cigarette smoking is responsible for about one of every five deaths in the U.S. each year. About 80% of smokers have their first cigarette before age 18, but regular or daily smoking often does not begin until about age 20.

Role Overload

Role overload is likely to occur as young adults maintain several roles at the same time without or lacking in resources and/or perceived support to fulfill those roles.

Components of Consummate Love

Romantic relationships that are high in consummate love are more likely to be perceived as satisfying for the individuals in the relationship. Consummate love includes all three components of love identified by Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love: Passion - strong emotion Intimacy - close bond of support and self-disclosure Commitment - dedication to the person

Intimate Partner Violence

Similar rates in both heterosexual and same-sex couples 36% of women and 29% of men report IPV Physical violence in which a male harms a female partner is the most commonly reported type of intimate violence; however, many more acts remain unreported. Research suggests that men and women report experiencing similar rates of physical assault during arguments. Intimate violence escalates the emotional intensity of arguments and tends to elicit retaliatory violence from the victimized partner.

Why Become a Parent?

Some of the top reasons people self-report becoming a parent include: The parent-child bond The growth, learning, and fun experiences with the child The desire to help someone grow

Same-Sex Parents

The majority of children in same-sex parented homes are conceived through previous heterosexual marriages, but an increasing number of gay men and lesbian women become parents through adoption and reproductive technologies. 35% of female spousal couples and 28% of male spousal couples are raising biological, step or adopted children About 23% of lesbian women are parents, compared to about 68% of heterosexual women The biological parent tends to assume most of the parenting responsibility Adopted children or those conceived through reproductive technology tend to have an egalitarian split of household and child-rearing duties

Age of instability

The post-high school years are marked by repeated residence changes as young people either go to college, live with friends, and/or a romantic partner. For most, frequent moves end as families and careers are established in their 30s.

Pragmatic Thought

The use of logic to address everyday problems. Entails acceptance of inconsistency and ambiguity. Pragmatic thought is a transition from hypothetical thought emphasizing possibilities to pragmatic thought that arises from managing various roles and tackling the problems of everyday life which requires thinking that is flexible and accepting of contradiction. Young adults must come to terms with their relative power across various contexts: Home - have autonomy and are able to carve out their own niche; Work - must follow the directions of the employer as well as Integrating roles as parent, friend, employee, and/or spouse which require flexibility and adaptation. example: The theory that political problems should be met with practical solutions rather than ideological ones.

Occupational Expectations and Reality

Theorist posit that beginning in adolescence we formulate a life plan as it relates to education, career, and/or family formation. This forming of a dream, especially as it relates to occupation, involves: Attempt to achieve Monitor progress Modify occupational expectations based on experiences

Reasons for Cohabitation

There is an increasing prevalence of cohabitation in emerging adulthood. Research has found that the following are among the top reasons for cohabitation: Not feeling ready for marriage Parents are divorced Assess romantic compatibility, convenience, and improving finances

Friendship

Typically based on similarity Recently married have the greatest number of friends Single young adults rely more on friends for social support/acceptance Friendships characterized by social support and self-disclosure are related to increased life satisfaction in single adults and predictive of a more long-lasting friendship. Women typically see their friends more often and rely more on them for social and emotional needs. Men typically take longer to develop their friendships, endure to become long lasting ties, self-disclosure increases and the friends become closer. Satisfaction with one's friendship is a better predictor of life satisfaction than is the number of friends.

Caloric restriction

Under this theory a nutritious diet extremely low in calories is associated with a longer life span

Cellular mutation

Under this theory damage to DNA and chromosome lead to deterioration in functioning and increase in age-related diseases and cancers.

Wear and Tear Theory of Aging

Under this theory, the body wears out from use and thus ages On the contrary, we must "use it or lose it". Research has shown that regular exercise increases longevity

Immune system

Under this theory, the immune system influences the body's adjustment to external stressors and pathogens encountered throughout life An aging immune system is less able to differentiate healthy and unhealthy cells and may direct the body's defenses against healthy cells and ignore harmful cells

Epistemic Cognition

Understand how they arrive at ideas, beliefs, and conclusions. People's understanding of the nature of knowledge advances along a predictable path in young adulthood, especially among college students. Young adults are more likely to compare their reasoning process and justifications with others then make adjustments. When entering college, young adults are more likely to view knowledge as a set of facts that hold true across people and contexts.

Adulthood?

What does it mean to be an adult to you? What are some challenges to transitioning from adolescence?

Emerging Adulthood (18 to 25; Late 20s)

When do you become an adult? Given many changes occur in the 20 years in Early Adulthood, many researchers differentiate between the transition to adulthood and early adulthood itself. Making decisions about relationships, family, career, and lifestyles, and then transitioning and committing to those roles characterizes this in-between status in which they are not adolescents yet they have not yet fully assumed the roles that comprise adulthood. Emerging adulthood is a time to explore alternatives and make frequent changes in educational paths, romantic partners, and jobs. Typically, young adults are able to fully engage in the identity developmental process initiated in adolescence. As we progress toward resolving issues related to our identity, we are more likely to perceive ourselves as adults.

Age of identity exploration

Young people are deciding who they are and what they want out of work, school, life, and love.

Parenthood in Early Adulthood

childbearing rates have declined to 2.1 children The average number of children is even lower for many industrialized nations including Australia (1.8), Germany (1.4), and Japan (1.4), as compared with developing nations such as Niger (7.0), Somalia, (6.2), and Afghanistan (5.5). Women in high-status and demanding occupations are more likely to delay or decide against childbearing

Critical thinking

makes use of reflective judgment and pragmatic thought while taking the cognitive-affective complexity into consideration. the 5 critical thinking: observation, analysis, interpretation, reflection, evaluation, inference, explanation, problem solving, and decision making