PPD 245 Final
Crime and violence: Concept of street culture i. Street vs decent families and households
- Decent: hope for future, child bearing, education, institution pro - Street: distrust of instituion, drugs, not child bearing, crime, alientation
Crime and violence b. Role of drugs
- Drugs involved in 80% of juvy crimes. 40% of crime is under the influence - Drug related crimes: under influence, trafficking drugs, fund habit
Crime and violence: Concept of street culture iii. Consequences and explanations
- Lack of jobs, crime, violence, drugs, limted services
Homelessness: National and California trends
- Overall decrease nationally, California has increased
Crime and violence: Concept of street culture ii. The need for "respect"
- Respect is a sign of power and dominane - Usually territorial
The business approach to solving inner city problems: Comparative advantages and disadvantages
-Advantages - human resources Industrious labor pool suited to low-skilled employment - strategic location in middle of city Dtla area = hub of concentrated and dense activity, close to transportation hubs and business districts - local demand (undersaturated market) Aggregate purchasing power of area is large b/c of the high density of the inner city - Disadvantages - businesses dont wanna go there - no equity - security issues - expensive land - lack of skills -anti-business sentiment
Strategies for promoting inclusion:
-city planning to promote it - less entitlement real estate that creates exclusion ● Decommodifying space ● Depatializing social exclusion (ex. Building inclusionary housing units)
Homelessness:: iii. Strategies to reduce homelessness
-policies recommended - housing, shelters, medical help, supportive services, training ● Housing First (posits that housing helps with personal problems like substance abuse) v. Housing Readiness programs (posits that personal problems are the cause of homelessness) ● Housing First policies: ○ Permanent Supportive Housing: usually subsidized, targeted to those with highest need ■ Ex. Section 8 Housing ○ Rapid Rehousing Programs: help homeless obtain permanent housing as quickly as possible and link them to community resources (ex. employment) to ensure they achieve housing stability ■ Tailored to specific needs of each family (case management) ○ Increased/improved discharge programs for mainstream systems like prisons and foster care ○ More rental assistance for vets
Urban design a. Kevin Lynch's elements of design:
All of these elements regularly overlap one another (they're not mutually exclusive): ● Paths: channels of movement ○ Predominant element in city image ○ Identity strengthened by... ■ Concentration of special use/activity ■ Facade characteristics ■ Clear origins/destinations ■ Regularly patterned network? (grid system) ● Edges: boundaries between two areas ○ Visually prominent, usually impenetrable ○ Ex. Waterfronts like Lake Michigan ● Districts: sections with identifiable common character which "observers can mentally go inside of" ○ Thematic unit (often contrasting rest of the city) ○ Can have either precise or uncertain boundaries, can be introverted (inward facing) or extroverted (outward facing) ○ Sometimes characterized by social disparities ● Nodes: focis/points observers can enter (travel to/from) ○ Usually a junction or break in transportation ○ Ex. subway/railroad station ● Landmarks: external point references ○ Act as directional orientation or serve as some sort of symbol ○ Usually contrasts with background, has high spatial prominence ○ Ex. Eiffel Tower
Accessibility and spatial mismatch: c. consequences
Consequences: ○ Formation of black ghettos and the urban underclass: concentration of poverty ○ Poor schools and public services (uneven distribution of amenities) ○ Decreased job access, homeownership rates, wealth accumulation ○ Increased relative housing costs (African Americans earn less yet pay more)
Long term poverty: i. Culture of poverty
Culture of poverty -from Oscar Lewis ● Chronically poor developed behaviors like helplessness, dependency, alienation
The sharing economy
Definition ● Economy based on online transactions and e-commerce most relying on peer to peer exchange ● Young consumers do not have trust in established businesses, government, and other large-scale organizations
Accessibility and spatial mismatch: b. discrimination
Discrimination ○ Ethnic/racial preference (ex. Immigrants locate in ethnic enclaves) ○ → Difficulty of drawing the line between "acting on preferences" and "discrimination" ● Historical housing discrimination: community laws, covenants, racial steering
Social and cultural exclusion a. Dimensions of social exclusion
Economic: less access to resources and jobs Political: less access to power and decision making Culture: marginalization of symbols and meanings
Long term poverty: iii. Explanations for long-term poverty
Explanations for long-term poverty - Loss of social buffer - No one too look up to, set precedence - Social isolation - Jobless - Unskilled, bad education ● Historical and contemporary discrimination ● Influx of migrants to inner who lack special occupational niches ● Young median age ● Deindustrialization lead to decrease in unskilled employment (economic restructuring) ● Highly concentrated poverty population (increasing gap between poor and Middle Class blacks) ● Key takeaway: need for vertically class-integrated inner city communities
Where is gentrification likely to happen?
Highly localized ● Happens in places with nice natural features, places surrounded by affluence (Neighborhoods with BIDs, where privatization/beautification of public spaces has occurred) ● In neighborhoods that can be packaged as "culturally authentic" ● Areas with initially low rents and real estate prices ● Strongest in big city downtowns ○ Increasing access to high-skilled jobs ○ Neighborhoods with high amenity values and access ○ Existing transportation network and infrastructure + civic/cultural institutions
1. Housing and the urban land market c. The Great Depression and development of a stable mortgage market
NEW DEAL Housing Policies: ● To insure savings: FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corp.) ○ Guarantee first $100K deposited ● To insure mortgages: FHA (Federal Housing Administration) need certain credit + down payment ○ Fed. govt covers defaulted loans, making mortgages less risky for banks ● Mortgage Supply: FNMA (Fannie Mae) secures mortgages via mortgage backed securities
Spatial mismatch hypothesis: Other Explanations
Other explanations ● It's about race, not space ○ Unemployment rate is not much different in suburbs ● It's a skills mismatch rather than a spatial mismatch ○ Perhaps low skill jobs have decentralized more than high skill jobs
Role of public sector, private sector, community based organizations
Private sector: expand on inner city business, create biz relationships Gov: incentive, give resources, help stimulate economy in inner city, direct resources to areas with the greatest need and economic potential Community based: change culture, help workforce, build on strengths
Long term poverty: ii. The underclass
The underclass ● Chronically poor, African-American pop in urban ghettos ● Factors: years of discrimination, economic restructuring, immigrants of rural African-American to urban work
Enclaves based on sexual preference: i. Why the Gay enclave?
Why the Gay enclave? - Space where they feel comfortable, community with economy, gay market - Politics that favor gays - Own area , no hostility from others - Emergence of community in search of a 'territorial base' - Politically motivated gay businessmen
Social and cultural exclusion b. Spaces of exclusion
i. Borders National borders ii. Neighborhoods Certain neighborhoods exclude those who are different: ghettos, enclaves iii. Private and public space More privatization of public spaces
Spatial mismatch hypothesis: Evidence
ii. Evidence ● Central city blacks have the highest unemployment rate ● There is a decreasing share of jobs in the central city (trend of job decentralization/suburbanization) ● Blacks are underrepresented in suburbs → those that do live in the suburbs predominantly reside in black enclaves ● Employed blacks living in the city center typically reverse commute and have longer commute times
Gentrification
neighborhood of lower socio-economic status residents receive investment of higher socio-economic residents, process of displacement ● Indicators: ○ Improved amenities ○ Rising rents ○ Physical and demographic transformations
Homelessness: i. Relationship to affordable housing problem
o Debate over cause: lack of affordable housing v. mental illness, drug dependency
Preserving affordable housing: Lubell's Six Pieces of Housing Strategy for balancing Affordable Housing/ Gentrification
○ 1. Preservation- preserve existing rental units ○ 2. Protection- help long-term residents who live in the neighborhoods: rent control ○ 3. Inclusion- ensure that a share of new development is affordable: inclusionary zoning ○ 4. Revenue Generation- harness growth to expand financial resources for affordable housing: linkage fees ○ 5. Incentives- create incentives for developers of affordable housing: expedited permitting, tax breaks, etc. ○ 6. Property Acquisition- facilitate the acquisition of sites for affordable housing
Filter Down Theory:
○ Filter Down Theory: posits that older units will be passed on (and become cheaper) as new units are constructed → these older units are more attractive to first time and low-income buyers ■ The issue: price decline doesn't happen if there is a supply shortage
Challenges to implementing smart city: iv. Political consensus
● "The 'spatial fix' inevitably means that mobile capital can often 'write its own deals' to come to town, only to move on when it receives a better deal elsewhere ● Capital mobility is one of the main concerns, business-oriented model be a losing long-term strategy
Gentrification and other policy goals
● 1. Personal Rapid Transit (PRT): automated individual transport systems that use 4-place vehicles. PRTs work on networks with stops, carrying passengers directly from an origin stop to a destination stop. The lanes used by the network can be segregated or not. ● 2. CyberCar (CC): the transport system is based on automated road vehicles ranging from 4 to 20 passengers. They work on networks with stops, but unlike the PRT, the passengers can have different origins and destinations. The lanes used by the network can be segregated or not. ● 3. High Tech Bus (HTB): the transport system is based on automated road bus with more than 50 passengers. They can use various types of automated systems, for guidance, for driver assistance, or for full automation and platooning. The lanes used by the network can be segregated or not. ● 4. Dual-Mode Vehicles (DMV): vehicles such as cars with zero or ultra-low emissions, driver assistance systems, parking assistance, and collision avoidance. They can either have a driver or be fully automated and driverless.
Introduction to urban transportation b. General trends i. Private vehicle ownership
● 947M in the Total World Fleet ● Vehicle ownership follows the Growth S-Curve, leveling out as societies reach complete development ○ Higher per capita income and employment growth = more car ownership and use (more miles traveled) ● Increasing number of multivehicle households ● Increasing number of single-person households
Challenges to implementing smart city: i. Institutional capacity
● A smart city, as a scientifically planned city, would defy the fact that real development in cities is often haphazard. In that line of criticism, the smart city is seen as unattractive for citizens as they "can deaden and stupefy the people who live in its all-efficient embrace". Instead, people would prefer cities they can participate to shape. ● Bias in strategic interest may cause us to neglect alternative avenues of promising urban development
Spatial mismatch hypothesis
● About discrimination in housing market restricting the mobility of African-Americans, as jobs follow white workers to suburbs, blacks' access to jobs decline → higher unemployment rate of central-city black, low labor participation rate, longer term, urban underclass ● Refers to the mismatch between where low-income residents live and the spatial distribution of employment
Smart cities a. What is a smart city?
● According to Wikipedia, a smart city is "an urban area that uses different types of electronic data collection sensors to supply information used to manage assets and resources efficiently" ● smart city concept integrates information and communication technology (ICT), and various physical devices connected to the network (the Internet of things or IoT) to optimize the efficiency of city operations and services and connect to citizens ○ Smart city technology allows city officials to interact directly with both community and city infrastructure and to monitor what is happening in the city and how the city is evolving.
Role of public policy
● Affecting affordable housing ● Concerns have risen about the concern of public safety, and lack of regulation that most of the more legitimate businesses must undertake in order to have the permits and everything needed to operate ● Affects other industries ○ Auto industry: estimates predict that car-ownership will decline
f. Benefits of the car
● Allow for opportunities, personal freedom, reduce isolation of rural life, integrated national economy, suburbs, rural-urban integration
The transportation revolution: a. ICT and transportation
● Allows for car sharing, car services ● Driverless cars potentially??
The fundamentals of automation: V2V and V2I
● Automated mobility services ● V2V= vehicle to vehicle ● V2I= vehicle to interface
1. Housing and the urban land market b. Reasons for a public interest in the housing market
● Big portion of personal wealth comes in land: most stable/largest source of wealth ● After the Depression, people distrusted banks a ton, market was uncertain ● All about risk between buyers and builders, federal government watched to reduce risk ○ Booms and busts of Housing Starts (construction of new units) correlate with economic growth and recessions ● Healthy supply of affordable, minimum standard, single-family housing ● Philanthropic/social interest in revitalizing neighborhoods (slums)
Design fundamentals: building typology
● Building typology : structural features of a building
Public transit, walking and biking: b. State of the US public transit market iii. Role of policy
● Clean Air Act Amendments ○ Required regional integration of clean air and transportation planning ● Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act: allocated funding to support funding for all surface modes, as opposed to just highways ○ Increased powers of Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs)
Impacts on urbanization and cities
● Connect people & infrastructure ○ Electricity consumption (and monitoring of consumption) ○ Parking facilities ● Connect systems to systems ○ Integrated corridor management (ICM) → highways, transit ○ Integrated health services → health records, public health records
Broken window theory: ii. Impact on policing
● Cops are more likely to be strict against petty crimes so they don't escalate to bigger ones ● Usually more strict around African-Americans than whites
g. Critiques of the car
● Create environmental problems (accidents, congestion, pollution) ● Cars created suburbs (waste resources, separate affluence, destroy city centers) ● Cars facilitate social disengagement
Introduction to urban transportation b. General trends ii. Public transit
● Declining use of transit, non-motorized modes ● Seen as dirty, too slow ● Schedules don't match up at the times people need to go
Consequences of affordable housing problems: General impacts
● Decreased affordability at all income levels ● Lowest income HHs priced out ● Delayed HH formation ● Sharing arrangements ● Overcrowding ● Substandard units (ex. Illegal add-ons)
1. Affordable housing and gentrification a. Demand and supply factors
● Demand ○ Population and household formation ○ HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION ○ GLOBAL REAL ESTATE MARKET (people view U.S. as safe haven for investment → foreign people buy residential and anything that happens abroad can affect our market due to the currency exchange/ globalized economy) ● Supply ○ Land, construction, financing costs ○ Constraints on land & availability ○ Costs of redevelopment, reconstruction ○ Land use policy constraints (density limits, parking requirements, off-site construction, infrastructure)
Sharing economy as disruptive technology ii. How they disrupt
● Don't have to use traditional methods of regulation/ policies in order to share and to make money. Traditional services like taxis and hotels are now getting pushed to the side by these other modes of commerce because it is easier, more readily available, more attractive
Accessibility and spatial mismatch: a. Spatial segmentation
● Economic - the result of people expressing their preferences for homogenous communities, communities with different levels of public amenities; no solution suggested, since any effort to reduce choice would make society worse off. ● Marxist - the result of capitalists separating themselves from the masses, isolating themselves to benefit from public services while failing to provide services to the masses; the solution is same as above. ● Political economy - the result of elites being able to capture public resources and use them to their own benefits; some regimes might find it in their interest to provide some solutions (prohibit discrimination in housing), but the main solution is as above - broaden representation and control of local institutions. ● Metro areas are heterogenous, yet individual neighborhoods are predominantly homogenous Reasons: ○ Self-selection (choice) ○ Income constraints
Public transit, walking and biking: b. State of the US public transit market ii. Transit finance
● Fare recovery ratio: share of operating costs paid for by transit fare payments ○ Falls with increase in public transit investment (additional serve does not generate proportionate growth in ridership or revenue) ○ Typically 65 - 75% of all operating costs and 100% of capital costs come from other sources ● Transit has tough competition with Lyft, cheap gas ● Voters more likely to pay for capital investments than operational costs ● Key takeaway: with the current way it is being financed, MOST TRANSIT IS HIGHLY UNPROFITABLE
Different views of community policing
● Fire alarm oversight
1. Housing and the urban land market e. Regulation and affordable housing i. Explanations for the US affordable housing problem ii. Gentrification, slums, overcrowding
● Found that suburban development was more expensive than urban development ● Local government regulations restrict new development because they want to make value in the town ● People want to make sure homes appreciate at same/steady rate ● Environmental review could be passed if new homes are affordable, green, safe: drawn out environmental reviews are extremely costly to developers, and these costs are simply passed down to the buyer
What are the goals of the smart city?
● Historic desire was to control people ● To have the technology evolve as foundations for new technologies and human activity ● "Community-owned broadband is one of the best investments a smart city can make" -Townsend ○ Puts city in charge of its own central nervous system, giving it power over private companies that wants to sell smart services to the government or individuals ● More transparency and data allowed to the public could serve to make better business models in the future ● Code that controls the city is the most valuable thing ○ Algorithms and codes of a smart city will govern it all
Who lives where - urban residential patterns: a. Discrimination in the housing market
● Historically more inclined to sell to white households ● More pressure to exclude minorities in white neighborhoods, suburbs ● Levittown gave white families the first draws in the post WWII GI Bill era ○ Out of the 67,000 mortgages insured from the GI Bill, less than 100 went to blacks
Who lives where - urban residential patterns: b. Impacts on African-American households
● Home ownership is a large part of personal wealth, and increasing assets ○ Intergenerational transfers account for more than half of the average American family's wealth ● Systemic racism causes a chasm between African Americans and Whites ● Historic redlining → designated places as non-credit worthy areas, blacks couldn't buy
Broken window theory i. From broken window to crime
● If there are signs of crime and dysfunction in an area, then there is a higher likelihood of perpetrators not caring whether or not they enact crime
The transportation revolution: c. Mobility as a service i. Benefits
● Increased mobility for those who cant drive (kids, elderly, disabled) ● More choices for travelers ● Better connecting to transit and other modes ● Relief from driving ● Reduced transport costs if households forego car ownership
Three options for reducing disparities
● Move jobs to people → local economic policies, enterprise zones (incentives like direct subsidies and tax breaks for firms to locate in the CBD), training programs, subsidies to employers ○ Local economic development efforts have little effect on job growth or firm retention (Porter's Competitive Advantage of the Inner City helps explain why) ● Move people to jobs → reduce discrimination in laws, affordable housing prices, subsidies and incentives to minority households in suburbs ● Better transportation → improve public transit, give people cheap, old, used cars? Allow them to get to more jobs ○ yul5
Introduction to urban transportation b. General trends iii. Future global projections
● Need for cleaner fuels ● Move towards personalized mass transit ○ Paratransit Service: on-demand, by appointment, point-to-point service ● Shifted focus on making urban environments more livable (planning for the pedestrian as opposed to the car)
Challenges to implementing smart city: ii. Funding
● Obviously takes a lot of money to be able to support the infrastructure that would go into the technology for the smart city ● Public or private fundraising??
Strategies for effective : i. Townsend's tenets
● Opt in to smart- cultural success and ascendence of the internet lends an air of inevitability to smart cities. Never default to smart technology as the solution ● Roll your own network- cities should have their own networks setup and independent from other networks ● Build a web, not an operating system- want an organically evolved set of open standards that anyone can build off of. Would allow easier access for anyone to use with their own systems
Design fundamentals: ordering principles
● Ordering principles: the arrangement of elements of a whole ○ Ideal design: a sense of unity (order) with diversity ○ Well-designed spaces show intentionality in the arrangement of its parts: helps create a sense of identity
The transportation revolution: b. Car sharing and ride sharing
● Part of the future for ICT and transportation
Automated mobility services: i. Required elements, organizational and technical
● Potential for more efficiency ● Smaller vehicles ● Shorter headways ● Narrow lanes ● Increased safety ● Child restraint systems ● Equally accessible service everywhere
Costs of poverty and homelessness
● Poverty= health, welfare, crime, wasted potential, cycle of poverty ● Homelessness= emergency medical services, drugs, mental illness, violence
The transportation revolution: c. Mobility as a service ii. Promises
● Reduced car ownership ● More use of transit ● Reduced demand for space for vehicle ● Less congestion/ more livable cities
Public transit, walking and biking: a. Use of public transit, walk and bike modes
● Remains concentrated in cores of largest metro areas ○ Downtown commuters, high density corridors, activity centers ● Remains segmented ○ More low income riders on buses, LRT ○ More high income riders on HRT, commuter rail
Introduction to urban transportation d. Daily activities, constraints, and travel
● Schedule activities over the course of the d ● ay between what we must do, and activities we want to do → need travel for most ● Time-space Prism= importance of time fitting into space ● Opportunity for travel depends on time, budget, travel resources available ● Constraints ○ Capability constraint- limited by physical factors (injuries), different modes (legs vs. car) ○ Coupling constraint- coordinate time schedules, face-to-face meetings ○ Authority constraint- BIGGEST CONSTRAINT, social, political, legal constraints, hours of operation/ access requirements
The ICT revolution and disruptive technologies: b. The Internet of Things i. Elements of the IoT
● Sensors would be everywhere constantly collecting data from the sensors with connectivity to the IoT ● Network of internet-connected objects which collects/exchanges data using embedded sensors
Poverty and homelessness a. Short-term and long-term poverty
● Short-term poverty ○ Poverty of students, entry level workers ○ Event related poverty: home foreclosure, job loss, health crisis ○ Immigrant poverty ● Long-term poverty ○ Low or unskilled labor, poor education ○ No or limited work participation, unstable family situation ○ Persistent, over generations
Design fundamentals: spatial organization
● Spatial organization: arrangement of space in a project ○ Ex. centralized, radial, clustered, grid ○ Shapes how we arrive and move through a project
1. Housing and the urban land market d. Impacts of federal housing and mortgage policies
● Standardization of housing structures and building standards lead to rise of traditional suburb aesthetic + ideal ● Home ownership (particularly single family housing) historically encouraged by government: Supply thus oriented towards single family house ownership ○ Ex. Mortgage Interest Reduction makes buying a home much more appealing
e. Explaining the dominance of the private vehicle
● The most flexible, reliable form of transportation ○ Goes anywhere 24/7, further than a bike or feet, carries loads ● Status symbol ● Schedule management, "public trans doesn't match up with when I want to go"
Public transit, walking and biking: b. State of the US public transit market i. Market share
● Transit represents 4% of overall US mode share ● Buses still contain majority of transit riders ● Natl trend: Passenger trips (# of passengers on a transit vehicle, including those transferring) have increased, but market share has increased much less, with few exceptions
Introduction to urban transportation a. The value of the ability to travel
● Transportation is a derived demand (derived from need and desire to do something else) ● Travel as an intrinsic positive utility (for the sake of traveling itself) ● Value in an integrated economy and rural-urban integration ● Essential to social, economic activity, human well-being Capacity to travel determines what choices we have for.... ○ Finding a job ○ Our social and recreational activities ○ Buying fresh food ○ Getting to a doctor or hospital ○ Seeing and interacting with other people Capacity to travel is essential for human health ○ Isolation and mental health, depression, physical health ○ Virtual social interaction is not a good substitute for the real thing
Sharing economy as disruptive technology i. Examples
● Uber/ Lyft (Ridesharing), Spinlister (Bikes, recreational equipment sharing), MuniRent (heavy equipment sharing), GearLode (Music Equipment) ● Peer-to-peer is not new, but the internet and smart-phones allow us to share at a much faster pace
Urban design b. Role of design in vitality of urban spaces
● Well-designed space is safer, more attractive, and facilitates diverse behavior, social interaction, uses and activities ● Offers interest and stimulation and/or a degree of comfort. ● Ex. in Whyte's Design of Spaces: ○ The presence of seating is a powerful attraction for people to stay in a public space and for a space to "build new constituency"
Rent control
● When housing market is working (s=d) ○ Limits on rental prices: disinvestment in rental properties, discourage production of more units, discourage moving from controlled units ○ Allocation may or may not be fair/promotes underground market ● When the housing market is not working (s<d) ○ Short term: allows renters to stay in place, limits speculation & inflation ○ Longer term: increases pressure to take units out of rental market and ultimately doesn't solve the supply problem
Challenges to implementing smart city: iii. Information and privacy
● Who would the information be available to? ● Would the information be easily hackable? ● Big data collection and analytics has raised questions of surveillance → lead to predictive policing
b. The Internet of Things ii. Potential of the IoT on households, on cities
● Would be a completely interactive system (i.e. connected refrigerator, people being allowed to come in and out of houses in order to restock things
iii. Should we believe Uber or Schladover?
● Yes, we should definitely believe Uber and Schladover when they talk about the future of driverless cars because the steps are being taken right now to fully implement them into society, and, if properly deployed, can be used to alleviate society's problems ● They are part of the reason why there is a projected decline in the usage of cars/ number in the global fleet
Introduction to urban transportation c. Accessibility and mobility
● accessibility= how many other destinations/ opportunities for goods and services ○ Higher the density, higher accessibility(LA= good, Palm Dale=bad) ○ Things closer are worth more than things located farther away ○ Can also be defined as the ease of reaching destinations ● mobility= ability to move between different activity sites ○ Physical movement can be measured by trips/distance/speed ○ *high levels of accessibility can be related to low levels of mobility*
Who are the "gentrifiers"?
● higher socio-economic individuals, college-educated young professionals ● Still unsure if the people come before the shops, or if the shops come before the people (chicken and egg)
Design fundamentals: program
● program=term used to define the required functions of the project, its "use" ○ Differing design constraints and design potentials ○ Need for specificity
Design fundamentals: scale
● scale=relative size ○ human scale (building element in relation to human body) ○ Visual scale: proportion of building element to another building/component of known size
Consequences of affordable housing problems: Impacts on the poor
● usually driven out from their homes due to the increase in property tax/value ● Housing uncertainty among low-income HHs ○ Repeated moves, threat of homelessness ○ Loss of attachment to the community ○ No consistency or stability in schooling ○ Inability to find and retain employment (cycle of unemployment)
