phil 160 final exam review

Pluralism

An action is morally right iff it best fulfills one's most important prima facie duty (or duties) in one's particular context of action (violating less important prima facie duties to the smallest possible degree).

Soundness Definition

An argument is sound iff it is both valid and factually correct.

example of a sufficient condition

"If you sink the eight‑ball early, you lose the game of pool."

necessary condition example

"You can't get a driver's license unless you're at least 16 years old."

AU: case of peeping Tom

1. If AU is true, then it would be morally okay for the 'peeping Tom' to take pictures of Angelynn without her consent. 2. It would not be morally okay for the 'peeping Tom' to do this. 3. Therefore, AU is false.

CR: the argument based of slavery

1. If CR is true, then Bob can find out everything relevant to the answer of his question by finding out what the moral code of Alabama society says about slavery. 2. Bob cannot find out everything relevant to the answer of his question in this way. 3. Therefore, CR is false.

CR: the no moral progress argument

1. If CR is true, then it never counts as moral progress when the moral code of a society changes. 2. But sometimes, when the moral code of a society changes, there has been moral progress. 3. Therefore, CR is false.

modus tollens

1. If P, then Q 2. Not Q 3. Therefore not P

modus ponens

1. If P, then Q 2. P 2. Therefore, Q

How does Primoratz reply to the objections that (a) the death penalty violates a person's absolute right to life

1. If the right to life is absolute, then it is morally wrong to kill in the course of a just war or revolution, and it is morally wrong to kill in self-defense. 2. It is not morally wrong to kill in the course of a just war or revolution, or in self-defense. 3. Therefore, the right to life is not absolute.

Kant's C12

An act is morally right iff in performing it, the agent treats him- or herself and all others as ends-in-themselves.

Principle of automony

1. Respect the autonomy of others. informed and rational self-governance, i.e., freedom from controlling influence by others and from personal limitations that prevent choice. Autonomy requires the absence of external constraints—and the presence of critical mental capacities for voluntary decision-making. To respect a person's autonomy is to recognize a person's capacities and perspective, including his or her right to hold certain views, make certain choices, and take certain actions based on personal beliefs and values. It violates a person's autonomy to initiate force or coercion against them, to lie to them or manipulate them, and/or to withhold important information from them.

Disjunctive Syllogism

1. either P or Q 2. Not P 3. Therefore, not Q

Hypothetical Syllogism

1. if P, then Q 2. If Q, then R 3. Therefore, if P then R

CR: the argument based on the case of Fauziya

1.If CR is true, then it is morally permissible for the doctor in Togo to mutilate Fauziya against her will. 2. But it is not morally permissible for him to do this. 3. Therefore, it is not the case that CR is true (i.e., CR is false).

the principles of benevolence

3. Promote Human Welfare [from Bentham and Mill] Beneficence means treating others with kindness and courtesy. It means expressing concern for the welfare of others through your choices and actions. If another person requires temporary, emergency aid that you can render at relatively small cost, beneficence requires that you provide it. If you can remove a current evil or harm, and you can easily do so, beneficence says you should do so. If you are in a leadership position where it is impossible to take individual claims into account, you should promote the aggregate welfare.

principle of justice

4. Apportion benefits to desert [from Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, others] gratitude, repartation, fidelity, fairness

maximizes

AU __________ hedonic utility

they must do it openly, lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the penalty

According to King, when one breaks these laws, how must one go about it?

Negative duties of self-perfection:

Avoid self-destruction; Avoid bodily mutilation; Avoid objectifying sexual fantasies and "carnal self-defilement"; Avoid "stupefying" oneself through food, drink, or drugs; Never lie; and Avoid being servile.

If a valid argument has a false conclusion, then at least one premise must be false.

Can a valid argument have a false conclusion?

yes. some arguments are valid based on the format, but have factually incorrect premises

Can a valid argument have false premises?

A valid argument cannot have all true premises and a false conclusion.

Can a valid argument have true premises and a false conclusion?

Positive duties of self-perfection

Cultivate understanding; Cultivate one's will.

Theoretical Rationality and Practical Rationality

Describe the two capacities than an entity must have in order to count as a person according to Kant.

AU: case of the organ harvest

Even though it would promote aggregate well-being, harvesting organs violates the prima facie duties of autonomy and non-maleficence to a high degree. 1.If AU is true, then it is morally permissible for Dr. Denton to kill Mr. Digit and harvest his organs. 2. It's not the case that it would be morally okay todo this. 3. Therefore, AU is false.

where a space traveler lands on a planet and wants to decide whether the beings there are people or not

Explain Warren's personhood thought experiment

God's commands are arbitrary, and this threatens the idea that God is good (omnibenevolent).

Explain how theological voluntarism differs from the idea that God determines what he will command us to do by consulting some independent standard.

a person's act is morally right if and only if it produces the best possible results in that specific situation.

Explain the main idea behind AU in your own words.

if it fulfills the most important prima facie or violates less important ones

Explain what makes right acts right according to this pluralism theory

drunk driving

Give an example of a behavior that is illegal on the grounds that it puts others at risk, even though it doesn't necessarily violate anyone else's rights.

Every punishment is irrevocable. So this merely shows that we need to correct "deficiencies, limitations, and imperfections of criminal law procedures." Abolition would result in murderers receiving less than they deserve.

How does Primoratz reply to the objections that (b) the death penalty is irrevocable and irreparable?

Each person's interests (welfare) should be taken into account - and given equal weight - in moral decisions; no person's interests are "more important" than any other's.

How does Singer approach moral standing?

an argument must be valid first in order to determine whether or not it is sound or not

How does soundness differ from validity?

1. You should make your own rational choices for yourself. 2. You should not make an exception for yourself. 3. If (1) & (2), then you should allow others to make theirown life-defining choices for themselves. 4. Therefore, you should allow others to make their own life-defining choices for themselves.

For Kant, why ought one to let others to make their own choices for themselves? Explain both premises he uses to establish this conclusion

AU: the case of grandpa

Grandpa has a prima facie duty of beneficence to help at the soup kitchen, but he also has the right to enjoy his retirement (autonomy)—and since he helped in the past, as a matter of fairness, he does not need to keep helping (justice). If AU is true, then going to work at the soup kitchen is morally obligatory for Grandpa. 2. But it's not the case that going to work at the soup kitchen is morally obligatory for Grandpa. 3. Therefore, it's not the case that AU is true.

Huemer denies that drug use is more harmful than the other activities (tobacco kills more every year than drugs) He admits that they have these side affects, but If directly bringing about some result x does not warrant state punishment, then doing something that merely has a chance of bringing about x does not warrant state punishment

Huemer writes that taking drugs exercises one's right to control one's own body and does not necessarily violate anyone else's rights. Why does he believe this? Explain

Kant thought that the capacities that make for the equal moral standing of persons are theoretical and practical rationality. Singer says that this cannot be right: "human infants, the severely mentally handicapped, and the permanently comatose lack theoretical and practical reason, and they are still our moral equals.

In particular, why does Singer reject the sort of view that is held by Kant and Warren?

no, one must do so openly and accept the penalty for breaking it

Is it acceptable to break laws in secret, or to break them and avoid the regular penalties? Explain

Voluntary euthanasia

where the patient gives free and informed consent to bring about their death

no, lines 1 and 2 are false

Leiser considers four interpretations of the idea that homosexuality is unnatural. According to the first, homosexuality violates a law of nature. On this interpretation, is homosexuality really unnatural? and On this interpretation, is homosexuality necessarily wrong?

objection that the roman catholic church has. the function of our genitalia is making new human lives in the context of a loving family with a vagina and a penis. however, there are multiple purposes of body parts, not true or false (using it for any other purpose is morally wrong, line 1) If you are willfully acting in ignorance, then you are pursuing the bad and need to get yourself back on track. P2 implies that having sex for fun is morally wrong and to show your love for your partner when you do not want to have a baby right at this moment is wrong. (false)

Leiser considers four interpretations of the idea that homosexuality is unnatural. According to the fourth, it involves using one's genitalia contrary to their proper function(s). On this interpretation, is homosexuality really unnatural? and On this interpretation, is homosexuality necessarily wrong?

no, line 1 is false (homosexuality does not occur in nature independent of human activity) some animals such as monkeys participate in gay sex acts. line 2 is also false because they is really nothing wrong with the thing that is created

Leiser considers four interpretations of the idea that homosexuality is unnatural. According to the second, it is unnatural because it does not occur in nature On this interpretation, is homosexuality really unnatural? and On this interpretation, is homosexuality necessarily wrong?

yes fewer people are gay than straight (line 1 is true). even if it is uncommon and abnormal does not necessarily means is it morally wrong (line 2 is false)

Leiser considers four interpretations of the idea that homosexuality is unnatural. According to the third, it is unusual On this interpretation, is homosexuality really unnatural? and On this interpretation, is homosexuality necessarily wrong?

!!!! Practice WKS

Look at wks for modus ponens, etc

he rejects this because there are many other things that are legal that people do that could harm themselves (alc,sex, staying with abusive husbands) but it would be crazy to make everything illegal simply because it has the chance to create harm

One premise in a popular argument for criminalizing drugs states that "The government should prohibit people from doing things that harm themselves." Why does Michael Huemer reject this premise?

an unjust law is a code that is out of harmony with what is morally right. any law that degrades human personality is unjust......add more here 4 characteristics

Precisely what characteristics must the laws have in order for breaking them to be morally okay?

An argument is valid If all the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. An argument is valid = It is impossible for all the premises to be true but the conclusion false

Precisely what sort of form must a valid argument have?

gay people are still persons

Some people think that if same‑sex marriage is legalized, we will have to legalize man‑dog marriage and father‑daughter marriage. How should a defender of same‑sex marriage respond to this objection?

no I think there are certain drugs that have a more severe toll on the body and causes more harmful actions

Should all drugs be treated similarily?

if DC is true, then either theological voluntarism is true, or else the acts God commands are right by some independent standard (p then (q or r))

Socrates' Euthyphro Argument line 1

it's not the case that theological voluntarism is true (~q)

Socrates' Euthyphro Argument line 2

If God acts by a different standard, then morality is not the monopoly of the religion (no monopoly of ethics by religious standards)

Socrates' Euthyphro Argument line 4

there are multiple reasons for sex and the only reason is not just for reproduction

Some people believe that marriage is intrinsically procreative or involves "comprehensive union", and that this rules out same‑sex marriage as a conceptual possibility. What might be said in response to these ideas by defenders of same‑sex marriage?

An action is morally right iff it maximizes hedonic utility.

State AU

An action is morally right iff it is permitted by the moral code of the society in which it is performed.

State CR

an action is morally right iff it does not violate one of God's commands

State DC

social defense, deterrence, rehabilitation, retributivism

State and explain the four main justifications for state punishment.

AU: the case of nearest and dearest

The case of the Burning Building (aka, the "Nearest and Dearest" objection) Mary's real duty, here, is the duty of fidelity (justice) to look after the welfare of her daughter. 1. If AU is true, then Mary did the morally right thing. 2. But Mary didn't do the morally right thing; she should have saved her daughter, instead. 3. Therefore, AU is false.

an unjust law is no law at all

When does King believe it is morally acceptable to break laws?

objections to Theological voluntarism (arguing against line 2)

This conception of morality is mysterious. This conception of morality provides the wrong reasons for the moral statuses of acts: it gives us bad explanations for what makes acts right and wrong. If moral rightness depends on God's will alone, he is not basing his commands on any kind of standard or reason (This means God's commands are arbitrary, and this threatens the idea that God is good (omnibenevolent) This conception of morality implies that, without God, nothing would be right or wrong!

1. If KRL is true, then it is morally wrong for you to unplug yourself from the famous violinist. 2. It is not morally wrong for you to unplug yourself from the famous violinist. 3. Therefore, KRL is not true.

Thomson rejects KRL, the idea that if a being has a right to life, then it is morally wrong to take actions resulting in its death unless another life is at stake. Explain her reasoning

AU: case of the small southern town

To punish the innocent violates the prima facie duty of justice, which is the real duty in this case. 1. If AU is true, then Billy Bob is morally obligated to authorize the frame-up. 2. It's not the case that Billy Bob is morally required to authorize the frame-up. 3. Therefore, AU is false.

-defends retributivism as a general justification for punishment When someone has committed an offense, he deserves to be punished: it is just, and consequently justified, that he be punished

Which justification for punishment does Primoratz use to argue for the moral and legal permissibility of the death penalty?

line 3

Which premise of Jordan's argument does David Boonin reject?

If "playing God" means "introducing innovations into the course of nature," then this would mean that all medicine is morally wrong. This is not plausible. If "playing God" means "making life-or-death decisions in a flippant, unserious, or reckless way," then this is wrong, but it's unclear that participating in PAS is always "playing God." If "playing God" means "causing someone to die who would otherwise have lived," then PAS is definitely playing God, but it is unclear exactly why "playing God" is wrong.

We considered two objections to the morality and legality of physician‑assisted suicide (PAS): (a) that it involves "playing God," and (b) that it violates the hippocratic oath. How should the defender of PAS reply to these objections?

1. main function of punishment is to reduce crime: however, the death penalty doesn't reduce crime more than lifetime imprisonment 2. secondary goal is to express indignation: this goal only works in very specific cases

What additional two goals / justifications of punishment does Hugo Adam Bedau discuss?

Respect autonomy, Do not be maleficent, Be beneficent, Be just.

What are prima facie duties?

1. If an action or social policy serves the best interests of everyone concerned and violates no one's rights, then it is morally right. 2. PAS—if legalized and practiced in accordance with rules like those adopted in California—would in at least some cases serve the best interests of everyone concerned and would not violate anyone's rights. 3. Therefore, PAS—if legalized and practiced in accordance with rules like those adopted in California—is morally right in at least some cases.

What argument does Rachel propose instead? Evaluate this argument

CR does not necessarily support tolerance. It all depends on the local cultures moral code. If you want to claim that tolerance is a universal value, subscribing to CR will not let you do so

What does CR really imply about the morality of tolerance?

if and only if it is both valid, and all of its premises are actually true.

What does an argument need in order to be sound?

~x ➔ ~y -if x does not occur / obtain, then y will not, either; or - in order for y to occur / obtain, x must also occur / obtain. - y only if x

What does it mean to say that x is necessary for y? Be prepared to identify examples of necessary conditions

x ➔ y if x occurs or obtains, then y must also occur or obtain.

What does it mean to say that x is sufficient for y? Be prepared to identify examples of sufficient conditions.

Treating them with respect, i.e., Treating them in a way that recognizes that they are free and equal rational choice-makers.

What does it mean to treat someone as an end‑in‑themselves?

Famous Violinist Case

What example does Thomson use to cast doubt on this principle?

a) You do not maim, damage, or kill him b) You respect his autonomy, by treating him only in ways to which he would rationally consent, c) Your treatment of him enables him to satisfy his duties of self-perfection, and d) You help him with his permissible projects (those that do not involve treating others as mere means).

What four things (a)‑(d) does Kant say are required in order to treat individuals as ends‑in‑themselves?

If there is an irresolvable public dilemma about issue x, and there's no overriding reason to prefer resolution by declaration, then the state should pursue a policy of accommodation. 2. There is an irresolvable public dilemma about same-sex marriage. 3. There's no overriding reason for the state to resolve the dilemma by declaration. 4. Therefore, the state should not sanction same-sex marriages, thereby accommodating those who are opposed to it (perhaps it can offer civil unions).

What is Jeff Jordan's argument against same‑sex marriage?

No action is morally right. This is a problem for Kant's Theory, Absolutism, Virtue Ethics, Pluralism

What is a moral dilemma?

a series of statements, called the premises or premisses intended to determine the degree of truth of another statement, the conclusion.

What is an argument (in philosophy)?

to explain what makes morally right actions right (and wrong actions wrong).

What is the fundamental project of moral philosophy?

It implies that if moral authority must come from the gods it does not have to be good, and if moral authority must be good it does not have to come from the gods - a highly controversial idea at the time Socrates first presented it.

What is the point of Socrates' Euthyphro Argument, i.e., what is it supposed to show?

Drug addicts are going to find a way to get drugs no matter what. If we make it legal, it will be less likely to put others at risk because of taxes, cartels, and innocent bytanders would not die, only the drug users

What policy do you think it makes sense to adopt on drugs given the degree to which they put other people at risk?

All sentient entities have equal moral standing. All sentient entities can feel pain

What trait does Singer believe determines whether a creature has moral standing, or not? Explain his reasoning

1. Consciousness: 2. Reasoning: 3. Self-motivated activity: 4. Communication: 5. Self-understanding:

What traits does Warren think we would look for to decide whether an entity has moral status?

neither action accomodates everyone

Why does Boonin seem to think that it would not "accommodate" LGBTQ individuals to have, e.g., civil unions?

he says the first argument "If an action or social policy serves to increase the amount of happiness in the world or to decrease the amount of suffering in the world, then it is morally right" is unacceptable because happiness is not the only value to show be important. Freedom, justice, respect...

Why does James Rachels reject the utilitarian argument for the legality of physician‑assisted suicide?

probably not

Would either of these two goals / justifications ever support the use of the death penalty?

Society associated with CR

a collection of people living in close proximity one to another, who share many beliefs and values, political and economic institutions, and many social customs. Sometimes, the members of a society will share a language, a cuisine, and/or a style of dress.

theological voluntarism

an action that is right in virtue of the fact that it doesn't violate God's commands. Right acts are right because God commanded them; before he did so, they were neither right nor wrong

"Doctors make promises to 'do no harm' and to 'always heal' when they take the Hippocratic Oath. To participate in a physician-assisted suicide would be to break this promise." .But it may also be within my power to take a life; this awesome responsibility must be faced with great humbleness and awareness of my own frailty

and (b) that it violates the hippocratic oath.

moral code associate with CR

beliefs about what behavior is morally acceptable and/or morally forbidden that are widely shared within a society; what the vast majority of people believe about morality.

the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than be judged against the criteria of another.

explain the main idea behind CR in your own words.

Theological voluntarism and DC is a true criterion, but not an explanation

explain why there are two possible interpretations of DC meaning.

DC is a true criterion, but not an explanation

if an act is right, it has to be commanded by God; if an act is commanded by God, it is right

Validity definition

iff the truth of its premises would guarantee the truth of its conclusion: if all the premises were true, then the conclusion would have to be true, too. "if sentence 1 and sentence 2 are correct, then the whole thing is correct"

Hedonic Utility

is the total amount of pleasure that would be produced by the act for everybody concerned, minus the total amount of pain that would be produced by the act for everybody concerned.

social defense

it confines the dangerous so that they cannot harm the public

Deterrence

it prevents the occurence of the future crimes

Rehabilitation

it reforms the criminal so that they are no lonher prone to commit crimes

Retributivism

it serves a punitive function (pay back)

involuntary euthanasia

patient refuses to consent treatment that brings about their death

ethics definition

the normative study of human conduct; more specifically the attempt to achieve a systematic understanding of how we ought to live and why

active euthanasia

the physician administers a drug (or allows the patient to self-administer a drug) that terminates the patient's life

passive euthanasia

the physician withholds crucial lifesaving treatment, which in turn causes the patient's life