Part 2 Exam final

Muhammad Ahmad bin Abdulla (Mahdi)?

(born August 12, 1844—died June 22, 1885, Omdurman, Sudan), creator of a vast Islamic state extending from the Red Sea to Central Africa and founder of a movement that remained influential in Sudan a century later. As a youth he moved from orthodox religious study to a mystical interpretation of Islam. In 1881 he proclaimed his divine mission to purify Islam and the governments that defiled it. His extensive campaign culminated in the capture of Khartoum (January 26, 1885). He then established a theocratic state in the Sudan, with its capital at Omdurman. e joined the Sammāniyyah order and grew to manhood in a wholly Sudanese religious setting, purposely separating himself from the official ruling class. By now the young man had begun to attract his own disciples and, in 1870, moved with them to a hermitage on Abā Island in the White Nile, 175 miles south of Khartoum. His highly emotional and intransigent religious observance brought him into conflict with his shaykh (teacher), whom he reproved for worldliness. The exasperated shaykh expelled him from the circle of his disciples, whereupon Muḥammad Aḥmad, having vainly asked his teacher's pardon, joined the brotherhood of a rival shaykh within the same order. he Sudan at this time was a dependency of Egypt, which was itself a province of the Ottoman Empire, and governed by the same multiracial, Turkish-speaking ruling class that governed Egypt. In appearance, education, and way of life, the rulers contrasted starkly with their Sudanese subjects, and, although the more assimilatedhigher officials and some of the chiefs of territories along the Nile who profited from their government connections were reconciled to the regime, the less privileged Sudanese were not. The situation was politically dangerous, for the discontented came from many different walks of life: taxpayers oppressed by fiscal injustices and enraged by the frequent floggings to which they were subject when tardy in their payments; slave traders aroused by the clumsy efforts of the government, which was hectored by the European powers, particularly Britain, to abolish the trade without delay; devout worshippers scandalized by the presence of non-Muslim Europeans as provincial governors and by their addiction to alcohol; peasants living by the Nile forced to tow government ships; warlike tribesmen, weary of the long years of enforced peace, spoiling for a fight—all these were potential enemies of the established order. It was Muḥammad Aḥmad who converted this diversified discontent into a unified movement that for a time would transcend tribalism and weld the faithful into an unconquerable military machine. Gradually, during 1880 and the first weeks of 1881, he became convinced that the entire ruling class had deserted the Islamic faith and that the khedive, the viceroy of Egypt, was a puppet in the hands of unbelievers and thus unfit to rule over Muslims. In March 1881 he revealed to his closest followers what he considered his divine mission—that God had appointed him to purify Islam and to destroy all governments that defiled it. On June 29 he publicly assumed the title of al-Mahdī, who, according to a tradition cherished by the oppressed throughout Islamic history, would appear to restore Islam. Al-Mahdī's crowning victory was the capture of Khartoum, on January 26, 1885, after a resolute defense by its commander, Major General Charles George Gordon, who, against al-Mahdī's express order, was killed in the final assault. After many of the citizens of Khartoum had been massacred, al-Mahdī made a triumphal entry into the stricken city and led the prayers in the principal mosque. Even making allowance for the military weakness of Egypt, which during the crucial years 1881 and 1882 was torn by the nationalist revolt of Aḥmad ʿUrābī Pasha, it was an astonishing feat. Al-Mahdī made a powerful impression on his Sudanese contemporaries, and the doubters were few. Recorded recollections are capricious, but most witnesses agreed on his medium-to-tall height; his austere frame, which, according to some, fattened toward the end of his life; the soft voice that a sudden access of indignation could make terrible; the sympathetic, sensitive face; the large, piercing eyes. The pious were sure that in his person he conformed to all that was traditionally expected of a mahdi. Understandably, European captives drew a less-favourable picture. To the British at the time of the Mahdist wars, al-Mahdī was the enemy whom they associated, though wrongly, with the killing of Gordon. The war correspondents generally reported him as an ogre, cruel when he was not lascivious, and they dubbed him the False Prophet. This caricature of al-Mahdī was reflected in a bulky literature by European authors that distorted al-Mahdī's image for an entire generation. Ironically, it was General Horatio Herbert Kitchener's conquest of the Sudan in 1896-98 that first brought Mahdists and British officials together and fostered what was to become a growing interest among European and Sudanese scholars in the study of Mahdist documents in the original Arabic. Such studies made possible a clearer view of this modern ascetic who changed the course of African history.

Shaka Zulu

(born c. 1787—died Sept. 22, 1828), Zulu chief (1816-28), founder of Southern Africa's Zulu Empire. He is credited with creating a fighting force that devastated the entire region he served with brilliance as a warrior of the Mthethwa Empire. Senzangakona died in 1816, and Dingiswayo released Shaka from service and sent him to take over the Zulu, which at this time probably numbered fewer than 1,500, occupying an area on the White Umfolozi River. They were among the smallest of the more than 800 Eastern Nguni-Bantu clans, but from the day of Shaka's arrival they commenced their march to greatness. Shaka ruled with an iron hand from the outset, meting out instant death for the slightest opposition. Shaka first rearmed his men with long-bladed, short-hafted stabbing assegais, which forced them to fight at close quarters. He then instituted the regimental system based on age groups, quartered at separate kraals (villages) and distinguished by uniform markings on shields and by various combinations of headdress and ornaments. He developed standard tactics, which the Zulu used in every battle. The available regiments (known collectively as the impi) were divided into four groups. The strongest, termed the "chest," closed with the enemy to pin him down while two "horns" raced out to encircle and attack the foe from behind. A reserve, known as the "loins," was seated nearby, with its back to the battle so as not to become unduly excited, and could be sent to reinforce any part of the ring if the enemy threatened to break out. The battle was supervised by indunas, or officers, who used hand signals to direct the regiments. An impi consistently covered 50 miles (80 km) a day, living off grain and cattle requisitioned from the kraals it passed and accompanied by boys who carried the warriors' sleeping mats and cooking pots. (bull head) went nuts in 1827 when his mother died. killing pregnant women and husbands. no milk or crops planted. brothers kill him and two of his half brothers, Dingane and Mhlangana, together with an induna named Mbopa, murdered him in September of that year.

The Manchester Conference?

1945. fifth pan African conference. held in the UK. First pan African meeting with afro carribvean and afro American delegates. Delegates include WE Dubois, Salvester Williams and George Padmos, Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana) -The eminent sociologist, civil rights activist, historian, writer, and socialist Dr W.E.B Du Bois. Du Bois is recognised as an important figure within the earlier Pan-African Congresses. -Kwame Nkrumah would later become the first Prime Minister and President of the Gold Coast (modern day Ghana) having led the country to Independence from Britain in 1957. As well as pursuing a higher education abroad and organising other diasporic Pan-Africanists - Nkrumah developed his own political philosophy. ISSUES: "The Colour Problem in Britain", Including issues of unemployment among black youth; abandoned mixed-race children fathered by black ex-servicemen and white British mothers; racial discrimination, the colour bar and discriminatory employment practices. These topics were discussed at the first session of the Congress held on October 15, 1945, chaired by Amy Ashwood Garvey.[20] "Imperialism in North and West Africa". All present demanded independence for African nations; delegates were split on the issue of having political emancipation first or control of the economy. Kwame Nkrumah advocated for revolutionary methods of seizing power as essential to Independence. From this session onwards the chair was taken by Dr W.E.B Du Bois.[20] "Oppression in South Africa". Including the social, economic, educational, health and employment inequalities faced by Black South Africans. All present expressed support and sympathy which included a number of demands outlined. "The East African Picture". Focusing on the issue of land, most of the best land had been occupied by White settlers; working conditions and wages for Africans reflected the same inequalities as South Africa. This session was open by Jomo Kenyatta. "Ethiopia and The Black Republics". Discussing the issue of Britain exercising control over Ethiopia although Emperor Haile Selassie had been restored to the throne; the United Nations not offering help to Ethiopia whilst Italy (which conquered Ethiopia in 1935 under a fascist regime) was receiving UN help.[20] "The Problems in the Caribbean" This session was addressed by a number of trade union delegates from the Caribbean; some delegates demanded "complete independence", some "sel- government" and others "dominion status"

Who organized the Berlin Conference, and what was its purpose and outcome? Discuss

Berlin ConferenceUnder support from the British and the initiative of Portugal, Otto von Bismarck, the chancellor of Germany, called on representatives of 13 nations in Europe as well as the United States to take part in the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out a joint policy on the African continent. This fast expansion in the investigation and colonization of Africa at last prompted the 1884 Berlin Conference. Set up realms, strikingly Britain, Portugal and France, had as of now asserted huge spaces of Africa and Asia, and arising royal powers like Italy and Germany had done in like manner on a more limited size. With the excusal of the maturing Chancellor Bismarck by Kaiser Wilhelm II, the moderately deliberate colonization turned into a mad scramble, known as the "Scramble for Africa." The Berlin Conference, started by Bismarck to set up worldwide rules for the securing of African region, formalized this "New Imperialism." Between the Franco-Prussian War and the World War I, Europe added just about 9 million square miles—one-fifth of the land space of the globe—to its abroad pilgrim assets. European Consensus of Africa The Berlin Conference tried to end contest and struggle between European powers during the "Scramble for Africa" by setting up global conventions for colonization. Berlin Conference: "Quiet" Colonization The Berlin Conference of 1884-85, otherwise called the Congo Conference, controlled European colonization and exchange Africa during the New Imperialism time frame, matching with Germany's unexpected rise as a magnificent power. Called for by Portugal and coordinated by Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany, its outcome, the General Act of the Berlin Conference, was the formalization of the Scramble for Africa. The conference introduced uplifted provincial action by European powers, which dispensed with or superseded most existing types of African independence and self-administration. Having seen the political and monetary competitions among the European domains in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the conventional apportioning of Africa kept European nations from fighting each other over region. The conference gave a chance to channel inert European threats outward, give new regions to European development even with rising American, Russian, and Japanese interests, and structure productive discourse for restricting future threats. The last long periods of the nineteenth century saw the change from "casual government" by military impact and monetary strength to coordinate guideline, achieving pioneer dominion. States were viewed as resources in "overall influence" dealings, valuable as things of trade in global haggling. States with enormous local populaces were likewise a wellspring of military power; Britain and France utilized British Indian and North African troopers separately in a significant number of their pilgrim wars. In the time of patriotism, a domain was a superficial point of interest; the possibility of "significance" became connected with the feeling of obligation hidden many countries' methodologies. Attributable to the European race for provinces, Germany began dispatching campaigns of its own, which terrified both British and French legislators. The control of Egypt and the obtaining of the Congo were the main significant moves in what came to be a sharp scramble for African region. Expecting to rapidly relieve this blending struggle, King Leopold II persuaded France and Germany that normal exchange Africa was to the greatest advantage of every one of the three nations. Under help from the British and the drive of Portugal, Otto von Bismarck, German Chancellor, approached delegates of 13 countries in Europe just as the United States to participate in the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out joint strategy on the African landmass. While the quantity of casting a ballot members changed per country, the accompanying 14 nations sent delegates to go to the Berlin Conference and sign the ensuing Berlin Act: Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden-Norway, Britain, and the United States. There were no African delegates at the conference, in spite of its way of talking stressing the advantage to Africa. The conference was met on Saturday, November 15, 1884 at Bismarck's true home on Wilhelmstrasse. The really ruling powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal. They remapped Africa disregarding the social and phonetic boundaries that were at that point set up. Toward the finish of the conference, Africa was isolated into 50 settlements. The specialists set up who was in charge of every one of these new divisions. They likewise arranged, reservedly, to end the slave exchange Africa In 1884, Otto von Bismarck assembled the Berlin Conference to talk about the African issue. Its outcome, the General Act of the Berlin Conference, formalized the Scramble for Africa. The ambassadors in Berlin laid the standards of rivalry by which the incredible powers were to be directed in looking for provinces. No country was to stake claims in Africa without telling different powers of its aims. No domain could be officially asserted before being viably involved. Nonetheless, the contenders overlooked the standards when helpful and on a few events war was just barely stayed away from. As indicated by certain pundits, the ambassadors put on a helpful façade to accumulate global help by denouncing the slave exchange, precluding the offer of cocktails and guns in specific areas, and communicating worry for minister exercises. The essayist Joseph Conrad wryly alluded to the conference as "the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs" in his novella Heart of Darkness.

W.E.B. Du Bois and Pan Africanism.

Dr William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was disliked by his own country, the United States of America, and so when he died, aged 95, on 27 August 1963 at the home Ghana's President Kwame Nkrumah had kindly provided him and his wife with in Accra, the world barely noticed. "Dr. W.E.B. Du Bois ... died as he had lived - alone, unloved, and under-appreciated by the masses of Negroes he had tried all through life to help", reported the Chicago Tribune. But that was a lie.A founder of America's oldest and largest civil rights organisation, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Du Bois found refuge in Ghana in 1961 after being hounded out of America by the US government because he demanded not just civil rights for African-Americans but freedom for Africa and an end to capitalism, which Du Bois said was the cause of racism and all human misery. pan African: is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous and diaspora ethnic groups of African descent. ... Based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, and political progress and aims to "unify and uplift" people of African descent.

Discuss Marcus Garvey and the Back Zionist Movements.

Marcus Garvey was a Black nationalist and leader of the Pan-Africanism movement, which aimed to unite and connect people of African origin all over the world. He was a prominent civil rights leader in the United States, founding the Negro World newspaper, the Black Star Line shipping enterprise, and the Universal Negro Improvement Association, or UNIA, a fraternal organisation of black nationalists. They campaigned for "separate but equal" status for people of African heritage as a group, and as a result, they worked to build autonomous Black governments all over the world, most notably in Liberia on Africa's west coast. And Zionism is a Jewish nationalist movement whose purpose is to establish and maintain a Jewish national state in Palestine, the Jews' ancient homeland. Though Zionism began in eastern and central Europe in the late 1800s, it is in many respects a continuation of the Jews' and Jewish religion's ancient commitment to the historical territory of Palestine, where one of ancient Jerusalem's hills was named Zion. THE AMERICAN ZIONIST MOVEMENT EXISTED PRIMARY TO RAISE FUNDS FOR JEWS IN EUROPE AND PALESTINIA, BOTH OF WHICH WERE CONTROLLED BY THE UK, UNTIL THE END OF WORLD WAR II. Because Washington deferred to the British, American Jews were unable to influence events in Palestine through the US government. After the war, however, when London, handicapped by debt, sought American assistance in putting down an armed Jewish rebellion in the area, things changed. Although his legacy as a leader and activist lives on, Garvey's separatist and Black Nationalist views were not embraced by many of his peers. In fact, W.E.B. Du Bois of the NAACP famously said, "Marcus Garvey is the most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America and in the world." However, Garvey's supporters prefer to focus on his key message, which was steeped in African American pride. After all, he is credited with coining the phrase "Black is beautiful." His philosophy is perhaps best exemplified in the following quote: "We must canonize our own saints, create our own martyrs, and elevate to positions of fame and honor Black men and women who have made their distinct contributions to our racial history ... I am the equal of any white man; I want you to feel the same way."

Who was the architect of the Indirect Rule colonial policy, and what was its objective? Discuss

Fredrick Lugard was the architect of the Indirect Rule colonial policy. The main objective of Indirect Rule colonial policy was to utilize existing ancestral constructions and customs as conductors for building up rules and guidelines while The English authorities worked in the background and could practice a denial power.

Negritude?

French Négritude, literary movement of the 1930s, '40s, and '50s that began among French-speaking African and Caribbean writers living in Paris as a protest against French colonial rule and the policy of assimilation. Its leading figure was Léopold Sédar Senghor(elected first president of the Republic of Senegal in 1960), who, along with Aimé Césaire from Martinique and Léon Damas from French Guiana, began to examine Western values critically and to reassess African culture. The Negritude movement was influenced by the Harlem Renaissance, a literary and artistic flowering that emerged among a group of Black thinkers and artists (including novelists and poets) in the United States, in New York City, during the 1920s. The group was determined to throw off the masking (to use the word of critic Houston A. Baker, Jr.) and indirection that had necessarily attended Black expression in a hostile society. The Harlem Renaissance is associated with such writers as poet Langston Hughes, but it was Claude McKay, a somewhat lesser-known figure, who caught the attention of Senghor. The Jamaican-born poet and novelist was one of the Harlem group's most prominent spokesmen. He believed that a writer should deal with important political subjects, and he himself had much to say about institutionalized racism. The assertion of Black pride by members of the Negritude movement was attended by a cry against assimilation. They felt that although it was theoretically based on a belief in universal equality, it still assumed the superiority of European culture and civilization over that of Africa (or assumed that Africa had no history or culture). They were also disturbed by the world wars, in which they saw their countrymen not only dying for a cause that was not theirs but being treated as inferiors on the battlefield. They became increasingly aware, through their study of history, of the suffering and humiliation of Black people—first under the bondage of slavery and then under colonial rule. These views inspired many of the basic ideas behind Negritude: that the mystic warmth of African life, gaining strength from its closeness to nature and its constant contact with ancestors, should be continually placed in proper perspective against the soullessness and materialism of Western culture; that Africans must look to their own cultural heritage to determine the values and traditions that are most useful in the modern world; that committed writers should use African subject matter and poetic traditions and should excite a desire for political freedom; that Negritude itself encompasses the whole of African cultural, economic, social, and political values; and that, above all, the value and dignity of African traditions and peoples must be asserted.

Who was Kwami Nkrumah and what his contribution for the independence of Ghana and Pan-Africanism? Discuss

Ghanaian politician, political thinker, and revolutionary Kwame Nkrumah PC He was Ghana's first Prime Minister and President, having guided the country to independence from the United Kingdom in 1957. Nkrumah was a prominent proponent of Pan-Africanism and a founding member of the Organization of African Unity. In 1962, he was awarded the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize. Nkrumah returned to the Gold Coast after spending twelve years abroad obtaining further education, establishing his political ideology, and coordinating with fellow diasporic pan-Africanists to begin his political career as a proponent of national independence. He founded the Convention People's Party, which rose to prominence quickly thanks to its unprecedented appeal to ordinary voters. He was elected Prime Minister in 1952 and remained in office when Ghana gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957. Ghanaians passed a new constitution in 1960, and Nkrumah was elected president. His government was essentially socialist and nationalist in nature. It supported national economic and energy initiatives, as well as the development of a strong national education system and the promotion of a pan-Africanist culture. During the decolonization phase, Ghana played a key role in African foreign affairs under Nkrumah.

Great Zimbabwe?

Great Zimbabwe, extensive stone ruins of an African Iron Age city. It lies in southeastern Zimbabwe, about 19 miles (30 km) southeast of Masvingo (formerly Fort Victoria). The central area of ruins extends about 200 acres (80 hectares), making Great Zimbabwe the largest of more than 150 major stone ruins scattered across the countries of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. is estimated that the central ruins and surrounding valley supported a Shona population of 10,000 to 20,000. With an economy based on cattle husbandry, crop cultivation, and the trade of gold on the coast of the Indian Ocean, Great Zimbabwe was the heart of a thriving trading empire from the 11th to the 15th centuries. The word zimbabwe, the country's namesake, is a Shona (Bantu) word meaning "stone houses." ivided into three main areas: the Hill Complex, the Great Enclosure, and the Valley Ruins. The first two are characterized by mortarless stone construction, but they also include ruined daga (earthen and mud-brick) structures that may once have rivaled the stone buildings in grandeur. The Valley Ruins, located between the Hill Complex and the Great Enclosure, include a large number of mounds that are remnants of daga buildings. The Hill Complex, which was formerly called the Acropolis, is believed to have been the spiritual and religious centre of the city. It sits on a steep-sided hill that rises 262 feet (80 metres) above the ground, and its ruins extend some 328 feet (100 metres) by 148 feet (45 metres).

What were the factors that contributed for the independence struggle in Africa? Enumerate

In only a few years on either side of 1960, a wave of struggles for independence have end up sweeping across Africa. Between March 1957, while Ghana declared independence from Great Britain, and July 1962, on the same time as Algeria wrested independence from France after a bloody struggle, 24 African countries freed themselves from their former colonial masters. In most former English and French colonies, independence got here considerably peacefully. But the transition from colonial governments did not constantly result in peace. Internal conflicts inside the newly impartial global locations and the continued resistance of the colonial powers in southern Africa often forced huge numbers of innocent people to escape civil strife and repressive new regimes. When more than hundred,000 Angolans escaped their u . S .'s Portuguese colonial government and fled to close by Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo) in 1962, the IRC answered short. This changed into the IRC's first initiative on the African continent and an illustration of the organization's multiplied worldwide project and responsibility. We supplied remedy and enlisted refugee medical medical doctors for a systematic assist software. Dr. Marcus Wooley, a French-speakme health practitioner who had himself as soon as been a refugee from Haiti, modified into sent to Zaire. He administered the distribution of medical resources, executed surgery at the Service d'Assistance aux Refugies Angolais health center and on the severa border camps he visited. He devoted a good deal of his time to teaching first useful resource and preventive care to the refugees and to enhancing the capabilities of Angolan health care humans. Working with Catholic Relief Services and Church World Service, the IRC have end up able to supply $179,000 well worth of drugs, excessive-protein food and high-quality beneficial aid to Angolan refugees. After 18 months, the IRC turn out to be compelled to withdraw, at the facet of United Nations troops, due to renewed preventing between insurgents and government forces. Fortunately, nearby beneficial beneficial useful resource people were capable of take over the applications. In 1967, the IRC have become involved in a dramatic disaster in Nigeria. After winning independence from Britain in 1960, Nigeria formed a coalition government that become quick roiled by way of manner of the usage of a disputed election, massacres of Ibo humans, and the eventual secession of the Ibos, who claimed the southeastern part of Nigeria due to the truth the impartial kingdom of Biafra. Civil conflict and mass starvation determined. The IRC joined with one among a kind groups in launching the Biafra Christmas Ship, which provided 3,000 lots of meals, capsules, and wonderful life-saving assets to the Ibos. We additionally recruited Nigerian medical clinical doctors within the U.S for volunteer missions to Biafra. At first it seemed that Biafra should in all likelihood stay to inform the tale. But famine and Nigeria's advanced military overcame the battle for independence. The Ibos surrendered in 1970, however not in advance than an anticipated one million had died.

Discuss the role of the US and USSR for the end of colonialism.

NATO vs Warsaw Pact. Stop the spread of communism. Africa largely remained neutralBoth the Cold War and decolonization took place at the same time. The Cold War and decolonization occurred around the same time, and many people saw them as a single event rather than two. Because the Cold War and decolonization happened at the same time and had a similar worldwide impact, one influenced the other's development. As a result, we tend to look at these two patterns simultaneously. The Cold War began before the Second World War ended in many respects. During the latter years of WWII, the leaders of the major victorious powers, particularly the United States and the Soviet Union, but also Great Britain, convened multiple times to try to figure out what the postwar world would look like. In February 1945, the Allied powers met for the last time during the war in Yalta, Russia. The United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom were all present. Many people realised that this summit was truly about separating much of the world into two domains, one communist and governed by the Soviet Union, and the other capitalism and dominated by the United States. Some leaders, like as US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, believed that, at least at first, a severe separation could be averted. Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, was less optimistic. Following WWII, Churchill declared in a 1946 speech that a "Iron Curtain" was descending across Europe as Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin began to construct governments in Eastern Europe that he wished to control. Much of the world was decolonizing at the same time. To put it another way, communities all over the world were rejecting their conquerors in order to become independent, self-governing nation-states. Ending colonialism has been in the works for a long time, but it wasn't until the end of WWII that it really took off. Following Italy's defeat in 1945, certain former Italian colonies, such as Libya, gained independence. Similarly, Korea, a former Japanese colony, became two sovereign countries, despite being governed by the United States (in South Korea) and the Soviet Union (in North Korea) (in North Korea). A few more countries began to gain independence in the late 1940s, including the Dutch colony of Indonesia in 1949. The effective independence of the British province of India in 1948, together with a partition that permitted Pakistan to become its own country, was probably the most significant shift. A Vietnamese force defeated the French troops at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 in the French province of Indochina, which included Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Vietnam gained independence in 1956, with elections scheduled for that year. These events inspired colonised people all over the world, especially in North Africa, where decolonization movements gained traction. Ghana became the first independent country in Sub-Saharan Africa in 1957. The "year of Africa," 1960, saw seventeen colonies declare independence from the imperial powers of the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium. Then, in the Caribbean, Jamaica, as well as many other islands, gained independence in 1962. However, where there were European settlers, the process was halted, and in southern Africa, in particular, it lasted into the early 1990s.

Mfecane?

Mfecane, (Zulu: "The Crushing") , Sotho Difaqane, series of Zuluand other Nguni wars and forced migrations of the second and third decades of the 19th century that changed the demographic, social, and political configuration of southern and central Africa and parts of eastern Africa. The Mfecane was set in motion by the rise of the Zulu military kingdom under Shaka (c. 1787-1828), who revolutionized Nguni warfare. The rise of Shaka's kingdom, which took place during a time of drought and social unrest, was itself part of a wider process of state formation in southeastern Africa, which probably resulted from intensified competition over trade at Delagoa Bay. The pattern of the Mfecane, in which tribe was set against tribe over an ever-increasing radius, was highly successful in areas weakened by overpopulation and overgrazing. In South Africa itself the Mfecane caused immense suffering and devastated large areas as refugees scrambled to safety in mountain fastnesses or were killed, thus easing the way for white expansion into Natal and the Highveld. In the Cape Colony it greatly increased pressures on the eastern frontier as refugees known as Mfengucrowded in on the peoples of the Transkei. At the same time, however, as a result of the Mfecane, some of the most formidable kingdoms to oppose white penetration were created—the Sotho, Swazi, and Ndebele, as well as the Gaza of Mozambique. Nguni- cluster of related Bantu-speaking ethnic groups living in South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe, whose ancestors inhabited a broad band of upland territory extending from the Great Fish River, in what is now Eastern Cape province, northward to Kosi Bay, near the border of KwaZulu/Natal province and Mozambique, that paralleled the Indian Ocean.

What were some of the challenges that Africa faced after independence? Discuss

One of the most squeezing challenges African states faced at Independence was their absence of foundation. European radicals highly esteemed bringing civilization and creating Africa, however they left their previous provinces with minimal in the method of framework. The domains had fabricated streets and rail lines - or rather, they had constrained their pioneer subjects to construct them - yet these were not expected to assemble national frameworks. Majestic streets and rail routes were quite often planned to facilitate the product of unrefined components. Many, similar to the Ugandan Railroad, ran directly to the shore. These new nations likewise did not have the assembling framework to enhance their unrefined components. Rich as numerous African nations were in real money yields and minerals, they couldn't handle these merchandise themselves. Their economies were subject to exchange, and this made them helpless. They were likewise secured in patterns of conditions on their previous European bosses. They had acquired political, not monetary conditions, and as Kwame Nkrumah - the principal state head and leader of Ghana - knew, political independence without financial independence was useless. Energy Dependence The absence of foundation likewise implied that African nations were reliant upon Western economies for a lot of their energy. Indeed, even oil-rich nations didn't have the processing plants expected to transform their raw petroleum into fuel or heating oil. A few chiefs, as Kwame Nkrumah, attempted to correct this by taking on monstrous structure projects, similar to the Volta River hydroelectric dam project. The dam gave genuinely necessary power, yet its development put Ghana intensely into obligation. The development likewise required the relocation of a huge number of Ghanaians and added to Nkrumah's diving support in Ghana. Unpracticed Leadership At Independence, there were a few presidents, as Jomo Kenyatta, had a very long while of political experience, however others, similar to Tanzania's Julius Nyerere, had entered the political conflict only years before independence. There was likewise a particular absence of prepared and experienced common administration. The lower echelons of the pilgrim government had for quite some time been staffed by African subjects, yet the higher positions had been held for white authorities. The change to national officials at independence implied there were people at all levels of the organization with minimal earlier preparing. Now and again, this prompted innovation, however the many challenges that African states faced at independence were regularly compounded by the absence of experienced authority. Absence of National Identity The boundaries Africa's new nations were left with were the ones attracted Europe during the Scramble for Africa with no respect to the ethnic or social scene on the ground. The subjects of these provinces regularly had numerous personalities that bested their feeling of being, for example, Ghanaian or Congolese. Frontier arrangements that favored one gathering over another or allocated land and political freedoms by "clan" exacerbated these divisions. The most popular instance of this was the Belgian strategies that solidified the divisions among Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda that prompted the awful annihilation in 1994. Immediately later decolonization, the new African states consented to a strategy of sacred lines, which means they would do whatever it takes not to redraw Africa's political guide as that would prompt turmoil. The heads of these nations were, in this manner, left with the test of attempting to fashion a feeling of national personality at when those looking for a stake in the new nation were regularly playing to people's provincial or ethnic loyalties. Cold War At long last, decolonization agreed with the Cold War, which introduced one more test for African states. The to and fro between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) made non-arrangement a troublesome, if certainly feasible, choice, and those pioneers who attempted to cut third way commonly observed they needed to favor one side. Cold War legislative issues likewise introduced a chance for groups that looked to challenge the new legislatures. In Angola, the international help that the public authority and agitator groups got in the Cold War prompted a common conflict that kept going almost thirty years. These joined challenges made it hard to build up solid economies or political solidness in Africa and added to the commotion that many (yet not all!) states faced between the late '60s and late '90s.

What were the negative consequences of colonialism? Enumerate

Some of the major negative consequences of colonialism are as follows :- 1. Natural resources being regarded to a larger extent. 2. Capitalism 3. Urbanisation 4. Livestock and animals contracting variety of diseases, foreign in origin. 5. Changes brought in the social system and institutions. 6. Psychological thinking of being inferior compared to people from much developed countries. 7. Economic disbalance and foreign system being forced upon African citizens.

What were the positive impacts of colonialism on Africa? Enumerate

The positive impacts of colonialism on Africa are as follows:- 1. Exposure to Western Education:- Africans esteem and partake in the advantages of the presentation of western schooling. An individual would now be able to speak with individuals from different landmasses, join global associations and even go into contract with nations in other mainland due to western schooling. 2. Creation of a larger Political Unit:- Another positive effect of colonialism was the creation of large political unit. This was advantageous because it helped most African countries like Nigeria to grow faster, and also helped to prosper more in the future. 3. Enrolment of Money Currency:- Exchange by Barter was the main method of executing in Africa until the presentation of expansionismarrangement took place.The pioneer aces presented cash and instructed Africans on how the cash money could tackle the issues of exchange by deal. In 1912, the primary silver coin were presented by the British and the West African Currency Board was arrangement, which was a very essential move in African prosperity in broader aspect.

Who was the proponent of the Cape to Cairo colonial policy, and what was its objective?

This plan was initiated at the end of the 19th century, during the time of Western colonial rule, largely under the vision of Cecil Rhodes, in the attempt to connect adjacent African possessions of the British Empire through a continuous line from Cape Town, South Africa to Cairo, Egypt.

Harlem Renaissance?

early 1900s. Started in NYC. it encompassed artist who held pride in black life. Aaron Douglass he painter. (sculpture, painter, poems, performing arts)

Indirect rule

this system, the day-to-day government and administration of areas both small and large were left in the hands of traditional rulers, who gained prestige and the stability and protection afforded by the Pax Britannica (in the case of British territories), at the cost of losing control of their external affairs, and often of taxation, communications, and other matters, usually with a small number of European "advisors" effectively overseeing the government of large numbers of people spread over extensive areas the ideological underpinnings, as well as the practical application, of indirect rule in Uganda and Nigeria is usually traced to the work of Frederick Lugard, the High Commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1899 to 1906. Indirect rule was by no means a new idea at the time, for it had been in use in ruling empires throughout history. For instance, in addition to India and Uganda, it had been practiced in the Songhai and Ashanti empires. In the lands of the Sokoto Caliphate, conquered by the British at the turn of the century, Lugard instituted a system whereby external, military, and tax control was operated by the British, while most every other aspect of life was left to local pre-conquest indigenous aristocracies who may have sided with the British during or after their conquest. The theory behind this solution to a very practical problem (a problem referred to as 'The Native Problem' by Mahmood Mamdani in his work Citizen and Subject) of control by a tiny group of foreigners of huge populations is laid out in Lugard's influential work, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa. Lugard copied the numerous empires before his time who had created and developed the indirect rule system. According to Lugard, Indirect Rule was a political doctrine which held that the Europeans and Africans were culturally different to this extent, Africans had to be ruled through the Africans own institution. To achieve this objective: Chiefs and or Royalty continued to exercise their traditional powers over their subjects; Chiefs were appointed for areas with no chiefs; and Aspects of traditional government repugnant to "European ideas of what constituted government were modified." e.g. the abolition of human sacrifice. It has been pointed out that the British were not prepared to pay for colonial administration, though interested in economically benefiting from their new colonies; neither aspect had the British enough resources to finance it. This economic question coupled with the shortage of or lack of European personnel in Africa at the time convinced the British that it would be cheaper to use the traditional institutions to achieve the same objective. The nature and operation of indirect rule in Northern Nigerian, amply confirm these contentions. When Lugard and his men conquered the Sokoto Caliphate of Northern Nigeria, in early twentieth century, his limited resources in terms of men and money, made it impracticable for him to rule the vast territory. Fortunately for him, however, the Sokoto Caliphate already possessed a highly developed and efficient system of administration headed by emirs, with the Sultan of Sokoto as the supreme head. The hierarchical nature of the political structure was ideal for the system of indirect rule because the British could control the emirs and the emirs in turn could control their people